Chapter 7: Nervous System

Human nervous system is a complex set of functions that transmits signals between
the brain and the other parts of the body.
Definition of Nervous system: Nervous system is a complex structure of various neural cells
that carry messages and regulate bodily functions and personal behaviour.

It is mainly divided into two parts: Central Nervous system and Peripheral Nervous
System

Let us look at the Central Nervous System (CNS): The CNS consists of the Brain and the
Spinal cord.
❖​ In the nervous system, the brain is like a central computer that controls all the bodily
functions. It is an incharge of what we think, we feel, how we learn and remember
and our actions. Brain also controls the things that we are less aware of such as
breathing, heart rate, digestion etc. The brain sends and receives messages throughout
the parts of the body by using a long passage which is called the Spinal cord.
❖​ Spinal cord is a long wire-like structure located in the abdomen which helps us
maintain erect posture. Its vital role is in sending messages to the brain received from
different parts of the body and sending messages to different parts of the body
received from the brain.
❖​ Injuries to the brain or the spinal cord can be fatal for a person as these two organs
are responsible to carry out higher order cognitive functions such as thinking,
attention, memory, etc. They are the most complex yet the most important parts of our
body.

The Brain receives and sends messages with the help of the Neurons.
Definition of a Neuron: Neurons are a specialised network of cells that transmits messages
from the brain to the body and vice versa. They are called the “Building blocks” of the
Nervous system.
 There are millions of neurons present in the brain. Each message first enters our
senses- there are five senses, namely- visual, olfactory, auditory, gustatory and tactile. Our
senses first register this message and then this message is passed to the brain with the help of
the neurons. Let us first understand the parts of a Neuron:

1.​ Dendrites: These are branch-like structures that receive messages from other neurons
and allow transmission of messages to the cell body. Thus, the neural messages enter
into the neuron through the dendrites of the neuron.
2.​ Nucleus and Cell body: Cell body is the body of the neuron and the nucleus is known
as the “brain of the neuron” as it absorbs food and keeps the neuron alive.
3.​ Axon: Axon is a tube-like structure that carries electrical impulse from the cell-body
to the axon terminals. In the axon terminal (small bulb-like structures), the
neurotransmitters are located.
4.​ Synapse: It is the gap (chemical junction) between two neurons. It is basically the gap
between the axon terminal of one neuron and dendrites of another neuron. Each neural
message passes through this gap to enter the next neuron.

Journey of the neural message: Every neural message first enters through the dendrites of
the neuron and travels through the entire cell body. Then from the axon, it enters into the
axon terminals where there are different neurotransmitters located. Neurotransmitters are
the chemical messengers that electrify the neurons. Once the neural message comes in contact
with the neurotransmitters, the entire neuron is activated. Then the neural message jumps out
of the axon terminal and enters the synapse and travels to the dendrites of another neuron.
Like this, millions of neurons get activated and send messages to different parts of the brain.

Definition of Neurotransmitters: Neurotransmitters are the chemical messengers that work to

keep our brain functioning and manage everything from breathing, heart beats, learning,
concentration levels etc. Neurotransmitters can be classified into two types depending on their
functions:
1.​ Excitatory neurotransmitters: These types of neurotransmitters increase the
likelihood that the neuron will be “fired up” or increase the action potential of the
neuron. Some of the major excitatory neurotransmitters include epinephrine and
norepinephrine.
2.​ Inhibitory neurotransmitters: They decrease the likelihood that the neuron will be
“fired up” meaning they reduce the action potential of the neuron. Some of the major
inhibitory neurotransmitters are serotonin and GABA.

