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 This is a special edition of an established title widely used by colleges and
GLOBAL universities throughout the world. Pearson published this exclusive edition
for the benefit of students outside the United States and Canada. If you
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EDITION
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that it has been imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author.

Linear Algebra and Its Applications

Linear Algebra and Its Applications, now in its sixth edition, not only follows the recommendations
of the original Linear Algebra Curriculum Study Group (LACSG) but also includes ideas currently
being discussed by the LACSG 2.0 and continues to provide a modern elementary introduction to
linear algebra. This edition adds exciting new topics, examples, and online resources to highlight
the linear algebraic foundations of machine learning, artificial intelligence, data science, and digital
signal processing.

Features
• Many fundamental ideas of linear algebra are introduced early, in the concrete setting of
n
, and then gradually examined from different points of view.
• Utilizing a modern view of matrix multiplication simplifies many arguments and ties
vector space ideas into the study of linear systems.
• Every major concept is given a geometric interpretation to help students learn better by
visualizing the idea.
• Keeping with the recommendations of the original LACSG, because orthogonality plays an
important role in computer calculations and numerical linear algebra, and because inconsistent
linear systems arise so often in practical work, this title includes a comprehensive treatment
of both orthogonality and the least-squares problem.
• Projects at the end of each chapter on a wide range of themes (including using linear
transformations to create art and detecting and correcting errors in encoded messages) enhance

EDITION
student learning.

SIXTH
• NEW! Reasonable Answers advice and exercises encourage students to ensure their computations
are consistent with the data at hand and the questions being asked.

Available separately for purchase is MyLab Math for Linear Algebra and Its Applications, the teaching Linear Algebra and Its Applications

Lay • Lay • McDonald

and learning platform that empowers instructors to personalize learning for every student. When
combined with Pearson’s trusted educational content, this optional suite helps deliver the learning
outcomes desired. This edition includes interactive versions of many of the figures in the
SIXTH EDITION
text, letting students manipulate figures and experiment with matrices to gain a deeper geometric
understanding of key concepts and principles. David C. Lay • Steven R. Lay • Judi J. McDonald

CVR_LAY1216_06_GE_CVR_Vivar.indd 1 09/04/21 12:22 PM

S I X T H E D I T I O N

Linear Algebra
and Its Applications
G L O B A L E D I T I O N

David C. Lay
University of Maryland–College Park

Steven R. Lay
Lee University

Judi J. McDonald
Washington State University
Pearson Education Limited
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asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Linear Algebra and Its Applications, 6th Edition, ISBN
978-0-13-585125-8 by David C. Lay, Steven R. Lay, and Judi J. McDonald, published by Pearson Education © 2021.

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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 10: 1-292-35121-7

ISBN 13: 978-1-292-35121-6
eBook ISBN 13: 978-1-292-35122-3
 To my wife, Lillian, and our children,
Christina, Deborah, and Melissa, whose
support, encouragement, and faithful
prayers made this book possible.

David C. Lay

About the Authors

David C. Lay
As a founding member of the NSF-sponsored Linear Algebra Curriculum Study Group
(LACSG), David Lay was a leader in the movement to modernize the linear algebra
curriculum and shared those ideas with students and faculty through his authorship
of the first four editions of this textbook. David C. Lay earned a B.A. from Aurora
University (Illinois), and an M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of California at Los
Angeles. David Lay was an educator and research mathematician for more than 40
years, mostly at the University of Maryland, College Park. He also served as a visiting
professor at the University of Amsterdam, the Free University in Amsterdam, and the
University of Kaiserslautern, Germany. He published more than 30 research articles on
functional analysis and linear algebra. Lay was also a coauthor of several mathematics
texts, including Introduction to Functional Analysis with Angus E. Taylor, Calculus
and Its Applications, with L. J. Goldstein and D. I. Schneider, and Linear Algebra
Gems—Assets for Undergraduate Mathematics, with D. Carlson, C. R. Johnson, and
A. D. Porter.
David Lay received four university awards for teaching excellence, including, in
1996, the title of Distinguished Scholar-Teacher of the University of Maryland. In 1994,
he was given one of the Mathematical Association of America’s Awards for Distin-
guished College or University Teaching of Mathematics. He was elected by the univer-
sity students to membership in Alpha Lambda Delta National Scholastic Honor Society
and Golden Key National Honor Society. In 1989, Aurora University conferred on him
the Outstanding Alumnus award. David Lay was a member of the American Mathe-
matical Society, the Canadian Mathematical Society, the International Linear Algebra
Society, the Mathematical Association of America, Sigma Xi, and the Society for In-
dustrial and Applied Mathematics. He also served several terms on the national board of
the Association of Christians in the Mathematical Sciences.
In October 2018, David Lay passed away, but his legacy continues to benefit students
of linear algebra as they study the subject in this widely acclaimed text.

3
4 About the Authors

Steven R. Lay
Steven R. Lay began his teaching career at Aurora University (Illinois) in 1971, after
earning an M.A. and a Ph.D. in mathematics from the University of California at Los
Angeles. His career in mathematics was interrupted for eight years while serving as a
missionary in Japan. Upon his return to the States in 1998, he joined the mathematics
faculty at Lee University (Tennessee) and has been there ever since. Since then he has
supported his brother David in refining and expanding the scope of this popular linear
algebra text, including writing most of Chapters 8 and 9. Steven is also the author of three
college-level mathematics texts: Convex Sets and Their Applications, Analysis with an
Introduction to Proof, and Principles of Algebra.
In 1985, Steven received the Excellence in Teaching Award at Aurora University.
He and David, and their father, Dr. L. Clark Lay, are all distinguished mathematicians,
and in 1989, they jointly received the Outstanding Alumnus award from their alma
mater, Aurora University. In 2006, Steven was honored to receive the Excellence in
Scholarship Award at Lee University. He is a member of the American Mathematical
Society, the Mathematics Association of America, and the Association of Christians in
the Mathematical Sciences.

Judi J. McDonald
Judi J. McDonald became a co-author on the fifth edition, having worked closely with
David on the fourth edition. She holds a B.Sc. in Mathematics from the University
of Alberta, and an M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Wisconsin. As a professor
of Mathematics, she has more than 40 publications in linear algebra research journals
and more than 20 students have completed graduate degrees in linear algebra under her
supervision. She is an associate dean of the Graduate School at Washington State Uni-
versity and a former chair of the Faculty Senate. She has worked with the mathematics
outreach project Math Central (http://mathcentral.uregina.ca/) and is a member of the
second Linear Algebra Curriculum Study Group (LACSG 2.0).
Judi has received three teaching awards: two Inspiring Teaching awards at the Uni-
versity of Regina, and the Thomas Lutz College of Arts and Sciences Teaching Award at
Washington State University. She also received the College of Arts and Sciences Insti-
tutional Service Award at Washington State University. Throughout her career, she has
been an active member of the International Linear Algebra Society and the Association
for Women in Mathematics. She has also been a member of the Canadian Mathematical
Society, the American Mathematical Society, the Mathematical Association of America,
and the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.
Contents

About the Authors 3

Preface 12
A Note to Students 22

Chapter 1 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra 25

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: Linear Models in Economics

and Engineering 25
1.1 Systems of Linear Equations 26
1.2 Row Reduction and Echelon Forms 37
1.3 Vector Equations 50
1.4 The Matrix Equation Ax D b 61
1.5 Solution Sets of Linear Systems 69
1.6 Applications of Linear Systems 77
1.7 Linear Independence 84
1.8 Introduction to Linear Transformations 91
1.9 The Matrix of a Linear Transformation 99
1.10 Linear Models in Business, Science, and Engineering 109
Projects 117
Supplementary Exercises 117

Chapter 2 Matrix Algebra 121

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: Computer Models in Aircraft Design 121

2.1 Matrix Operations 122
2.2 The Inverse of a Matrix 135
2.3 Characterizations of Invertible Matrices 145
2.4 Partitioned Matrices 150
2.5 Matrix Factorizations 156
2.6 The Leontief Input–Output Model 165
2.7 Applications to Computer Graphics 171

5
6 Contents

2.8 Subspaces of Rn 179

2.9 Dimension and Rank 186
Projects 193
Supplementary Exercises 193

Chapter 3 Determinants 195

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: Weighing Diamonds 195

3.1 Introduction to Determinants 196
3.2 Properties of Determinants 203
3.3 Cramer’s Rule, Volume, and Linear Transformations 212
Projects 221
Supplementary Exercises 221