Types of Neurotransmitters:
1.​ Acetylcholine: It is an excitatory, primary neurotransmitter associated with motor
neurons. It is found in both the central and the peripheral nervous system. It plays a
major role in muscle movements and memory and learning.
2.​ Dopamine: It is known as the “reward system” of our brain. It is majorly associated
with motivation, pleasure and happy feelings. It also plays an important role in
coordination of body movements. Thus, loss of dopamine can result in degenerative
disorders like Parkinson’s disease or emotional dysregulation such as low mood or
disorders like depression.
3.​ Norepinephrine: It is also called Noradrenaline. It plays an important role in
alertness and is involved in the body’s “flight or fight” response. It helps us to
mobilise our body and brain to take actions in the times of danger or high stress. It
works on high levels during extreme stressful or danger-oriented situations.
4.​ Serotonin: It is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that plays a role in regulating sleep,
mood, appetite, sexuality and anxiety. When the levels of serotonin increase, doctors
prescribe Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) to balance the serotonin
levels by blocking the reuptake of serotonin in the brain.
 5.​ Glutamate: This neurotransmitter is present in abundance. It plays a major role in
cognitive functions like memory and learning and maintaining optimum sugar levels
in the body
6.​ Gamma-aminobutyric-acid (GABA): It is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter. It
reduces the excitation of neurons. It plays a role in vision, motor control and
controlling anxiety.

Some other important neurotransmitters are: (Only for additional knowledge)

1.​ Oxytocin: It is produced by the hypothalamus and plays a role in social recognition,
bonding and sexual reproduction. It is one of the powerful neurotransmitters in the
brian.
2.​ Endorphins: This neurotransmitter inhibits the pain signals and promotes feelings of
euphoria. It helps to reduce the feelings of pain and can be activated by exercising or
indulging into our favourite activities.

THE BRAIN
Brain is the chief manager of our nervous system. It is with the help of the brain that human
beings can conduct different activities from simple to complex. Brain is majorly divided into
3 broad parts: Hindbrain, Midbrain and Forebrain.

THE FOREBRAIN-

●​ Cerebrum: In the forebrain, the cerebrum is the largest part and is also called the
cerebral cortex. It has many folds giving it a wrinkled structure. These folds allow
large amounts of information to be processed. Cerebral cortex makes up about half of
the brain’s total mass. The cerebral cortex of the brain consists between 14 to 16
billions of nerve cells (neurons). The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves- right
hemisphere and left hemisphere. Both hemispheres control the opposite sides of the
body. That is, the left hemisphere controls the right side of the body and the right
hemisphere controls the left side of the body. Both these hemispheres are connected to
each other with the help of corpus callosum, which is a bunch of fibres that helps the
messages of each hemisphere to travel to the other hemisphere.
●​ Cerebral cortex is divided into four lobes. Each lobe is responsible for processing
different types of information including language, memory, reasoning, thought,
decision-making, emotion, intelligence and personality.

1.​ Frontal lobe: Frontal lobe is at the front of the brain behind the forehead. It plays a
major role in decision-making, attention, speech production, intelligence, memory and
reasoning. There are three special areas in the frontal lobe: Broca’s area, motor
cortex and prefrontal cortex. Broca’s area is known as the “speech centre” of the
brain which helps us in producing speech. Motor cortex is important for body
movements and coordination and the Prefrontal cortex is responsible for “executive
functions” like thinking and problem solving.
2.​ Parietal lobe: It is located behind the frontal lobe. Areas in the parietal lobe are
responsible for integrating sensory information including touch, temperature,
pressure and pain. It also helps in spatial recognition and differentiating between
objects by their size, shape, weight and other features.
3.​ Occipital lobe: It controls our vision and is the smallest lobe of the cerebral cortex.
This lobe receives, processes and interprets the visual information and this processed
information is then sent to the other regions of the brain for further analysis. It helps
us to determine, recognise and compare objects with each other.
 4.​ Temporal lobe: It is located at the side of the head, near the temples. It is associated
with hearing, memory and emotion. It is also associated with some aspects of
language. There is an auditory cortex in this lobe which is responsible for processing
auditory information. Wernicke’s area important for speech comprehension is
considered to be the language centre of the brain and is located in the temporal lobe.
Damage to this area can lead to difficulty in understanding speech or language
problems.

THE HINDBRAIN-

The hindbrain is divided into 3 important parts: Cerebellum, Brainstem and the Reticular
Activation system.

Cerebellum: It is primarily responsible for maintaining body balance and body posture.
Cerebellum coordinates our sensations with the muscles enabling most of our voluntary
movements. The Purkinje cells are located in the cerebellum which are considered to be the
largest and highly efficient neurons. These cells have strong dendrite signals and a long axon
structure and can process many neural messages simultaneously. Injuries to the cerebellum
usually result in disturbances in limb movements, loss of muscle control, tremors and even
difficulty in standing or maintaining a straight posture.