Chapter 4 Vector Spaces 225

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: Discrete-Time Signals and Digital

Signal Processing 225
4.1 Vector Spaces and Subspaces 226
4.2 Null Spaces, Column Spaces, Row Spaces, and Linear
Transformations 235
4.3 Linearly Independent Sets; Bases 246
4.4 Coordinate Systems 255
4.5 The Dimension of a Vector Space 265
4.6 Change of Basis 273
4.7 Digital Signal Processing 279
4.8 Applications to Difference Equations 286
Projects 295
Supplementary Exercises 295

Chapter 5 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 297

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: Dynamical Systems and Spotted Owls 297

5.1 Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues 298
5.2 The Characteristic Equation 306
5.3 Diagonalization 314
5.4 Eigenvectors and Linear Transformations 321
5.5 Complex Eigenvalues 328
5.6 Discrete Dynamical Systems 335
5.7 Applications to Differential Equations 345
5.8 Iterative Estimates for Eigenvalues 353
5.9 Applications to Markov Chains 359
Projects 369
Supplementary Exercises 369
 Contents 7

Chapter 6 Orthogonality and Least Squares 373

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: Artificial Intelligence and Machine

Learning 373
6.1 Inner Product, Length, and Orthogonality 374
6.2 Orthogonal Sets 382
6.3 Orthogonal Projections 391
6.4 The Gram–Schmidt Process 400
6.5 Least-Squares Problems 406
6.6 Machine Learning and Linear Models 414
6.7 Inner Product Spaces 423
6.8 Applications of Inner Product Spaces 431
Projects 437
Supplementary Exercises 438

Chapter 7 Symmetric Matrices and Quadratic Forms 441

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: Multichannel Image Processing 441

7.1 Diagonalization of Symmetric Matrices 443
7.2 Quadratic Forms 449
7.3 Constrained Optimization 456
7.4 The Singular Value Decomposition 463
7.5 Applications to Image Processing and Statistics 473
Projects 481
Supplementary Exercises 481

Chapter 8 The Geometry of Vector Spaces 483

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: The Platonic Solids 483

8.1 Affine Combinations 484
8.2 Affine Independence 493
8.3 Convex Combinations 503
8.4 Hyperplanes 510
8.5 Polytopes 519
8.6 Curves and Surfaces 531
Project 542
Supplementary Exercises 543

Chapter 9 Optimization 545

INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: The Berlin Airlift 545

9.1 Matrix Games 546
9.2 Linear Programming Geometric Method 560
9.3 Linear Programming Simplex Method 570
9.4 Duality 585
Project 594
Supplementary Exercises 594
8 Contents

Chapter 10 Finite-State Markov Chains C-1

(Available Online)
INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLE: Googling Markov Chains C-1
10.1 Introduction and Examples C-2
10.2 The Steady-State Vector and Google’s PageRank C-13
10.3 Communication Classes C-25
10.4 Classification of States and Periodicity C-33
10.5 The Fundamental Matrix C-42
10.6 Markov Chains and Baseball Statistics C-54

Appendixes
A Uniqueness of the Reduced Echelon Form 597
B Complex Numbers 599
Credits 604
Glossary 605
Answers to Odd-Numbered Exercises A-1
Index I-1
Applications Index

Biology and Ecology Color monitors, 178 Series and shunt circuits, 161
Estimating systolic blood pressure, 422 Computer graphics, 122, 171–177, Transfer matrix, 161–162, 163
Laboratory animal trials, 367 498–500
Molecular modeling, 173–174 Cray supercomputer, 153 Engineering
Net primary production of nutrients, Data storage, 66, 163 Aircraft performance, 422, 437
418–419 Error-detecting and error-correcting Boeing Blended Wing Body, 122
Nutrition problems, 109–111, 115 codes, 447, 471 Cantilevered beam, 293
Predator-prey system, 336–337, 343 Game theory, 519 CFD and aircraft design, 121–122
Spotted owls and stage-matrix models, High-end computer graphics boards, 176 Deflection of an elastic beam, 137, 144
297–298, 341–343 Homogeneous coordinates, 172–173, 174 Deformation of a material, 482
Business and Economics Parallel processing, 25, 132 Equilibrium temperatures, 36, 116–117,
Accelerator-multiplier model, 293 Perspective projections, 175–176 193
Average cost curve, 418–419 Vector pipeline architecture, 153 Feedback controls, 519
Car rental fleet, 116, 368 Virtual reality, 174 Flexibility and stiffness matrices, 137,
Cost vectors, 57 VLSI microchips, 150 144
Equilibrium prices, 77–79, 82 Wire-frame models, 121, 171 Heat conduction, 164
Exchange table, 82 Image processing, 441–442, 473–474,
Feasible set, 460, 562 Control Theory 479
Gross domestic product, 170 Controllable system, 296 LU factorization and airflow, 122
Indifference curves, 460–461 Control systems engineering, 155 Moving average filter, 293
Intermediate demand, 165 Decoupled system, 340, 346, 349 Superposition principle, 95, 98, 112
Investment, 294 Deep space probe, 155
Leontief exchange model, 25, 77–79 State-space model, 296, 335 Mathematics
Leontief input–output model, 25, Steady-state response, 335 Area and volume, 195–196, 215–217
165–171 Transfer function (matrix), 155 Attractors/repellers in a dynamical
Linear programming, 26, 111–112, 153, system, 338, 341, 343, 347, 351
484, 519, 522, 560–566 Electrical Engineering Bessel’s inequality, 438
Loan amortization schedule, 293 Branch and loop currents, 111–112 Best approximation in function spaces,
Manufacturing operations, 57, 96 Circuit design, 26, 160 426–427
Marginal propensity to consume, 293 Current flow in networks, 111–112, Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, 427
Markov chains, 311, 359–368, C-1–C-63 115–116 Conic sections and quadratic surfaces,
Maximizing utility subject to a budget Discrete-time signals, 228, 279–280 481
constraint, 460–461 Inductance-capacitance circuit, 242 Differential equations, 242, 345–347
Population movement, 113, 115–116, Kirchhoff’s laws, 161 Fourier series, 434–436
311, 361 Ladder network, 161, 163–164 Hermite polynomials, 272
Price equation, 170 Laplace transforms, 155, 213 Hypercube, 527–529
Total cost curve, 419 Linear filters, 287–288 Interpolating polynomials, 49, 194
Value added vector, 170 Low-pass filter, 289, 413 Isomorphism, 188, 260–261
Variable cost model, 421 Minimal realization, 162 Jacobian matrix, 338
Computers and Computer Science Ohm’s law, 111–113, 161 Laguerre polynomials, 272
Bézier curves and surfaces, 509, 531–532 RC circuit, 346–347 Laplace transforms, 155, 213
CAD, 537, 541 RLC circuit, 254 Legendre polynomials, 430

Page numbers denoted with “C” are found within the online chapter 10
Linear transformations in calculus, 241, QR algorithm, 312–313, 357 Radar data, 155
324–325 QR factorization, 403–404, 405, 413, 438 Seismic data, 25
Simplex, 525–527 Rank-revealing factorization, 163, 296, Space probe, 155
Splines, 531–534, 540–541 481 Steady-state heat flow, 36, 164
Triangle inequality, 427 Rayleigh quotient, 358, 439 Superposition principle, 95, 98, 112
Trigonometric polynomials, 434 Relative error, 439 Three-moment equation, 293
Schur complement, 154 Traffic flow, 80
Numerical Linear Algebra Schur factorization, 439
Trend surface, 419
Band matrix, 164 Singular value decomposition, 163,
Weather, 367
Block diagonal matrix, 153, 334 463–473
Wind tunnel experiment, 49
Cholesky factorization, 454–455, 481 Sparse matrix, 121, 168, 206
Companion matrix, 371 Spectral decomposition, 446–447
Condition number, 147, 149, 211, 439, Spectral factorization, 163 Statistics
469 Tridiagonal matrix, 164 Analysis of variance, 408, 422
Effective rank, 190, 271, 465 Vandermonde matrix, 194, 371 Covariance, 474–476, 477, 478, 479
Floating point arithmetic, 33, 45, 221 Vector pipeline architecture, 153 Full rank, 465
Fundamental subspaces, 379, 439, Least-squares error, 409
469–470 Physical Sciences Least-squares line, 413, 414–416
Givens rotation, 119 Cantilevered beam, 293 Linear model in statistics, 414–420
Gram matrix, 482 Center of gravity, 60 Markov chains, 359–360
Gram–Schmidt process, 405 Chemical reactions, 79, 83 Mean-deviation form for data, 417, 475
Hilbert matrix, 149 Crystal lattice, 257, 263 Moore-Penrose inverse, 471
Householder reflection, 194 Decomposing a force, 386 Multichannel image processing,
Ill-conditioned matrix (problem), 147 Gaussian elimination, 37 441–442, 473–479
Inverse power method, 356–357 Hooke’s law, 137 Multiple regression, 419–420
Iterative methods, 353–359 Interpolating polynomial, 49, 194
Orthogonal polynomials, 427
Jacobi’s method for eigenvalues, 312 Kepler’s first law, 422
Orthogonal regression, 480–481
LAPACK, 132, 153 Landsat image, 441–442
Powers of a matrix, 129
Large-scale problems, 119, 153 Linear models in geology and geography,
LU factorization, 157–158, 162–163, 164 419–420 Principal component analysis, 441–442,
Operation counts, 142, 158, 160, 206 Mass estimates for radioactive 476–477
Outer products, 133, 152 substances, 421 Quadratic forms in statistics, 449
Parallel processing, 25 Mass-spring system, 233, 254 Regression coefficients, 415
Partial pivoting, 42, 163 Model for glacial cirques, 419 Sums of squares (in regression), 422,
Polar decomposition, 482 Model for soil pH, 419 431–432
Power method, 353–356 Pauli spin matrices, 194 Trend analysis, 433–434
Powers of a matrix, 129 Periodic motion, 328 Variance, 422, 475–476
Pseudoinverse, 470, 482 Quadratic forms in physics, 449–454 Weighted least-squares, 424, 431–432
This page is intentionally left blank
Preface

The response of students and teachers to the first five editions of Linear Algebra and Its
Applications has been most gratifying. This Sixth Edition provides substantial support
both for teaching and for using technology in the course. As before, the text provides
a modern elementary introduction to linear algebra and a broad selection of interesting
classical and leading-edge applications. The material is accessible to students with the
maturity that should come from successful completion of two semesters of college-level
mathematics, usually calculus.
The main goal of the text is to help students master the basic concepts and skills they
will use later in their careers. The topics here follow the recommendations of the original
Linear Algebra Curriculum Study Group (LACSG), which were based on a careful
investigation of the real needs of the students and a consensus among professionals in
many disciplines that use linear algebra. Ideas being discussed by the second Linear
Algebra Curriculum Study Group (LACSG 2.0) have also been included. We hope this
course will be one of the most useful and interesting mathematics classes taken by
undergraduates.

What’s New in This Edition

The Sixth Edition has exciting new material, examples, and online resources. After talk-
ing with high-tech industry researchers and colleagues in applied areas, we added new
topics, vignettes, and applications with the intention of highlighting for students and
faculty the linear algebraic foundational material for machine learning, artificial intelli-
gence, data science, and digital signal processing.

Content Changes
• Since matrix multiplication is a highly useful skill, we added new examples in Chap-
ter 2 to show how matrix multiplication is used to identify patterns and scrub data.
Corresponding exercises have been created to allow students to explore using matrix
multiplication in various ways.
• In our conversations with colleagues in industry and electrical engineering, we heard
repeatedly how important understanding abstract vector spaces is to their work. After
reading the reviewers’ comments for Chapter 4, we reorganized the chapter, condens-
ing some of the material on column, row, and null spaces; moving Markov chains to
the end of Chapter 5; and creating a new section on signal processing. We view signals

12
 Preface 13

as an infinite dimensional vector space and illustrate the usefulness of linear trans-
formations to filter out unwanted “vectors” (a.k.a. noise), analyze data, and enhance
signals.
• By moving Markov chains to the end of Chapter 5, we can now discuss the steady
state vector as an eigenvector. We also reorganized some of the summary material on
determinants and change of basis to be more specific to the way they are used in this
chapter.
• In Chapter 6, we present pattern recognition as an application of orthogonality, and
the section on linear models now illustrates how machine learning relates to curve
fitting.
• Chapter 9 on optimization was previously available only as an online file. It has now
been moved into the regular textbook where it is more readily available to faculty and
students. After an opening section on finding optimal strategies to two-person zero-
sum games, the rest of the chapter presents an introduction to linear programming—
from two-dimensional problems that can be solved geometrically to higher dimen-
sional problems that are solved using the Simplex Method.

Other Changes
• In the high-tech industry, where most computations are done on computers, judging
the validity of information and computations is an important step in preparing and
analyzing data. In this edition, students are encouraged to learn to analyze their own
computations to see if they are consistent with the data at hand and the questions being
asked. For this reason, we have added “Reasonable Answers” advice and exercises to
guide students.
• We have added a list of projects to the end of each chapter (available online and in
MyLab Math). Some of these projects were previously available online and have a
wide range of themes from using linear transformations to create art to exploring
additional ideas in mathematics. They can be used for group work or to enhance the
learning of individual students.
• PowerPoint lecture slides have been updated to cover all sections of the text and cover
them more thoroughly.

Distinctive Features
Early Introduction of Key Concepts
Many fundamental ideas of linear algebra are introduced within the first seven lectures,
in the concrete setting of Rn , and then gradually examined from different points of view.
Later generalizations of these concepts appear as natural extensions of familiar ideas,
visualized through the geometric intuition developed in Chapter 1. A major achievement
of this text is that the level of difficulty is fairly even throughout the course.

A Modern View of Matrix Multiplication

Good notation is crucial, and the text reflects the way scientists and engineers actually
use linear algebra in practice. The definitions and proofs focus on the columns of a matrix
rather than on the matrix entries. A central theme is to view a matrix–vector product Ax
as a linear combination of the columns of A. This modern approach simplifies many
arguments, and it ties vector space ideas into the study of linear systems.
14 Preface

Linear Transformations
Linear transformations form a “thread” that is woven into the fabric of the text. Their
use enhances the geometric flavor of the text. In Chapter 1, for instance, linear transfor-
mations provide a dynamic and graphical view of matrix–vector multiplication.

Eigenvalues and Dynamical Systems

Eigenvalues appear fairly early in the text, in Chapters 5 and 7. Because this material is
spread over several weeks, students have more time than usual to absorb and review these
critical concepts. Eigenvalues are motivated by and applied to discrete and continuous
dynamical systems, which appear in Sections 1.10, 4.8, and 5.9, and in five sections of
Chapter 5. Some courses reach Chapter 5 after about five weeks by covering Sections
2.8 and 2.9 instead of Chapter 4. These two optional sections present all the vector space
concepts from Chapter 4 needed for Chapter 5.

Orthogonality and Least-Squares Problems

These topics receive a more comprehensive treatment than is commonly found in be-
ginning texts. The original Linear Algebra Curriculum Study Group has emphasized
the need for a substantial unit on orthogonality and least-squares problems, because
orthogonality plays such an important role in computer calculations and numerical linear
algebra and because inconsistent linear systems arise so often in practical work.

Pedagogical Features
Applications
A broad selection of applications illustrates the power of linear algebra to explain
fundamental principles and simplify calculations in engineering, computer science,
mathematics, physics, biology, economics, and statistics. Some applications appear
in separate sections; others are treated in examples and exercises. In addition, each
chapter opens with an introductory vignette that sets the stage for some application
of linear algebra and provides a motivation for developing the mathematics that
follows.

A Strong Geometric Emphasis

Every major concept in the course is given a geometric interpretation, because many stu-
dents learn better when they can visualize an idea. There are substantially more drawings
here than usual, and some of the figures have never before appeared in a linear algebra
text. Interactive versions of many of these figures appear in MyLab Math.

Examples
This text devotes a larger proportion of its expository material to examples than do most
linear algebra texts. There are more examples than an instructor would ordinarily present
in class. But because the examples are written carefully, with lots of detail, students can
read them on their own.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
know what sort of documentation to expect on religious matters
from an Etruscan tomb, by extrapolating back from rites which the
Romans believed they had inherited from Etruria, especially in the
area of foretelling the future by examining the livers of animals
(hepatoscopy) or observing the flights of birds (augury). One of the
most curious surviving documents of Etruscan superstition is the
bronze model of a sheep’s liver (Fig. 2.10) found in 1877 near
Piacenza, on the upper Po, and now in the Civic Museum there. The
liver is split in two lengthwise. From the plane surface thus provided
three lobes project. The plane surface itself is subdivided into
sixteen compartments (Fig. 2.11); over each compartment a god
presides. The same sixteen subdivisions were used in the imaginary
partition of the sky for augury, and the same principle governed the
layout and orientation of cities like Marzabotto and probably Spina.
The same superstition found in Babylonia directs our attention once
more to the probable Near Eastern origin of the Etruscan ruling
class. The priest would take his position at the cross-point of the
intended cardo and decumanus of the city, facing south (we recall
that the three-celled temple on the arx at Marzabotto faces south).
The half of the city behind him was called in Latin the pars
postica (posterior part), the part in front of him the pars antica
(anterior part); on his left was the pars familiaris (the lucky side;
hence thunder on the left was a good omen) on his right the pars
hostilis (unlucky). To the subdivision of the earth below
corresponded a similar subdivision of the sky above; either was
called in Latin (using a concept clearly derived from Etruscan
practice) a templum, “part cut off,” a sacred precinct, terrestrial or
celestial. From the Piacenza liver and the orientation of Marzabotto
we can deduce both the orderliness of the Etruscan mind and the
ease with which it degenerated into rigidity and superstition. For this
deadly heritage the Etruscans apparently found in the Romans
willing recipients; often, but not always, for old Cato said, “I cannot
see how one liver-diviner can meet another without laughing in his
face.”
 Fig. 2.12 Potentiometer profile. The high points on the graph
show where hollowed tomb-chambers exist under ground.
(ENIT, Italy’s Life, p. 106)

The vast number of Etruscan tombs and the richness of their

decoration and furnishings tell us much about another aspect of the
Etruscans’ religion: their view of the afterlife. About this the fabulous
painted tombs of Tarquinia tell us most, and bid fair to tell us more
as new methods are applied to their discovery and exploration. The
ubiquitous Bradford has been at work in Etruria too; his quick eye
has detected on air-photographs over 800 new tomb-mounds at
Tarquinia alone, and new methods of ground exploration, worked
out by the dedicated Italian engineer C. M. Lerici, have enormously
speeded the work of exploration. Electrical-resistivity surveying with
a potentiometer, sensitive to the difference between solid earth and
empty subterranean space, makes possible the rapid tracing of a
profile showing where the hollows of Etruscan tombs exist
underground (Fig. 2.12). A hole is then drilled large enough to admit
a periscope; if the periscope shows painted walls, or pottery, a
camera can be attached to make a 360-degree photograph. By this
method Lerici reports exploring 450 tombs in 120 days. This work,
rapid as it is, is being done none too soon; land redistribution
schemes, good for the farmer, bad for the archaeologist, are
changing the face of south Etruria day by day; deep plowing and the
planting of vines and fruit trees are destroying or obscuring the
archaeological picture.
Dennis would hardly lament the passing of the conditions he so
graphically describes: “Among the half-destroyed tumuli of the
Montarozzi [at Tarquinia] is a pit, six or eight feet deep, overgrown
by lentiscus; and at the bottom is a hole, barely large enough for a
man to squeeze himself through, and which no one would care to
enter unless aware of something within to repay him for the trouble,
and the filth unavoidably contracted. Having wormed myself through
this aperture, I found myself in a dark, damp chamber, half-choked
with the debris of the walls and ceiling. Yet the walls have not wholly
fallen in, for when my eyes were somewhat accustomed to the
gloom, I perceived them to be painted, and the taper’s light
disclosed on the inner wall a banquet in the open air.” Modern
gadgetry like Lerici’s has destroyed some of the romance; there is
something graphic about descriptions like Mengarelli’s of opening a
tomb at Cerveteri in 1910, in the presence of the local and
neighboring landlords, the Prince and Princess Ruspoli and the
Marchese Guglielmi. As the blocks of the entrance were removed
one by one, and sunlight was reflected into the tomb by mirrors,
there were to be seen against the black earth objects of gleaming
gold, and priceless proto-Corinthian vases resting on shreds of
decomposed wood, which were all that was left of the funeral bed,
while other vases were to be seen fixed to the wall with nails.
The Tomb of Hunting and Fishing at Tarquinia, discovered in
1873, gives us our most attractive picture (Fig. 2.13) of how
Etruscans in their palmiest days viewed the next world. The tomb is
dated by the black-figured Attic vases it contained in the decade
520–510 B.C., when the Etruscan ruling class was still prosperous. A
more charming invitation to the brainless life could hardly be
imagined. The most vivid scene is on the walls of the tombs inner
room, which are conceived as opening out into a breezy seascape,
with a lively population of bright birds in blue, red, and yellow, frisky
dolphins, and boys, friskier still, at play. Up a steep rock striped in
clay-red and grass-green clambers a sun-burnt boy in a blue tunic,
who appears to have just pushed another boy who is diving, with
beautiful form, into the hazy, wine-dark sea. On a nearby rock
stands another boy firing at the birds with a slingshot. Below him is
a boat with an eye painted on the prow (to ward off the evil eye;
fishing boats are still so painted in Portugal). Of the boat’s four
passengers, one is fishing over the side with a flimsy handline, while
beside the boat a fat dolphin turns a mocking somersault. All is life,
action, humor, vitality, color; such is the notion of blessed
immortality entertained by a people for whom Gods in his heaven,
all’s right with the world.
Fig. 2.13 Tarquinia: Tomb of Hunting and Fishing, fresco.
(M. Pallottino, Etruscan Painting, p. 51)
 Fig. 2.14 Tarquinia: Tomb of Orcus, portrait of the lady Velcha.
(MPI)

A quarter of a century or so after the Tomb of Hunting and

Fishing was painted, the Etruscans suffered a major naval defeat at
the hands of Greeks off Cumae. Rome, expanding, eventually took
over the iron mines of Elba and the iron-works of Populonia, and
Etruscan prosperity declined agonizingly to its end. Let us look at a
Tarquinian tomb of the period of the decadence; e.g., the Tomb of
Orcus again. There, beside one of the loveliest faces ever painted by
an ancient artist (Fig. 2.14), is portrayed one of the most hair-raising
demons a depressed imagination could conceive (Fig. 2.15). Its flesh
is a weird bluish-green, as though it were putrefying. Its nose is the
hooked beak of a bird of prey. The fiend has asses’ ears; its hair is a
tangled mass of snakes. Beside its monstrous wings rises a huge
crested serpent, horribly mottled. In its left hand the demon holds a
hammer handle. An inscription identifies him as Charun, the
ferryman of the dead; it is to pay this monster that the skeletons of
Spina clutch their bronze small change in their right hands. The
contrast between the gaiety of the scenes in the Tomb of Hunting
and the gloomy prospect of the lovely lady—her name is Velcha—in
the clutches of this grisly demon has been held to epitomize the
contrast between the views of an after life entertained by a
prosperous and by an economically depressed people.
 Fig. 2.15 Tarquinia: Tomb of Orcus, the demon Charun.
(MPI)

Other finds cast further light. The Capua tile prescribes funerary
offerings to the gods of the underworld. An inscribed lead plaque
from near Populonia is a curse tablet, in which a woman urges
Charun or another infernal deity, Tuchulcha, to bring his gruesome
horrors to bear on members of her family whose death she ardently
desires. Bronze statuettes give details of priestly dress (conical cap
tied under the chin, fringed cloak) or show Hermes, Escorter of
Souls, going arm-in-arm with the deceased to the world below. The
total picture is one of a deeply religious, even superstitious people,
attaching particular importance to the formalities of their ritual
relations with their gods, and obsessed with the after life, of which
they take a progressively gloomier view as their material prosperity
declines.

* * * * *
What can archaeology tell us about Etruscan cultural life? Of art
for art’s sake there seems to have been very little, of literature none,
except for liturgical texts. The Etruscans excelled in fine large-scale
bronze work, like the famous Chimaera of Arezzo or the Capitoline
Wolf, but their minor masterpieces in bronze deserve mention also,
especially the engraved mirrors, the cylindrical cosmetic boxes called
ciste, and the statuettes whose attenuated bodies appeal strongly to
modern taste. Their painting at its best shows in its economy of line
how intelligently they borrowed from the Greeks, in its realism how
sturdily they maintained their own individuality. In architecture,
Etruscan temples, having been made of wood, do not survive above
their foundation courses, but recent discoveries of terracotta temple-
models at Vulci tell us something about their appearance, and
masses of their terracotta revetment survive, brightly-painted
geometric, vegetable, or mythological motifs, designs to cover
beams, mask the ends of half-round roof tiles, or (in pierced
patterns called à jour crestings) to follow the slope of a gable roof.
Made from molds, the motifs could be infinitely repeated at small
expense, an aspect of Etruscan practicality which was to appeal
strongly to the Romans.
But the Etruscans’ artistic genius shows at the best in their
architectural sculpture in painted terracotta, free-standing or in high
relief. Their best-known masterpiece in this genre is the Apollo of
Veii (Fig. 2.16), designed for the ridgepole of an archaic temple.
Discovered in 1916, it is now in the Villa Giulia museum in Rome.
The stylized treatment of the ringlets, the almond eyes, the fixed
smile are all characteristic of archaic Greek art, and the fine edges of
the profile, lips, and eyebrows suggest an original in bronze. But this
is no mere copy. It is the work of a great original artist, probably the
same Vulca of Veii who was commissioned in the late sixth century
B.C. to do the terracottas for the Capitoline temple in Rome. The
sculptor is telling the story of the struggle between Apollo and
Hercules for the Hind of Ceryneia: the god is shown as he tenses
himself to spring upon his opponent; the anatomical knowledge, the
expression of mass in motion, and the craftsmanship required to
cast a life-size terracotta (a feat which even now presents the
greatest technical difficulties) are all alike remarkable.
A set of antefixes (used, as we have seen, to cover the ends of
half-round roof-tiles), from the archaic temple at Satricum in Latium,
in the same museum, are noteworthy for their humor. They
represent a series of nymphs pursued by satyrs. The satyrs are
clearly not quite sober, and the nymphs are far from reluctant. In a
particularly fine piece (Fig. 2.17) the satyr frightens the nymph with
a snake which he holds in his left hand, while he slips his right hand
over her shoulder to caress her breast. Her gestures are almost
certainly not those of a maiden who would repel a man’s advances.
Fig. 2.16 Rome, Villa Giulia Museum.
Apollo of Veii, terracotta. (MPI)
 Fig. 2.17 Rome, Villa Giulia Museum. Terracotta antefix of
satyr and nymph, from Satricum. (MPI)

A third Etruscan masterpiece in terracotta, of later date, but still

showing the same striking vitality as the two pieces just described, is
the pair of winged horses in high relief (Fig. 2.18), first published in
1948, which come probably from the pediment of the temple called
the Ara della Regina, on the site of the Etruscan city (as opposed to
the necropolis) of Tarquinia, and now in the Tarquinia museum. The
proud arching of the horses’ necks, their slim legs, their rippling
muscles are rendered to make them the quintessence of the
thoroughbred, so that we forget that the delicate wings would
scarcely lift their sturdy bodies off the ground. In these three
masterpieces art is none the less vibrant for being put at the service
of religion. Here is created a new Italic expressionistic style, so
admirable that many would hold that Italian art did not reach this
level again until the Renaissance.

* * * * *
Fig. 2.18 Tarquinia, Museum. Winged horses, terracotta relief, from
Ara della Regina. (MPI)
 Fig. 2.19 Cerveteri: Tomb of the Reliefs, interior. (MPI)

Just as archaeology’s finds can convince us of the vitality of

Etruscan art, so they can bring to life ancient Etruscan life and
customs. Most illuminating in this area are two tombs from
Cerveteri, ancient Caere, one of the great cities of the Etruscan
dodecapolis, twenty-five miles up the coast-road from Rome, and
close, too, in cultural relations. Here again Bradford has been at
work, spotting over 600 new tombs, but the one that tells us most
about Etruscan everyday life has been known since 1850. It is the
fourth-century Tomb of the Reliefs (Fig. 2.19), with places for over
forty bodies. The front and back walls of this tomb, and two pillars in
the middle, are covered with representations in low relief of Etruscan
weapons and objects in daily use; here, as elsewhere in Etruscan
tombs, but in far more detail, the tomb-chamber reproduces the look
of a room in an Etruscan house. Such chambers served again as
shelters in modern times—against bombs in World War II. In the
central recess in the farthest wall is a bed for a noble couple. It is
flanked by pilasters bearing medallions of husband (on the left) and
wife (on the right). On the husband’s side appears the end of a
locked strongbox, covered with raised studs or bosses, with a
garment lying folded on top. On the wife’s side is a sturdy knotted
walking-staff, a garland, necklaces, and a feather fan. The couch has
lathe-turned legs; it is decorated with a relief of Charun and the
three-headed dog Cerberus, with a serpent’s tail. The couch rests on
a step on which a pair of wooden clogs awaits their master’s need.
Above the couch, and continuing all the way around the room, is a
frieze of military millinery: helmets with visors, helmets with cheek-
pieces, the felt cap worn under the helmet to keep the metal from
chafing, swords, shields, greaves or shin guards, and a pile of round
objects variously interpreted as missiles, decorations for valor, or
balls of horse-dung. The central pilasters, with typical Etruscan
economy, are decorated only on the sides visible from the door.
What is represented is the whole contents of an Etruscan kitchen.
Identifiable objects include a sieve, a set of spits for roasting, a
knife-rack, an inkpot, a dinner gong, a game board (not unlike those
provided in English pubs for shove-ha’penny) with a bag for the
counters, and folding handles; a ladle, mixing spoons, an egg-beater,
pincers, a duck, a tortoise, a cat with a ribbon around its neck,
playing with a lizard; a belt, a pitcher, a long thin rolling pin for
making macaroni, a pickaxe, a machete, a coil of rope, a pet weasel
teasing a black mouse, a lituus (the augur’s curved staff), a wine-
flask of the familiar Chianti shape, a knapsack, and a canteen. Over
and flanking the door are bucrania (ox-skulls), wide, shallow
sacrificial basins, and a curved war-trumpet or hunting-horn. Surely
never a household embarked better equipped for the next world.
This tomb is as good as a documentary film; nothing ever found by
archaeology brings Etruscan daily life more vividly before our eyes.
While the Tomb of the Reliefs is full of homely details of Etruscan
life, the Regolini-Galassi tomb, also at Cerveteri, was crammed with
objects of conspicuous consumption and conspicuous waste. The
tomb is named for its discoverers, General Alessandro Regolini and
Fr. Vincenzo Galassi, arch-priest of Cerveteri in 1836. Its contents
are datable in the eighth or seventh century B.C. It consists of a long
narrow entrance-way or dromos, two oval side-chambers, and a long
narrow main tomb-chamber roofed with a false vault, “now,” says
Dennis, “containing nothing but slime and serpents.” When it was
entered through a hole in the roof on April 21, 1836, an incredible
treasure of gold, silver, bronze, and ceramics, over 650 objects in all,
burst upon the workmen’s gaze. All was cleared with feverish haste
in less than twenty-four hours, and no detailed inventory was
compiled until seventy years later. The riches are fabulous; to quote
Dennis again, “here the youth, the fop, the warrior, the senator, the
priest, the belle, might all suit their taste for decoration—in truth a
modern fair one need not disdain to heighten her charms with these
relics of a long past world.” In those days, Etruscan objects were not
allowed to languish in a museum. A report of 1839 states, “a few
winters ago the Princess of Canino [wife of Lucien Bonaparte]
appeared at some of the [British] ambassador’s fêtes with a parure
of Etruscan jewellery which was the envy of the society, and excelled
the chefs-d’oeuvre of Paris or Vienna.” Though the contents of the
tomb have been now for many years the pride of the Gregorian
Museum in the Vatican, the definitive publication did not appear until
1947.
The tomb contained three burials, including one of a woman of
princess’ rank. With one of the males was buried his chariot (which
was first dismantled and its wooden parts ceremoniously burned);
his funeral car, plated with bronze in a sword-like leaf design; and
his bronze bier, with a raised place for the head and a latticework of
twenty-nine thin bronze bars. With the woman was buried a
priceless treasure of gold, of baroque barbarity: a magnificent
golden fibula; a great gold pectoral (Fig. 2.20) decorated in repoussé
with twelve bands of animal figures (this, one would like to think,
was what the Princess of Canino wore to the ambassador’s party);
gold and amber necklaces; massive gold bracelets and earrings to
match the pectoral; silver bracelets, rings, pins, a spindle, and
buckets, the latter decorated with fantastic animals; ivory dice; a
bronze wine-bowl, with a beautiful green patina, decorated with six
heads of lions and griffins, turned inwards; and (reconstructed) a
great bronze-plated chair of state with footstool, the whole
ornamented with vegetable and animal motifs; the arms end in
horse’s heads, the back legs in cow’s hoofs. To the second male
burial belonged a set of splendid bronze parade-shields; a bronze
incense-burner on wheels, with a rim of lotus-flowers in bronze; a
bronze vase-stand, with a conical base surmounted by two
superimposed oblate spheroids, supporting a bronze container for
the vase, the whole ornamented in repoussé with bulls and winged
and wingless lions; bowls in silver and silver-gilt, decorated with
horsemen, footsoldiers, archers, lancers, chariots, lions, dogs, bulls,
vultures, and palm trees, in a style that might be Egyptian, Cypriote,
or Syrian. Such of the treasure as is imported from the Near East
bespeaks the wealth of Etruscan overlords; such as is of local
manufacture bespeaks the Skill of Etruscan craftsmen.
 Fig. 2.20 Vatican City, Vatican Museum: gold pectoral from the
Regolini-Galassi tomb, Cerveteri. (Musei Vaticani)

From other places, other clues to Etruscan life and customs. We

may end with two observations, both taken from tombs in Tarquinia:
Etruscan women were treated on a par with men; Etruscan sports
were sometimes of barbaric cruelty. The Tomb of the Leopards in
Tarquinia (fifth century B.C.) shows women (with dyed hair) reclining
on the same dining-couch with men; later (Tomb of the Shields,
third century B.C.) women sat at meals, while men reclined, but the
sexes dined together; there was no Oriental seclusion. The Tomb of
the Chariots, also in Tarquinia, shows women along with men in the
stands watching athletic events: horse-racing, the pole-vault, boxing,
wrestling, discus-throwing, and running. A tomb discovered by Lerici
just in time to be restored for the 1960 Olympic Games in Rome is
called the Tomb of the Olympic Victors, and shows similar events.
But Etruscan spectator sports were not always so innocent. On
the right wall of the Tomb of the Augurs in Tarquinia, a masked
figure, in a false beard, a blood-red tunic, and a conical cap, is
portrayed inciting a fierce hound to attack a hairy-chested figure,
nude but for a loin-cloth and carrying a club; his eyes are blinded by
a sack tied over his head, and his movements are impeded by a cord
held by a bystander. The victim is already bleeding from several
savage bites. Unless, handicapped as he is, he can club the dog to
death, he will surely be torn to bits. Perhaps this sanguinary and
savage scene represents human sacrifice (and, if so, it is none the
less forbidding), but it is a tempting hypothesis that what we have
pictured here is a predecessor of the kind of spectacle the Romans
later enjoyed in their amphitheaters, when gladiators fought to the
death. Gladiatorial contests were in fact traditionally of Etruscan
origin, first imported from Etruria for certain funeral games in 264
B.C.

We end, then, where we began, with archaeological evidence for

Etruscan influence, for good or for ill, upon Rome. As with the story
of prehistoric man in Italy, the Etruscan story is one of influences in
part originating in the Near East, in part indigenous, creating a
civilization with durable elements that could be and were
transmitted, playing a predominant rôle in forming the culture of
ancient Italy. The Etruscans are important in themselves, of course,
but it is a mistake to assume, because their language, unique on the
Italian peninsula, is non-Indo-European, that their culture is isolated,
too. As a culture of cities, Etruria must have had its effect, not
without cross-fertilization from Greek practice, upon Roman town-
planning. Etruscan political forms and practice recur in Roman
usage. The language claims our attention for the light it throws,
however dimly, on Etruscan politics, religion, and family life, and for
the challenge it has presented to modern scientific scholarship to
penetrate its mystery. Etruscan religion, as illuminated by
archaeological finds, has its own fascination, foreshadows Roman
formalism, and is noteworthy for changing, under the stress of
political and economic decline, from an optimistic to a pessimistic
view of the after-life. Etruscan art, especially terracotta sculpture,
shows a striking vitality, humor, and independence; Etruscan
architecture makes its impact upon Roman. Finally, the evidence of
artifacts as to Etruscan daily life shows a standard of material
comfort, and even of luxury, not to be achieved again on the
peninsula for two hundred years. Etruscan equality of sexes
foreshadows the independence of Roman women; the brutality of
Etruscan games is to strike an answering chord in sadistic Roman
breasts. Etruria has its own intrinsic fascination, yet for the Western
world its major interest must lie in its legacy to Home. When
Etruscan culture was at its brilliant, golden height, Rome was a
primitive village of wattle-and-daub huts. Archaeology has been able
to trace the metamorphosis of those huts into palaces, with all the
concomitant story of grandeur and barbarity; to that metamorphosis
the rest of this book will be devoted.
 3

Early Rome

Everyone remembers that Augustus left Rome a city of marble, but too few
people recall that he found it a city of brick. The picture of Rome in most
people’s minds is of a marble metropolis, proud mistress of a Mediterranean
Empire. This to be sure she eventually became, but the archaeological
evidence is that until the end of the third century B.C. Rome looked tawdry, with
patched temples and winding, unpaved streets. To trace the development is
fascinating, and archaeology is our chief guide.
The story that we read from the earth begins not in Rome itself but in the
Alban Hills, extinct volcanoes in the Roman Campagna, sixteen miles southeast
of Rome, close to Castel Gandolfo, the lovely lakeside spot where nowadays
the Pope has his summer palace. Here, in a pastureland called the Pascolare di
Castello, some peasants in 1817 were cutting trenches for planting vineyards.
Under the topsoil of the Alban Hills is a thick bed of solid lava, called tufa,
which seals in a layer of ashes. In digging their trench the peasants cut
through the lava seal and revealed large dolia, jars of rough clay, each of
which contained, in an urn shaped like a miniature oval hut, the ashes of a
cremation burial, together with fibulae, objects in amber and bronze, and
numerous vases. It was not until fifty years later that a committee of experts,
including the same Pigorini who afterwards overstepped his evidence about the
terremare, first connected the burials with the city of Alba Longa, traditionally
founded in the mists of prehistory by the son of Aeneas. In 1902, in cremation
graves from a necropolis to which we shall return, on the edge of the Roman
Forum itself, hut-urns and artifacts were found so similar to those from the
Pascolare that the inference of cultural connection was inescapable. Whether
Alba Longa was the metropolis and Rome the colony, as stated by the literary
sources, or the other way about, was not evident from the artifacts.
A necropolis or graveyard implies an inhabited site. The inhabited site of
Alba Longa was destroyed by the Romans about 600 B.C. Where was the
inhabited site that used the Forum in Rome as a necropolis? It could hardly
have been the Forum itself, which was a swamp not drained and fit for
habitation until about 575 B.C., a date which, as we shall see, marks the end of
the necropolis. Could it have been the Palatine Hill which rises from the south
side of the Forum? At first sight it seemed unlikely that any evidence for
prehistoric habitation could be found on the Palatine, since the hill was covered
with the substructures of Imperial palaces. But beneath these as early as 1724
were found the remains of the mansions of Republican nabobs (recorded in
literature, too, as having lived here), and beneath these in turn why should
there not lie the traces of even earlier dwellings? Vergil had pictured Aeneas
humbly entertained on the Palatine by Evander, and lodged in a hut with
swallows under the eaves. Excavations published in 1906 by the great Italian
archaeologist G. Boni (who lived in a villa on the Palatine, and whose memorial
bust appropriately adorns the Farnese Gardens there) found under the Flavian
Palace traces of huts containing artifacts matching those found in the Forum
necropolis.
These artifacts fell into two phases. The first included the rough handmade
pottery called impasto, which we have already seen to be characteristic of
Villanovan sites; serpentine fibulae (which match those found in the First
Benacci period at Bologna); ware incised with a clamshell in dogtooth,
meander, and swastika patterns, or with a rope-like clay appliqué; pierced
beads, spools, and a curious kind of Dutch oven with a perforated top,
examples of which were known from the Forum necropolis and the Alban Hills,
but not elsewhere. Artifacts of a different and more developed type, belonging,
therefore, to a second phase, included pots with thinner walls, sharper profiles
(as seen in elevation drawings), and more complicated handles; they are
decorated with spirals and semicircles, apparently compass-drawn. There was
even a miniature clay sheepdog, his curly coat represented by circles
impressed with a metal tube or a hollow reed. Such artifacts match those
found in the evolved Villanovan culture, dated in the first half of the sixth
century B.C. This culture is contemporary with a rich, sophisticated one in
Etruria, but the techniques in Rome and its vicinity are much more primitive
than in Etruria. We conclude that the Palatine village was infinitely less
prosperous than, say, the contemporary Etruscan cities of Caere or Tarquinia.
But equally primitive artifacts are found in the Alban Hills burials, certain tombs
on the Quirinal and Esquiline Hills in Rome (discovered when the city expanded
after Italy’s unification in the 1870’s), and in burials in hollowed-out tree-trunks
from the Forum necropolis, the latter now on display in the Forum
Antiquarium.
In 1907 D. Vaglieri began excavations in the southwest corner of the
Palatine which revealed cuttings in the rock. These were actually, though
Vaglieri did not recognize them as such, cuttings for early Iron Age huts, the
date being an inference from the artifacts, whose stratification Vaglieri did not
record. After a sharp controversy with Pigorini (whose prestige, because of
public interest in the terremare, was then at its height), the dig was
suspended, leaving one but half-excavated. Here, in this intact area,
excavations were resumed in 1948 by a younger specialist in the prehistoric
archaeology of Italy, S. M. Puglisi. This time, the methods were rigorously
scientific, and the cultural strata were observed and recorded with meticulous
care. Puglisi recognized that a scientific dig requires the constant presence on
the site during working hours of a competent archaeologist; no precise results
can ever be obtained by an excavation director who visits his site only a couple
of times a week, since unsupervised workmen can hardly be expected to
respect levels of stratification, preserve the right artifacts, or keep accurate
excavation notebooks, without which, of course, no scientifically valid
conclusions can be drawn.
In the area left undug by Vaglieri, Puglisi was able to distinguish five levels,
which have been schematically reproduced on the walls of the Palatine
Antiquarium. The top level consisted of nine feet of ancient dump. But the four
levels beneath the dump amounted to six-and-a-half feet of compact,
undisturbed strata, of which the bottom eight inches represented what had
collected on the hut floor while it was still in use. Here the sherds were very
tiny, for they had been walked on, it being the regular practice of Iron Age
man—and woman—to live comfortably in the midst of their own debris. The
hearth (one of the Dutch ovens was discovered in fragments in situ) was near
the center of the hut, very close to a cutting for a central supporting post—the
first evidence ever found for such construction. But there was no danger of
setting the central post on fire, since the cooking flame was entirely enclosed
within the clay of the oven. Bits of fallen wattle-and-daub revealed the wall-
construction. There were animal bones and impasto sherds bearing the marks
of fire, but none of the shiny black pottery called bucchero (the best examples
of which are rarely found in Rome in contexts earlier than 700 B.C.) and no
painted ware. This level, then, belonged to the first phase of the Iron Age,
dated, by parallels with the finds from beneath the Flavian Palace, about 800–
700 B.C. (The traditional date of Rome’s founding is 753.) The lowest level
being so shallow, and the sherds showing the marks of fire, the inference is
that the hut had not been occupied very long before it was burned down.
The contents of the next superimposed level, two feet deep, show that the
site was next used as a kitchen-midden or refuse-heap. Here the deposits
resemble those from a well (dug long ago but never described in a detailed
scientific article), in the sanctuary of Vesta in the Forum, which is dated in the
second phase of the Iron Age (700–550 B.C.), corresponding in the tradition to
A
the reigns of the five Roman Kings from Numa to Servius Tullius. These finds
include polished impasto, with high or twisted handles and out-turned rims;
slat-smoothed ware covered with a thin coating or engobe of reddish clay,
ornamented with double spirals and palmettes, and of a size to fit on the Dutch
ovens; sherds of fine bucchero (the first evidence of imports from Etruria), and
of a coarser grey local imitation; painted ware, of the style known as sub-
Geometric, imported from south Italy, and also some local imitations identified
by their cruder technique.

A
It will be convenient to record here for future reference
the traditional dates (B.C.) of Rome’s seven kings:
Romulus: 753– Etruscan Dynasty:
716
Numa Pompilius: Tarquinius
716–672 Priscus: 616–
578
Tullus Hostilius: Servius Tullius:
672–640 578–534
Ancus Marcius: Tarquinius
640–616 Superbus:
534–509

The next higher level shows fat-bodied “bloodsucker” fibulae, and flanged
tiles, some with horses molded in low relief, betraying a completely different
and more sophisticated building technique, like that used in Etruscan temples.
The artifacts matched those found in the level under the late Republican House
of the Griffins and under the “House of Livia” on the Palatine, and in the upper
strata of the shrine of Vesta well; they are associated with the huts built in the
Forum after it was drained; that is, with a transitional period after about 575
B.C. The lower date suggested by the archaeological finds for this second phase
corresponds to the dates assigned by the literary tradition to Rome’s Etruscan
kings, Tarquin I, Servius Tullius, and Tarquin the Proud.
The hut itself (Fig. 3.1) was a large one (12 × 16 feet), sunk about a yard
into the tufa of the hill, with six cuttings for the perimetral posts, two for a
front porch, and one for the central support. The cuttings, averaging fifteen
inches in diameter, are wider than is necessary for posts to support so flimsy a
structure; the logs were probably held upright by wooden or stone wedges.
The hut, reconstructed, represents a historical fact very much like what Vergil
had in mind when he described the sleeping quarters assigned by Evander to
Aeneas, and such capanne can be found in out-of-the-way places of the
countryside near Rome even today. Lucretius, Vergil, and Livy all knew what a
Bronze and an Iron Age meant; their generation venerated a replica of the
“Hut of Romulus” on the Palatine. It suited Augustus’ propaganda purpose to
stress Rome’s rise from humble origins; so, too, to us, archaeology’s picture of
Rome’s primitive beginnings may well make the story of her later expansion
seem more impressive, and her domination of subject peoples less
overbearing.

* * * * *
Fig. 3.1 Rome, Palatine. Prehistoric hut, reconstruction.
(G. Davico, Monumenti Antichi 41 [1951], p. 130)
 Fig. 3.2 Rome, Forum necropolis, showing cremation and
inhumation graves. (MPI)

Archaeology’s second major contribution to our knowledge of early Rome is

provided by Boni’s excavation of the Forum necropolis (Fig. 3.2), the results of
which are displayed with great clarity in the Forum Antiquarium, installed in the
cloister of the church of S. Francesca Romana in the Forum itself. The surviving
part of the necropolis stretches between the Temple of Antoninus and
Faustina, on the north side of the Forum, and a late Republican structure to
the east which was pretty certainly (to judge from the built-in beds, the narrow
rooms, and the analogy with a building similar in plan at Pompeii, certainly
identified by its erotic pictures) a house of ill-fame. The original extent west
and southward was probably much greater. The graves have now been filled in,
but their sites are marked by plots of grass, round for cremation graves,
oblong for inhumation ones. The two types sometimes cut into each other;
what inferences are warranted by this fact are better postponed until we have
discussed the grave contents.
The Forum nowadays is an austere, even at first sight a forbidding place. It
looks much more attractive in a painting by Claude Lorraine or a print by
Piranesi, with a double row of olives planted down the middle, romantic broken
columns, oxen and peasants scattered about the flowered greensward in
picturesque confusion, and the Arch of Septimius Severus buried up to its
middle. But picturesqueness is not everything. The Forum is history, stark
history; every stone is soaked in blood. To understand that history, mere
picturesqueness had to be sacrificed; Boni’s graves are not picturesque; they
are informative. From them the historical imagination can create a picture of
Rome’s beginnings which no Piranesi print could rival.
Sixteen feet of picturesqueness had to be cleared before Boni could reach
the necropolis level. The cremation tombs are small circular wells, most of
them containing, as in the Alban Hills tombs, a dolium or large jar, covered by
tufa slabs. In the dolia were found ash-containers, often in the shape of
miniatures of huts like the full-sized ones on the Palatine. The oblong graves
contained rough sarcophagi of tufa, or coffins made of hollowed-out oak logs.
Both types of tomb contained, intact on discovery, tomb furniture not differing
much between the types, and not differing much from the finds in the bottom
two levels of Puglisi’s Palatine hut; i.e., rough impasto, decorated with incised
spirals, parallel lines (done with a comb) or zigzags; bucchero, some fibulae
inlaid with amber, glass beads, tiny enamel plaques, remains of funeral
offerings of food. It is all very humble, a far cry from the Regolini-Galassi
treasure, though some of the tombs are of the same date. The finds show that
the necropolis was in use from the ninth to the sixth centuries B.C. The site
was, as we saw, on the edge of a swamp; when the swamp was drained, the
cemetery went out of use, and huts, of which more later, were built over it.
In the necropolis, sometimes inhumation graves cut into cremation ones,
sometimes vice versa. There is thus no ground for assuming that the
cremation graves are older, especially as the grave-contents of the two types
are so similar. The difference is not one of time but of funeral practice, as
today; it suggests two different populations living peacefully together. The
cremators were related to the people whose graves were found so long ago in
the Alban Hills, and, as we have seen, to the Palatine hut-dwellers. Who were
the inhumers? We know that other Roman hills than the Palatine were
inhabited from very early times, though the natural features of the Palatine
seem to give it priority: plenty of fodder, abundant water within easy reach, a
retreat made safe at night by the hill and the river for the people and their
livestock.
But habitation of the Esquiline and Quirinal Hills in the sixth century is
attested by a number of tombs from a total of 164 found there in the 1870’s.
The finds from these were never scientifically recorded, and they have never
been published, but it is noteworthy that they include weapons, which are
absent from the cremation-graves in the Forum. It looks as though the
Esquiline folk were invaders, with a more warlike tradition than the Palatine
hut-dwellers. The Esquiline folk might earlier have used the Forum necropolis
for inhumation. We know that the Sabines buried their dead. Literary tradition
(the Rape of the Sabine Women) records that the early Romans got their wives
from among the Sabines. Numa Pompilius, the second of the legendary Roman
kings, bears a Sabine name. Might not the two types of graves in the Forum
necropolis represent the peaceful fusion of cremating Latins and inhuming
Sabines who had laid aside their warlike ways?

* * * * *
On top of the Forum necropolis, when the swamp was drained, huts were
built. The archaeological evidence for this phase of early Rome’s history was
provided by Boni’s stratigraphic excavation (recently confirmed by the Swede
Einar Gjerstad) to the northwest of the site of the equestrian statue of the
Emperor Domitian in the middle of the Forum. Gjerstad dug a trench sixteen
feet long and eleven feet wide, down to virgin soil, which he found nineteen
feet below the present Forum level. On the earth wall of the trench the story of
the centuries could be read in the successive levels (Figs. 3.3 and 3.4).
Between levels three and nineteen, six pavements could be counted, but level
nineteen takes us, to judge by the pots found in it, only back to about 450 B.C.
In layers twenty to twenty-two, Gjerstad found three pebble pavements, which
he dates about 575 B.C. If he is right in assigning to this date the beginning of
monarchic Rome, he has pushed its date down in our direction over 150 years
from the traditional 753 B.C. But there is more history below this. Strata twenty-
three to twenty-eight are remains of huts, similar to but (pottery again) later
than the ones on the Palatine. Gjerstad dates them in two phases: 650–625
and 625–575 B.C. Rather than push the traditional date down so far, it seems
plausible to suppose that these huts represent the period assigned by the
literary tradition to the early kings, and to argue that the sophisticated period,
symbolized by the Forum’s earliest pebble pavement, was inaugurated by
Rome’s earliest Etruscan king, Tarquin I.
Fig. 3.3 Rome, Forum. Excavation at Equus Domitiani, showing strata. (E.
Gjerstad, Early Rome I, p. 37)
 Fig. 3.4 Rome, Forum. Excavation at Equus Domitiani, schematic
drawing of strata. (E. Gjerstad, Antiquity 26 [1952], p. 61)

These other huts confirm the other archaeological data, which show that
what later was unified into urban Rome was originally a group of simple hut-
villages clustered on various hills, the Forum huts having spilled down, as it
were, from the village on the Palatine. The huts in the level just above the
Forum necropolis represent a still earlier stage of this spillover; they antedate
the earliest huts in Gjerstad’s twenty-nine levels. By the date of Gjerstad’s
earliest pebble pavements, the huts in the necropolis area have been replaced
by a more developed domestic architecture, perhaps with rooms opening on a
central court. These houses have rectangular plans, mud-brick, wood-braced
walls, and tufa foundations. At the spillover stage, the villagers from the
various hills formed some kind of confederation symbolized archaeologically by
the two types of graves in the Forum necropolis, and in literature by the
tradition of the joint religious festival called the Septimontium.
The period of the first pebble pavement (575 B.C.) is one of major change,
from village to urban life, to a city now for the first time boasting a civic center,
destined to become the world’s most famous public square, the Roman Forum.
Of the same date are the earliest remains on the Capitoline Hill, which was to
be the arx or citadel of historic Rome. Of the same date are the earliest
artifacts from the Regia, which later generations revered as the palace of the
kings. Of the same date is a sophisticated phase of the round shrine of Vesta,
which encircled the sacred flame, symbol of the city’s continuity. The literary
tradition would date the last two earlier, at least to Numa’s reign. However no
architectural remains have so far been discovered which associate them with
the earlier date.
In his interpretation of the archaeological evidence about the date of the
beginning of the Roman Republic, Gjerstad is just as iconoclastic as about the
dating of the kings. His argument, more ingenious than convincing, is that an
event as important politically as a change from a monarchy to a republic
should be reflected in the artifacts, changing from richer to poorer, whereas no
such objective evidence of a cultural break is visible in the levels dated by him
(perhaps more closely than the facts warrant) at 509 B.C. Such a cultural break
does not come until some fifty years later, when Etruscan imports cease. There
are grave difficulties in pushing the date of the Roman Republic’s beginning
down so far, of which the chief is a list (the Fasti) of pairs of consuls 509–450
B.C. where many names are too obscure to have been invented. Gjerstad’s
excavation, in sum, is important as confirming the accuracy of Boni’s methods,
and as telling us much about the village stage of Rome, but the absolute
chronology cannot be said to be as yet firmly fixed, nor the traditional one
definitely upset.

* * * * *
Apart from absolute chronology, what unequivocal evidence can
archaeology provide that early Rome was ruled by kings? The ideal evidence
would be an inscription, and one was discovered in 1899 in the Forum near the
Comitium, where, in the open air in front of the Senate House, the popular
assembly met. The inscription is called the lapis niger stele, because it lies
under a later pavement of black marble (lapis niger), now preserved under a
deplorable corrugated iron roof. But the stone on which it is carved is not
marble but tufa, identified as having come from the quarries of Grotta Oscura
in the territory of Veii, some nine miles north of Rome.
On the various kinds of tufa or volcanic stone in use in early Rome there
hangs a tale. In 1924 an American, Tenney Frank, published an epoch-making
study of Roman building materials in which he put the dating of Roman
monuments on a firmer basis by distinguishing several different kinds of tufa
used by Roman builders at successive dates. Subsequent studies have blurred
the dividing lines and shown the possibility of overlap, but Frank’s nice eye for
discriminating tufas has revolutionized the architectural history of the Roman
Republic. The following table illustrates Frank’s methods:

Type Characteristics Quarries Where used

Cappellaccio flaky dark Rome Capitoline
grey ash temple (509
B.C.)

Grotta Oscura friable 2½ mi. N. Forum stele,

greyish of Prima “Servian”
yellow Porta Wall,
Tullianum
(prison)
Fidenae flecked black Castel Castrum,
fragments Giubileo, Ostia (338
(scoriae) 5 mi. N. B.C.)
of Rome Argentina
Temple A
(ca. 200
B.C.)

peperino peppered; Marino Tomb of

can be (Alban Scipios
carved Hills 11 (early 3rd
mi. SE) cent.) Altar,
Argentina C
(ca. 186
B.C.)

sperone coarse- Gabii (12 Milvian Bridge

grained mi. E) (109 B.C.)
brown
 Monteverde reddish, olive Across Sullan
streaks Tiber pavement
nr. Lapis
niger
Anio brown Cervara (35 Tomb of
mi. ENE) Bibulus
(before 50
B.C.)

Fig. 3.5 Rome, Forum: lapis niger stele. Note the word RECEI, which may be
evidence for the historicity of Rome’s kings. (P. Goidanich, Mem. Acc. It. 7.3
[1943], Pl. 9)