Brain Stem: It plays a critical role in regulating involuntary actions. It consists of two major
parts: Medulla oblongata and Pons.

Medulla oblongata: It is the lowest part of the brainstem. It is known as the vital centre of
the brain as it controls the involuntary functions of the body such as breathing, heart rate,
blood pressure etc. The medulla oblongata plays a critical role in transmitting signals between
the spinal cord and the higher parts of the brain.

Pons: It is located above the medulla oblongata and below the cerebellum. It works together
with the medulla oblongata to serve the critical role in generating respiratory rhythm of
breathing. It also controls our rapid-eye-movement (REM).
Reticular Activation System: It controls our sleep and arousal states such as waking, asleep
and dreaming. It spans an extensive portion of the brain stem. Thus, it is known as the body's
alarm system. RAS alters the brain’s electrical activity which makes us sleepy or restful. If
RAS is damaged, it can result in sleep problems, lethargy or even coma.

THE MIDBRAIN- -

The midbrain is the topmost part of the brainstem and is a connection between the brain and
the spinal cord. It involves movement of the body and the head and it provides downward
pathways for the cerebral cortex. It is also a channel for the spinal cord for transmitting
sensory stimuli from the head and the body to the brain and vice-versa. It also plays a role in
reflex actions along with the spinal cord.

THE LIMBIC SYSTEM-

The limbic system is the portion of the brain that deals with the three key functions of the
body- Emotions, Memories and Arousal (or stimulation). The Limbic system consists of the
following parts.

Hippocampus It is responsible for various processes of memory especially in long-term

memory. It is a sea-horsed shaped structure in the limbic system. Episodic memories are
formed in the hippocampus and then are filed into the long-term memories. It is also in
spatial navigation. Damage to the hippocampus can lead to severe memory impairments.

Amygdala It is an almond-shaped structure located right next to the hippocampus. The

amygdala interacts with the hippocampus by attaching emotional content to the memories
such as feelings of happiness, fear, anger and anxiety. Due to the emotional attachment, the
memories become memorable. It is also responsible for “fear learning”- attaching fear as a
response to a particular situation. Damage to the amygdala can result in aggression,
irritability, inability to express appropriate emotions, deficits in recognising emotions
especially recognising fear.

Thalamus It is called the relay station of the brain. All the information that is received by our
senses (except smell) is processed through the thalamus before being sent to the brain’s
cerebral cortex. It is an egg-shaped structure in the centre of the brain. It also plays a key role
in deciding what to focus on among the vast amount of information. It also plays a role in
keeping us awake and alert.

Hypothalamus The most basic and important function of the hypothalamus is maintaining
the homeostasis of the body. It controls all the necessary and primary survival functions of
the body such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, sleep and sexual desire. It works along
with the pituitary gland which is the master gland of the body. Thus, the hypothalamus is the
interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system. It is also called the pleasure
centre of the body as it controls the tasks of the body that gives us pleasure. Damage to the
hypothalamus can result in feeling over-stressed, reduced or hyper sexual desire, fatigue, etc.

PILLARS OF BETTER BRAIN FUNCTIONING-

Better brain functioning is dependent on many things such as good diet, sleep, exercise and a
healthy social environment. When we take care of all these things we can ensure healthy
functioning of the brain. Thus, the following points are crucial for maintaining brain health.

Physical and mental exercise Physical activity such as exercising or even some mobilisation
or movement helps us to remain fit, generates happy hormones (dopamine, oxytocin) and
improves blood flow in the body. This is beneficial for the brain as good blood flow allows
the brain to carry its tasks effectively. It also helps in cognitive functions like memory,
attention and decision making. When we exercise, our body releases certain chemicals which
are essential for a positive mood, new learning and thinking.

Brain and Nutrition It is essential to maintain a good diet that suits our lifestyle and body
needs. Our diet must change according to our age and body growth. For instance, a toddler is
breastfed by the mother but as he grows he eats solid foods according to his age and growth.
Thus, it is essential to modify our nutritional requirements according to the developing years.
Nutrition must contain all types of vitamins, proteins, calcium, fats and carbohydrates. This
ensures cell health and slows down the process of cell degeneration in old age. Cell
degeneration can lead to many problems like mental fatigue, memory loss or even attentional
issues. Humans are exposed to oxidation which happens due to being exposed to high levels
of stress. Food containing antioxidants such as almonds, onions and berries can prevent
oxidation.

Tackling medical problems Any underlying physical issues such as diabetes, high blood
pressure, cholesterol, etc can cause hurdles in healthy brain functioning. Habits like smoking,
drinking or even binge eating wrong foods can cause brain issues like dementia and lead to
faster degeneration of brain cells. Thus, these problems must be tackled and treated in time to
avoid further negative consequences.

Sleep and Relaxation Sleep relaxes our body by improving our mood and clearing the
wastage and toxins from the body. Thus, enough sleep helps the brain to carry out its
functions normally and makes us active and fit for performing our daily tasks. The brain has
an abnormal protein known as beta-amyloid plaque. If this protein increases in quantity due
to lack of sleep, it can lead to diseases like Alzheimer’s. Along with sleep, mental relaxation
exercises such as meditation and managing stress effectively is also necessary.

Mental Fitness and stimulation Brain needs stimulation to remain healthy and working. If
we give our brain some exercises such as solving puzzles, playing brain games like sudoku
etc, can slow down the cell degeneration process. These kinds of stimulation also leads to
new cell growth and eventually decreases the possibility of brain disorders. People who
always keep themselves busy in their favourite work such as researchers, poets, scientists,
etc, have a good brain stimulation so they continue to be creative and innovative for many
years of their lives.

Social Interaction Along with brain exercises our brain also needs social stimulation such as
interactions with other people, social company, sharing our thoughts and feelings, etc.
Research suggests that people who have healthy and productive interactions are less likely to
experience brain issues and have good brain health.

THE SPINAL CORD-

The second most important structure in the nervous system is the spinal cord. It is a long
tube-like band of tissues. It begins at the bottom of the brain stem, from the medulla
oblongata. The average length of an adult spinal cord is about 18 inches (45 centimetres). It
keeps our body erect and straight and gives a flexible posture to our body. Apart from that it
is important for carrying and sending messages from the brain to the body and from the body
to the brain. Spinal cord plays an important role in controlling the reflex actions. Reflex
actions are involuntary movements which are often instantaneous in response to a
stimulus. We have 31 pairs of nerves in our spinal cord.
8 cervical nerve pairs (starting from the neck and running mostly to the face and head)
12 thoracic nerve pirs (extending from the chest, upper back and abdomen)
5 lumbar nerve pairs (nerves in the lower back, in the legs and feet)
5 sacral nerve pairs (nerves in the lower back extending to the pelvis)
Each of the nerves has two routes- dorsal and ventral. If there is an injury to the dorsal route,
a person will not be able to feel sensations (sensory information). If the ventral routes are
injured, a person will have severe problems in body movement and poor control over
reflexes.
Damage or injury to the spinal cord can be severe enough or sometimes even fatal. It can lead
to loss of bladder control, paralysis, etc.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM-

This system controls the secretion of different hormonal glands in the human body that is
essential for body’s function, growth and development, metabolism, mood, emotions, sexual
functions and sleep. It is made up of several organs called glands. These glands are situated
all over our body and release hormones.

The endocrine system continuously monitors the amount of different hormones in the blood.
The pituitary gland (master gland) senses when the hormone levels rises and signals other
glands to stop producing and releasing hormones. Exocrine glands are the glands with ducts
that release their secretions in the organ or the tissue. For instance, our tears from the eyes or
sweat. Endocrine glands are ductless glands that secrete chemical substances called
hormones.

Hormones are responsible for the bodily changes in males and females such as puberty,
menarche in girls, mood swings, height, weight gain, body structure changes, etc. Both sexes
develop liking and attraction towards each other. Sometimes, these changes are visible but
other times they can be invisible. Some of the important hormones and their glands are: