.

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 Grade 9 Biology
Unit 3
Human biology and health
OLD CURRICULUM

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. PART 1 PART 7
 3.1 Food and nutrition  3.3 The respiratory system
 The human diet  How Is Air Brought Into Your Lungs?
 Carbohydrates  Gaseous Exchange in the Lungs
 Factors Ensuring Efficient Gas Exchange:
PART 2
PART 8
 Proteins
 Factors Affecting Breathing Rate
 Fats and Oils (Lipids)
 The effect of smoking on the lungs and the rest of the body
 Breathing Hygiene
PART 3
 When Breathing Fails
 Minerals
 Vitamins PART 9
 3.4 Cellular Respiration
PART 4  Aerobic Respiration
 The Role of Water  Anaerobic Respiration
 Nutrition
PART 10
 3.5 The circulatory system
PART 5
 3.2 The digestive system  The Blood Vessels
 The working of the gut  The human heart
 Moving the food on
PART 6
PART 11
 Stomach  The Blood
 Small intestine  Human blood groups
 Large intestine  Common Problems of the Circulatory System
 Issues of digestive health
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PART 1
3.1 Food and nutrition
The human diet
Carbohydrates

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3.1 Food and nutrition
The Human Diet
What is Food?
Food is the primary source of nutrients and energy for the body.
It is obtained from animals or plants and is broken down in the body to supply
essential nutrients.
Every individual must obtain all necessary chemicals from food.
Food serves three major purposes:
Provides energy for cells to carry out essential life functions.
Supplies raw materials for the production of new biological material & Helps in
growth, repair, and replacement of worn-out or damaged cells.
Provides resources to fight diseases and keep the body healthy.
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There are six main classes of nutrients required by the body: Carbohydrates,
Proteins, Fats, Vitamins, Minerals & water
They are classified into two groups: macronutrients and micronutrients
Macronutrients - food you need in large amounts
 Carbohydrates – Main source of energy.
 Proteins – Essential for growth, repair, and enzyme production.
 Fats – Provide energy and support cell function.
Micronutrients (needed in small amounts):
 Vitamins – Important for various metabolic processes.
 Minerals – Essential for body functions like bone health and nerve function.
Water - Plays a vital role in digestion, circulation, and overall body function.

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Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the main source of energy for the body.
They are composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O)
The body stores very little carbohydrate, except for glycogen, which is found in
the: Liver, Muscles, Brain
Excess carbohydrates are converted into fat and stored in the body.
Carbohydrate-rich Foods: - Honey, injera, fatira, Potatoes, rice, dabo

Carbohydrates are classified into three types based on molecular complexity:

Simple sugars
Double sugars
Complex sugars
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Simple Sugars
Have one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms for each carbon atom.
General formula: (CH₂O)ₙ
Examples of simple sugar:
Glucose – Essential for energy production.
Fructose – Found in fruits.
Galactose
Double Sugars (Disaccharides)
Formed by the joining of two simple sugars.
One water molecule (H₂O) is removed during the reaction, known as a
condensation reaction.
Common double sugars:
Sucrose = Glucose + Fructose
 Stored in plants such as sugar beet and sugar cane.
Lactose = Glucose + Galactose
 Found in milk (main carbohydrate in milk). 8
Maltose = Glucose + Glucose
 Found in germinating seeds (e.g., barley).
Most simple and double sugars have two important properties in common.
They dissolve in water and they taste sweet.

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Complex Sugars (Polysaccharides)
Complex carbohydrates are formed when many simple sugar units (monomers)
join to create long-chain molecules (polymers).
Unlike simple and double sugars, complex sugars lose their sweet taste & do not
dissolve in water.
Complex Sugars have compact structure which makes them ideal for energy
storage.
Sugar units can be released when needed to provide energy.
They are chemically and physically inactive – Their storage does not interfere
with other cellular functions.
Types of Complex Sugars
1. Starch
Major energy storage carbohydrate in plants.
Sugars formed by photosynthesis are rapidly converted into starch.
Found in Plant storage organs such as potatoes.
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2. Glycogen ("Animal Starch")
The only carbohydrate energy store in animals.
Stored mainly in muscle and liver tissue.
Provides a readily available energy supply for active tissues.
3. Cellulose
Main structural carbohydrate in plants.
Major component of plant cell walls.
Composed of long chains of glucose, but with different linkages than starch and
glycogen.
Indigestible by humans and most animals due to the absence of necessary
enzymes.
Carbohydrates form a diverse group of molecules essential for energy storage,
structural support, and biological processes.
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Chemical tests can be performed to identify different types of carbohydrates in
food samples.
Reducing and Non-Reducing Sugars
Reducing sugars react with Benedict’s solution.
They reduce copper(II) ions (Cu²⁺) to copper(I) ions (Cu⁺), forming a brick-red
precipitate.
Includes:
 All single sugars (monosaccharides): Glucose, Fructose & Galactose
 Some double sugars (disaccharides): Maltose , Lactose
Non-Reducing Sugars do not react with Benedict’s solution.
 Includes: Sucrose (a double sugar)

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Chemical Test for Reducing Sugars
Benedict’s test is used to identify reducing sugars.
A positive test results in a brick-red precipitate.
A negative test remains blue, indicating a non-reducing sugar.

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Starch test
The color of iodine solution is brown. Starch reacts with iodine to form a
characteristic blue-black.
In this test it is important to note that there is no heating involved.
Only a few drops of iodine solution are necessary.

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Which of the following list is different from the rest in relation to the six classes
of food? (EGSECE 2010)
A. Fat, Vitamin, Water
B. Protein, Fat, Alcohol
C. Carbohydrate, mineral, water
D. Carbohydrate, protein, fat

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PART 2
Proteins
Fats and Oils (Lipids)

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Proteins
Proteins are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N).
Some proteins also contain sulfur (S) and other elements.
Proteins are polymers made up of many small units called amino acids.
Proteins are essential for growth, repair, and maintenance of body tissues.
Broken down into amino acids during digestion, which are then reassembled into
proteins needed by the body.
Are important components of:
Hair, skin, and nails.
Enzymes – Control biochemical reactions, including digestion.
Hormones – Regulate body functions.
Muscles – Essential for movement and support.
Sources of Protein: Meat, fish, Dairy products (cheese, milk), Pulses (white pea
beans, chickpeas, red kidney beans).
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Amino Acids and Protein Structure
There are 20 different naturally occurring amino acids.
Amino acids join together in long chains to form proteins.
Peptide bond is formed when amino acids join in a condensation reaction, losing
a water molecule.
Long amino acid chains coil, twist, spiral, and fold into complex shapes.
Cross-links between different parts of the molecule help form 3D structures,
which are crucial for protein function.

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Amino acids dissolve in water, but proteins vary in their solubility and
properties.
Insoluble proteins (tough, structural):
 Found in connective tissue, tendons, bone matrix (collagen), muscles, spider
silk, silkworm cocoons.
 Ex. keratin – makes up hair, nails, horns, and feathers.
Soluble proteins:
 Form antibodies, enzymes, some hormones.
 Help maintain cytoplasm structure in cells.
Protein Denaturation
Proteins are easily damaged(Denatured) due to their complex structure.
Weak forces holding the amino acid chains together can be disrupted by
Temperature & pH changes. 19
Effects of denaturation:
Loss of 3D structure, leading to loss of function.
Disrupts biochemical processes and can be life-threatening.
High fevers are dangerous as they can destroy proteins, leading to death.
The body maintains stable internal conditions to prevent protein damage.

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Protein Deficiency Diseases (Protein-Energy Malnutrition)
1. Marasmus
Caused by severe deficiency of both protein and overall energy.
Leads to extreme weight loss, muscle wasting, and weakness.
Treatment: Increase both protein and calorie intake.
2. Kwashiorkor
Caused by lack of protein despite reasonable energy intake.
Common when a child is weaned off mother’s milk and given a starchy, protein-
deficient diet.
Symptoms:
 Swollen belly due to fluid retention.
 Muscle wasting and growth failure.
Treatment: Introduce protein in limited amounts to prevent liver damage.
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Biuret Test for Proteins
The Biuret test is a simple chemical test used to detect the presence of proteins
in a solution.
Procedure
Add a small amount of Biuret reagent (a mixture of sodium hydroxide and
copper sulfate) to the test solution.
Observe the color change.
Results
Positive test (Proteins present): The solution turns purple (violet/lilac) due to the
presence of peptide bonds in proteins.
Negative test (No proteins): The solution remains blue.

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Which one of the following molecules is made up of amino acids? (EGSECE 2009)
A. Vitamins
B. Sucrose
C. Minerals
D. Proteins
Which one of the following alternatives contains only protein rich cereals?
(EGSECE 2016)
A. Red kidney peas, maize and white pea
B. White kidney peas, red kidney peas and chickpea
C. Barley, chickpea and groundnut
D. Wheat, red kidney peas and sesame

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Fats and Oils (Lipids)
Fats and oils are organic chemicals also known as lipids.
Are made of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
Have lower proportion of oxygen compared to carbohydrates.
They include cholesterol which are key public health concerns.
Lipid-rich foods:
Animal sources: Butter, beef fat, meat, oily fish, eggs.
Plant sources: Sesame oil, niger seed oil (nug), olive oil, groundnuts, coconuts.
Cooked foods in oil or fat are also high in lipids.
Lipids are insoluble in water, but dissolve in organic solvents.
This prevents them from interfering with cytoplasmic reactions, which occur in
water.
Fats (e.g., butter) are solid at room temperature (mostly in animals).
Oils (e.g., niger seed oil) are liquid at room temperature (mostly in plants). 25
Functions of Lipids in the Body:
Provide a rich supply of energy in the diet.
Most effective energy store, containing more energy per gram than
carbohydrates or proteins.
Some lipids function as hormones.
Essential in cell membranes.
Play a role in nerve function.
Fats and oils are made up of two types of organic chemicals: Fatty acids &
Glycerol
Glycerol is always the same in all lipids and has the chemical formula C₃H₈O₃.
All fatty acids have a long hydrocarbon chain – a backbone of carbon atoms
bonded with hydrogen atoms.
The nature of a lipid largely depends on which fatty acids are combined with
glycerol.
There are two main ways in which fatty acids vary: Length of the carbon chain &
Saturation 26
Length of the carbon chain differs between different fatty acids.
Saturation:
 Saturated fatty acids: each carbon atom is joined to the next by single covalent
bonds.
 Unsaturated fatty acids: the carbon chains have one or more double bonds
between carbon atoms.
 Unsaturated fatty acids are more commonly found in plant lipids.

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When one glycerol molecule combines with three fatty acids, a lipid is formed.
This process is a condensation reaction, meaning a molecule of water is
produced for each fatty acid that reacts with glycerol.
Therefore, forming one lipid molecule releases three water molecules.
Fatty foods are very high in energy.
If a person eats a fat-rich diet when food is already plentiful, it can result in
obesity.
Saturated fats are mainly found in animal products, such as: Meat & Dairy
produce
These fats are associated with problems in metabolism.
They seem to cause increased levels of cholesterol in the blood.
Cholesterol is a lipid made in the liver & carried around the body in the blood.

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Cholesterol is essential for:
 Making the cell membranes of body cells.
 Producing sex hormones.
 Producing hormones that help the body deal with stress.
Without cholesterol, the human body cannot survive.
However high levels of cholesterol in the blood increase the risk of: Heart disease
and Disease of blood vessels
Cholesterol can build up in the blood vessels, forming fatty deposits.
These deposits may block blood vessels completely, leading to serious health
conditions.

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Test for lipids
Lipids can be identified in food using two main tests:
1. Filter Paper Test (Grease Spot Test)
Lipids leave a permanent translucent mark on paper.
When a food sample containing lipids is pressed onto filter paper, the spot
remains greasy and translucent even after drying.
Limitation: This is a physical test, not based on a chemical reaction, so it is less
scientific.
2. Emulsion Test
A chemical test used to confirm the presence of lipids.
Lipids dissolve in ethanol but not in water.
When the ethanol-lipid solution is added to water, a white, cloudy emulsion
forms if lipids are present.
This test is more reliable and scientific than the filter paper test. 31
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Emulsion Test

Filter Paper Test

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Which of the following groups of food items is a good source of fats and
oils(EGSECE 2010)
A. Injera, rice, potato
B. Meat, cheese, chick peas
C. Carrot, Green vegetables, Fruits
D. Butter, Ground nut, coconut

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PART 3
Minerals
Vitamins

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Minerals
Minerals are essential nutrients your body needs, even though only in minute amounts.
They are not used for energy like carbohydrates, proteins, or fats, but they are vital for
keeping the body healthy.
A lack of minerals in your diet can lead to a range of unpleasant and serious health
conditions.
1. Calcium (Ca)
Calcium is needed in your diet to make your bones and teeth hard and strong.
Sources of calcium: milk and other dairy products such as ergoo and ayeeb.
Without enough calcium:
Children can develop rickets, a condition where bones remain soft and weak.
Their bones cannot support body weight, which causes the legs to bend or bow.
However, calcium alone is not enough to protect against rickets.
You also need vitamin D to help your body absorb and use calcium properly. 35
2. Iron (Fe)
Iron is vital for making hemoglobin, the red pigment in red blood cells that
carries oxygen around the body.
If your diet lacks iron you can suffer from anemia.
Your red blood cells may be fewer in number or contain less haemoglobin.
As a result, not enough oxygen reaches your body tissues.
This causes symptoms like:
 Pale appearance (due to fewer red blood cells),
 Tiredness and lethargy (due to lack of oxygen).
Sources of iron: Red meat, liver, red teff, and eggs.
Iron needs vary depending on your age and sex:
Growing children need enough iron for body development.
Girls and women who menstruate need more iron to replace blood lost during
their periods.
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3. Sodium (Na⁺ ions)
Sodium ions are found in many foods and are essential for survival.
They help:
Keep the nervous system working properly.
Maintain the chemical balance in your body cells.
Most people get sodium through salt added to food.
But too much salt can be harmful:
For about one-third of the population, a high-salt diet can lead to high blood
pressure (hypertension).
This puts extra strain on the heart and kidneys.
It also increases the risk of having a stroke.
In some countries, people consume too much salt without realizing it because:
Processed and ready-made foods contain large amounts of hidden salt.

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You can control your salt intake by:
Cooking your own food at home,
Reading food labels carefully when buying packaged items.
🔹 Important to remember: The natural salt in plant and animal tissues we eat
usually provides all the sodium our body needs, so we do not need to add extra
salt just for taste.

What causes goiter? (EGSECE 2009)

A. Excessive protein intake
B. Excessive salt intake
C. Vitamin deficiency
D. lodine deficiency

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Vitamins
Just like minerals, vitamins are essential nutrients needed in very small amounts.
Despite being required in tiny quantities, they play critical roles in maintaining your
health.
Vitamins are usually complex organic substances, and unlike many nutrients, they are
absorbed directly into your bloodstream from the gut.
If your body lacks a certain vitamin over a long period, it can lead to a deficiency
disease.
To stay healthy, it’s important to eat a variety of foods so you get all the different types
of vitamins your body needs.
1. Vitamin A (Retinol)
Needed to make the light-sensitive chemicals in the retina of your eye, which help you
see, especially in dim light.
Sources: Fish liver oils, butter, carrots.
Deficiency disease: Night blindness – difficulty or inability to see in low light conditions.
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2. Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
Needed for the reactions in cellular respiration, which release energy from food
in your cells.
Sources: Yeast extract, cereals.
Deficiency disease: Beri-beri – a condition where muscles waste away, leading to
paralysis, and in severe cases, death.
3. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
Essential for the formation of connective tissue, which holds your body
structures together.
Sources: Fruits (especially citrus fruits like lemons and oranges) & Green
vegetables.
Deficiency disease: Scurvy – causes bleeding gums, joint pain, and weakness.
 It was once common among sailors on long voyages.
 When people began to carry limes and lemons on ships, scurvy was eliminated
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4. Vitamin D (Calciferol)
Helps your body absorb and use calcium to build strong bones and teeth.
Sources: Fish liver oils, and produced in your skin when exposed to sunlight.
Deficiency disease: Rickets – a disease where bones become soft and deformed,
especially in children.
Even with enough calcium, without vitamin D, bones cannot form properly.

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Testing for Vitamin C - DCPIP Test (Dichlorophenolindophenol)
Vitamin C is a reducing agent.
It decolorizes blue DCPIP solution when present.
Positive Result:
The blue color fades or disappears when vitamin C is present.
The faster the color disappears, the higher the vitamin C content.

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What is the solution that no change in iodine solution, no change in biuret
reagent, no change in emulsion test and has faded blue colour in the
dichlorophenol indophenol? (EGSECE 2009)
A. Protein
B. Vitamin C
C. Starch
D. Fat
The blue color of dichlorophenol indophenol (DCPIP) reagent turned colorless
upon addition to unknown food sample. This confirms that the unknown food
sample is (EGSECE 2010)
A. Protein
B. Starch
C. Fat
D. Vitamin C 45
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PART 4
The Role of Water
Nutrition

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The Role of Water
Water is another vital part of a balanced diet.
While the human body can survive without food for several days or even weeks
in some cases a total lack of water can lead to death in just 2 to 4 days, especially
in hot environments
Your body is made up of about 60–70% water, depending on your age, physical
activity, and how much water you've recently consumed.
This high water content shows how crucial water is for your body to function
properly.
Functions of Water in the Body:
Water acts as a vital solvent.
 All the chemical reactions inside your body take place in water-based solutions.

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Water helps transport many substances around the body, including:
nutrients, hormones, waste products like urea
 These are all carried in solution in the blood, which is mostly water.
Water helps your body lose excess heat through sweating, which cools you
down as it evaporates from your skin.
Water helps in removing waste materials:
 Urine contains waste dissolved in water,
 Sweat also contains waste and helps cool your body.
Water is a reactant in many essential biochemical reactions, especially
hydrolysis, where large food molecules are broken down by adding water.
Water maintains the balance of fluid concentrations inside and around your
cells.
 If there isn’t enough water in body fluids, cells lose water by osmosis,
 This disrupts their function and can lead to death.
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Fiber in the Diet
Fiber—also called roughage—is another important part of a healthy diet.
Interestingly, fiber cannot be digested or absorbed by the human gut.
Yet it still plays a very important role in keeping your digestive system healthy.
Functions of Fiber:
Fiber adds bulk to your food, giving your intestinal muscles something to push
against. This helps move food along your gut.
Fiber absorbs lots of water, which helps keep the gut contents soft and easy to
move.
Without enough fiber, the movement of the gut muscles (peristalsis) becomes
sluggish, and food moves more slowly.
This can lead to constipation, where it becomes difficult to pass stools.

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Why is a balanced diet important?
Nutrition is the process of obtaining food to carry out life processes.
In plants, nutrition involves making their own food through photosynthesis.
In animals, including humans, nutrition means eating other organisms to get food.
However, it’s not enough just to eat. What truly matters is eating the right balance
of nutrients to stay healthy.
A balanced diet includes all the major food groups in the right proportions:
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids (fats and oils)
Minerals
Vitamins
Water 50
These nutrients are needed to
Provide energy
Support growth and development
Keep cells, tissues, and organs healthy
When your body doesn’t get enough or gets too much of certain nutrients, it
leads to malnutrition.
Types of Malnutrition:
Undernutrition: Not enough food or nutrients.
Overnutrition: Too much food, especially high in fats and sugars.
Malnutrition affects millions of people around the world, and its effects vary
depending on what’s lacking or in excess.
One of the most important parts of a balanced diet is getting the right amount
of energy (calories).
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Your energy needs depend on several factors:
Sex:
Males generally need more energy than females of the same age.
Pregnant women need more energy to support the growing baby.
Age:
Teenagers need more energy than elderly people.
Activity level:
People who exercise more or have active lifestyles need more energy.
Those who are less active require less food.
Regular physical activity helps maintain a healthy weight.
Exercise builds muscle—and muscle burns more energy than fat.
Everyday activities like walking, playing, cooking, or working physically also
count as exercise.
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Overeating and Obesity
When people eat more food than they use, the extra is stored as fat.
Too much fat storage leads to obesity, especially when the diet is high in fats and
sugars.
In developed countries like the USA, up to one-third of the population is obese.
Obesity increases the risk of many health problems like: heart disease, Diabetes
& High blood pressure
A BMI (Body Mass Index) of over 30 is considered obese.

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The Ethiopian diet includes a variety of foods that can provide a balanced diet
when combined properly.
For example:
Breakfast: Bread and groundnuts or chickpeas, with tea or milk
Lunch: Kei wot with injera and a fruit (like orange or banana)
Dinner: Shiro wot with injera and fresh green pepper
This kind of meal plan includes a mix of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins,
and minerals, which keeps the diet balanced.
However, during times of drought or food shortage, people may lack enough
food and nutrients.
In contrast, eating too much processed or fried food can lead to obesity and
health problems.

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What is nutrition? It is (EGSECE 2008)
A. Getting food simply to prevent from hunger
B. Getting food only from macronutrients
C. Obtaining food only from micronutrients
D. Obtaining food to carry out life processes
What is balanced diet? It is a diet which contains enough of (EGSECE 2008)
A. Proteins and carbohydrates
B. Amino acids and vitamins
C. Vitamin and minerals
D. All major food groups

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Why do we need a balanced diet? To (EGSECE 2009)
A. Support healthy growth
B. Prevent infection by HIV
C. Become very tall
D. Gain excessive weight
A balanced diet is composed of(EGSECE 2010)
A. More fat, protein, a small carbohydrates and minerals
B. Enough quantity of all of the major types of food items
C. More protein, carbohydrate, small fats and vitamins
D. More carbohydrate and fats and small protein and mineral

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PART 5
3.2 The digestive system
The working of the gut
Moving the food on

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3.2 The digestive system
The food we eat contains large, insoluble molecules such as starch, proteins, and
fats.
The body cannot absorb these large molecules directly into the bloodstream.
The digestive system breaks down food into small, soluble molecules that cells
can use for energy, growth, and repair.
Without digestion, food molecules would be useless to the body.
Digestion ensures that nutrients enter the bloodstream and can be transported
to cells.
These nutrients provide energy, repair tissues, and support overall health.
Digestion happens in two main ways: Physical (Mechanical) Breakdown &
Chemical Breakdown

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Physical (Mechanical) Breakdown
Food is broken into smaller pieces to increase surface area for enzyme action.
This is done by teeth and churning action of the gut
Teeth chew and grind food in the mouth.
The gut muscles squeeze and mix food, breaking it up further.
Chemical Breakdown
Large molecules are broken down into small, soluble molecules.
This process is called hydrolysis (splitting with water).
Special proteins called enzymes speed up the breakdown without being used up.

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More about enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts that control and speed up chemical reactions in
the body.
They are made of proteins and are not altered by the reactions they catalyze,
allowing them to be reused multiple times
Each enzyme works on a specific type of food molecule:
Amylase: Starch → Maltose
Protease: Proteins → Amino acids
Lipase: Fats → Fatty acids + Glycerol
Enzymes are sensitive to temperature and pH—extreme PH & temperature
changes can stop them from working.
Enzymes are very specific, each one controlling a particular reaction in the body.

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Types of Enzymes:
Intracellular Enzymes: Work inside cells to control cellular processes.
Extracellular Enzymes: Secreted outside cells, particularly in the digestive
system, where they help break down food.
Digestive enzymes are extracellular and function in the lumen (the inside space)
of the gut.
Enzyme names often (but not always) end in "-ase."
Examples:
 Amylase: Breaks down starch.
 Lipase: Breaks down fats
 Catalase: Breaks down hydrogen peroxide.
 Pepsin: Breaks down proteins.

62
Which of the following statements is true about enzymes? They are (EGSECE 2008)
A. Found only in the small intestine.
B. Important to absorb digested food.
C. Free from the effect of different pH levels
D. Proteins that speed up specific reaction.

63
The working of the gut
The process of digestion involves taking in food, breaking it down, using
nutrients, and removing indigestible material.
Ingestion is the first stage of digestion, where food enters the body through the
mouth.
Mastication (Chewing): Food is physically broken down using teeth, increasing
the surface area for digestive enzymes.
This helps enzymes work more efficiently in breaking down food.
Enamel that covers teeth is the strongest substance made by the human body
Humans, being omnivores, have different types of teeth suited for both plant
and animal-based diets.
They are designed for different functions:
 Incisors & Canines: Used for biting and tearing food.
 Premolars & Molars: Used for chewing and crushing food. 64
.

65
Structure of Teeth
Enamel:
The outermost, non-living layer.
Hardest substance in the human body, providing protection.
Dentine:
Located beneath the enamel.
Hard, bone-like but not as tough as enamel.
Contains fine channels filled with cytoplasm.
Pulp Cavity:
The central part of the tooth.
Contains nerves and blood vessels.
Supplies oxygen and nutrients to the dentine.
Cement:
A fibrous layer that holds the tooth in the jawbone.
Provides stability while allowing slight flexibility during chewing.
66
Tooth Decay and Gum Disease
Causes of Tooth Decay (Dental Caries):
Bacteria in the mouth form plaque, a thin film of bacteria, food, and saliva.
If fed with sugary foods, bacteria produce acid waste that dissolves the enamel.
Once the dentine is exposed, bacteria penetrate deeper into the pulp cavity,
causing toothache.
If untreated, bacteria continue to damage the tooth, leading to complete tooth
loss.
Gum Disease (Periodontal Disease):
The same bacteria that cause tooth decay can also infect the gums.
Symptoms include tender gums, bleeding while brushing, and potential tooth
loss due to gum damage.
Acidic foods (e.g., fruits, cola) weaken enamel, making teeth more vulnerable.
Brushing immediately after consuming acidic drinks can worsen enamel erosion.
67
Prevention of Tooth Decay and Gum Disease:
Regular brushing twice a day removes plaque.
Limiting sugar intake deprives bacteria of food, reducing acid production.
Dental check-ups (if available) help detect and treat early decay.
Fillings can replace decayed parts, preventing further damage.

68
Moving the food on
Food is first broken into smaller pieces by chewing (mastication).
Saliva from salivary glands coats the food
Saliva contains amylase, an enzyme that begins digesting starch in foods like bread
and potatoes into simpler sugars.
This saliva-coated food forms a soft mass called a bolus which is ready to be
swallowed.
Swallowing is a reflex action triggered when the bolus reaches the back of the
throat.
During swallowing, the epiglottis closes over the trachea to prevent food from
entering the lungs, ensuring that breathing and swallowing do not occur
simultaneously.
If food enters the trachea, the body responds with coughing and heaving to expel it.
Once swallowed, the bolus travels down the esophagus (gullet).
69
Peristalsis is a series of muscular contractions that squeezes and pushes the food
toward the stomach.
This process is independent of gravity, allowing food to move even if you are
upside down.
Peristalsis is not limited to the esophagus; it continues throughout the digestive
tract.
It helps mix food with digestive enzymes and further breaks down food
mechanically.
The gut walls have two layers of muscles: Circular muscles form rings around the
gut & Longitudinal muscles run along its length.
These layers contract and relax alternately (in waves) to move food from one end
of the gut to the other.

70
.

71
Which of the following enzymes digests starch in the mouth? (EGSECE 2010)
A. Maltase
B. Lactase
C. Amylase
D. Sucrase

72
.

PART 6
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
 Issues of digestive health

73
Stomach churning activity
At the lower end of the esophagus, food passes through a ring of muscle
(sphincter) into the stomach.
This sphincter remains closed except when swallowing or vomiting.
The stomach is a muscular bag that produces:
Protease enzymes (mainly pepsin) to digest proteins.
Hydrochloric acid to kill bacteria present in food & create acidic conditions for
pepsin to work efficiently.
Thick mucus to protect the stomach lining from acid and enzymes.
The stomach muscles churn food into a thick creamy paste containing partly
digested proteins and other food components.
After 1 to 4 hours, this paste is pushed through another sphincter into the
duodenum (the first part of the small intestine).
In the duodenum, the food mixes with:
Bile, which helps break down fats.
Enzymes, which continue digestion. 74
Bile and Its Function
Bile is a greenish-yellow alkaline liquid produced by the liver.
It is stored in the gallbladder and released into the duodenum when needed.
Functions of Bile:
It neutralizes stomach acid to create an alkaline environment, allowing intestinal
enzymes to function effectively.
Emulsifies Fats: Breaks large fat droplets into smaller ones, increasing the surface
area for lipase enzymes to digest fats into fatty acids and glycerol.

75
Enzymes and Digestion in the Small Intestine
The duodenum (the 1st part of small intestine) doesn’t produce its own enzymes;
they are supplied by the pancreas.
The pancreas also produces insulin for blood sugar regulation.
It releases enzymes that digest carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into simpler
molecules.
The rest of the small intestine (a 6–8 m coiled tube) produces its own
carbohydrases, proteases, and lipases.
Peristalsis moves the food along the intestine and mixes it thoroughly with both
bile and enzymes, speeding up the breakdown of large food molecules.

76
Absorption of Digested Food
Digestion yields glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycerol which are
absorbed from small intestine to blood stream.
The small intestine has special adaptations for efficient absorption:
Villi and Microvilli: Finger-like projections (villi) and even smaller microvilli
increase the surface area for rapid diffusion.
Rich Blood Supply: Villi are well supplied with blood to maintain a steep diffusion
gradient, facilitating quick absorption.
Thin walls ensure short diffusion distances.

77
Transport of Nutrients
Glucose and Amino Acids: Absorbed directly into the bloodstream.
Fatty Acids and Glycerol: Initially absorbed into lacteals (lymphatic vessels), then
eventually drain into the blood.
Once the digested food molecules have all been taken into the blood they are
taken in the hepatic portal vein to the liver, which processes some of the food
Remaining nutrients are delivered to body cells where they are used to build
essential molecules (assimilation)
Assimilation is taking in and use of digested food by the body
After absorption, a watery mixture remains that includes enzymes, undigested
food (mainly cellulose), bile pigments, dead cells, and mucus.
This mixture is propelled by muscle contractions into the large intestine.

78
Large Intestine
The large intestine is a wide, thin-walled tube where water is absorbed back into the
bloodstream by diffusion.
As water is reabsorbed, the remaining material thickens into a paste known as faeces.
Faeces leave the body through the rectum and the anus as a result of a final set of
muscle contractions.
This removal of the faeces from your body is called egestion
Egestion vs. Excretion
Egestion: The process of expelling faeces from the body through the rectum and anus
via muscle contractions.
Excretion: the removal of the waste products from the cells
The frequency of passing faeces varies among individuals and depends on diet.
Some people may have multiple bowel movements a day, while others only once or
twice a week.
The complete digestive process—from ingestion, through physical and chemical
digestion, absorption, assimilation, to egestion—typically takes several hours.
The overall digestion time depends on the meal’s size and composition.
79
.

80
In human digestive system, where does absorption of food take place? in the (EGSECE 2008)
A. Stomach
B. Small intestine
C. Mouth
D. Large intestine
Which one of the following structure produces hydrochloric acid that kills most of the bacteria taken
with food? (EGSECE 2009)
A. Gall bladder
B. Small intestine
C. Stomach
D. Liver
What makes the lining of the small intestine adapted to rapid absorption of digested
foods? (EGSECE 2009)
A. Bladder
B. Pancreas
C. Villi
D. Sphincter 81
Which of the following is part of the digestive system? (EGSECE 2010)
A. Duodenum
B. Bladder
C. Scrotum
D. Lung
Which of the following is the correct order of food substance, enzyme, and
breakdown product of the digestive process in the stomach respectively? (EUEE
2014)
A. Starch, lipase, glucose
B. Fat, trypsin, glycerol
C. Protein, pepsin, amino acid
D. Lipid, amylase, fatty acid

82
Which one of the following is correct about human food digestion? (EUEE 2015)
A. Large intestine is the site of lipid hydrolysis.
B. The small intestine is the site of absorption of digested molecules.
C. The stomach physically breaks down the ingested food.
D. Mouth use protease enzyme to breakdown proteins.
Which of the following enzymes is correctly matched to the food stuff it acts on? (EUEE
2015)
A. Amylase-fats
B. Trypsin - starch
C. Pepsin - protein
D. Maltase – lipids
Which one of the following descriptions about absorption of nutrients in the digestive
system is correct? (EUEE 2016)
A. Glycerol molecules are first absorbed into the hepatic portal vein and then to lacteal.
B. Amino acid molecules are directly absorbed from small intestine into the blood.
C. Glucose molecules are first absorbed into the lacteal and then enter into the blood.
D. Fatty acids molecules are absorbed from small intestine directly into the blood. 83
Which one of the following statements is correct about the process of digestion
in the stomach? (EUEE 2016)
A. Pepsin hydrolyzes protein molecules into amino acids.
B. Lipase hydrolyzes fat molecules into fatty acids and glycerol.
C. Amylase hydrolyzes starch molecules into maltose.
D. Bile hydrolyzes bigger fat molecules into smaller droplets
Which one of the following statements is correct about the role of trypsin in
digestion? It acts on(EUEE 2016)
A. Lipids in the small intestine.
B. Maltose in the mouth.
C. Starch in the stomach.
D. Protein in the small intestine.

84
Issues of digestive health
Constipation
Occurs when faeces remain too long in the large intestine, leading to excessive
water reabsorption.
Results in compacted, hard faeces that are difficult to evacuate.
Common causes include: low fiber intake & insufficient water consumption.
Straining during evacuation can lead to complications such as haemorrhoids
(piles) or an anal tear.
Treatment strategies:
Increase dietary fiber to add bulk to the stool.
Drink plenty of fluids to keep faeces soft.
Use laxatives if necessary to stimulate gut contractions.
In rare, severe cases where faeces block the gut, surgery may be required.
85
Diarrhea
Occurs when the gut contracts too strongly or rapidly, producing loose, watery
faeces.
Often a result of infections that speed up the digestive process.
Can lead to dehydration, which is particularly dangerous for:
Infants.
Elderly individuals.
Anyone if the condition persists.
Treatment typically involves: frequent intake of water with rehydration salts
(combining salt and sugar) to replace lost fluids.
Diarrhea can be fatal if dehydration is not corrected, and it remains a major
cause of mortality worldwide, especially among children and the elderly.

86
Food Hygiene
Food can be contaminated by bacteria, which may cause illnesses or even be fatal.
Examples: Raw meat and raw eggs can harbor bacteria like Salmonella, leading to
diarrhea and vomiting.
Vulnerable groups (young children, the elderly, and those with existing health issues)
are at higher risk of serious illness.
Essential Food Hygiene Practices:
Keep raw meat and eggs away from salad vegetables and fruits to prevent cross-
contamination.
Wash knives used for cutting meat and disinfect work surfaces before preparing other
foods like salads or cheese.
Frequently disinfect work surfaces to minimize bacterial growth.
Wash hands thoroughly between handling different types of food and after using the
toilet to prevent transferring gut bacteria to food.
Proper food hygiene minimizes the risk of food-borne diseases, ensuring a healthier
environment for individuals, families, and communities.
Some of the food we eat is preserved so that it will last longer 87
Methods of Preserving Food
Canning: Food is heated to high temperatures to kill bacteria.
Sealed in containers to prevent oxygen from entering, which further stops
bacterial growth.
Bottling: Similar to canning but uses glass bottles.
Often involves a sugar syrup or brine that kills bacteria through heat, deprives
them of oxygen, and causes osmotic damage.
Vacuum Packing: Air is removed from the packaging, eliminating oxygen and
inhibiting bacterial growth.
Drying: Removing water from food prevents bacteria from growing, keeping the
food safe.

88
Precautions for Using Preserved Foods
Check 'Best Before' Dates: Ensure the date is valid; while a past date might only
affect taste, it's best to avoid potential risks.
Inspect Packaging: Avoid using cans, bottles, or packets that are damaged, as air
exposure can introduce bacteria.
Storage After Opening: Consume the food quickly after opening.
If leftovers remain, store them in the refrigerator or keep them cool and covered
to prevent contamination.
Watch for Signs of Contamination: Look for any bulging in cans, which may
indicate bacterial growth producing gas and potential toxins

89
.

PART 7
3.3 The respiratory system
How Is Air Brought Into Your Lungs?
Gaseous Exchange in the Lungs
Factors Ensuring Efficient Gas Exchange:

90
.

91
3.3 The respiratory system
Primary function of the respiratory system is supplying the body with oxygen and
removing carbon dioxide from the blood.
Air enters through the nose, travels via the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and bronchioles, and finally reaches the alveoli.
Nose → Nasal passages → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchi → Bronchioles →
Alveoli
Nasal passages have a large surface area, abundant blood supply, and are lined with
mucus and hairs.
These features filter out dust, bacteria, and pollen, while moist and warm surfaces
ensure that the air is clean, warm, and humid before reaching the lungs.
The larynx (voice box) at the top of the trachea directs air over the vocal cords,
enabling speech
The trachea is supported by incomplete C-shaped cartilage rings, allowing the
esophagus to press against it comfortably during swallowing.
Its lining secretes mucus and is covered with cilia that beat to move mucus (with
trapped particles) upward, either to be swallowed or coughed out 92
.

93
Air moves from the nose down the trachea, passing by the esophagus.
The epiglottis closes off the trachea during swallowing, preventing food from
entering the lungs and causing blockages or infections.
The trachea splits into the left and right bronchi, each leading to a lung.
Inside the lungs, bronchi divide into smaller bronchioles.
Bronchioles terminate in millions of tiny air sacs called alveoli, which provide a
massive surface area for the efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The lungs are located in the thorax (upper body cavity), separated from the
abdomen by the diaphragm, which aids in breathing movements.

94
How Is Air Brought Into Your Lungs?
For your respiratory system to function, air must be moved in and out of the lungs, a
process known as ventilation.
This is achieved through movements of the ribcage and diaphragm, which change the
pressure inside the chest cavity.
Inhalation: The process of drawing air into the lungs.
Exhalation: The process of expelling air from the lungs.
Pressure differences between the atmosphere and the chest (or thoracic cavity)
determine the movement of air into and out of the lungs.
Atmospheric pressure remains relatively constant, but the pressure in the chest cavity
may vary
Gases move from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure:
Inspiration (Inhalation) occurs when the pressure inside the lungs is less than
atmospheric pressure, drawing air in.
Expiration (Exhalation) occurs when the pressure inside the lungs is greater than
atmospheric pressure, pushing air out.
95
Inhalation (Breathing In):
The external intercostal muscles contract, lifting the ribs up and out.
The diaphragm contracts and flattens from its usual domed shape.
These movements increase the volume of the chest cavity.
As a result, the pressure inside the lungs becomes lower than atmospheric
pressure, causing air to move into the lungs.
Exhalation (Breathing Out):
The external intercostal and diaphragm muscles relax
The ribs drop back down, and the diaphragm returns to its domed shape.
This reduces the volume of the chest cavity.
Consequently, the pressure inside the lungs becomes higher than atmospheric
pressure, forcing air out of the lungs.
Forced exhalation, such as during exercise or singing, engages the internal
intercostal and abdominal muscles to push out more air. 96
 Table: Actions During Inhalation and Exhalation

External Intercostal Internal Intercostal

Process Diaphragm
Muscles Muscles

Contracts and flattens, Contract, pulling ribs up

Inhalation (Breathing In) Relax (not used)
increasing chest volume and out

Contract during forced

Relaxes and returns to Relax, allowing ribs to move
Exhalation (Breathing Out) exhalation, pulling ribs
dome shape down and in
down and in

97
.

98
Gaseous Exchange in the Lungs
Gaseous Exchange is the process by which oxygen enters the blood and carbon
dioxide is removed through diffusion in the alveoli.
Oxygen-rich air enters alveoli during inhalation.
Oxygen diffuses from alveoli → blood (capillaries) due to the concentration
gradient.
Oxygen binds to hemoglobin and is transported to tissues.
Blood returning from tissues has high CO₂ concentration.
CO₂ diffuses from blood → alveoli, following the concentration gradient.
CO₂ is expelled during exhalation.

99
.

100
A biology student did an observation using a microscope and a piece of specimen from the
structure of human breathing system. He puts the specimen on the microscope stage and
looked at the cilia on the epithelium tissue and the cartilage rings on the specimen. Therefore,
the specimen he observed was (EGSECE 2008)
A. Esophagus
B. Diaphragm
C. Trachea
D. Larynx
Part of the respiratory system where gaseous exchange takes place is (EGSECE 2010)
A. Alveolus
B. Trachea
C. Bronchiole
D. Bronchus

101
Which of the following occurs during inhalation of air? (EGSECE 2010)
A. Movement of the ribs up and out
B. The diaphragm becomes dome shaped
C. Relaxation of the diaphragm
D. Relaxation of the external inter coastal muscles.
During gas exchange between the alveoli and blood capillaries, oxygen is
absorbed by the blood while carbon dioxide is removed. This opposite direction
of gas exchange occurs due to (EUEE 2014)
A. difference in the concentration gradient of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
B. difference in the molecular size of oxygen and carbon dioxide.
C. thicker layer of the capillaries.
D. the small surface area of the alveoli.

102
Assume you are trying to demonstrate breathing movements using artificial lung
and you pulled down the rubber sheet. This action of pulling represents which
step of the actual breathing process? (EUEE 2014)
A. Exhalation and contraction of the diaphragm
B. Inhalation and relaxation of the diaphragm
C. Inhalation and contraction of the diaphragm
D. Exhalation and relaxation of the diaphragm
According to biological scenario, structure is related to function, which one of the
following is correctly described? (EUEE 2016)
A. Trachea - millions of air sacs for diffusion of O2 and CO2
B. Alveoli - supported by cartilage for swallowing food
C. Nasal passage - large surface area with hairs for filtration of air
D. Larynx - hair like structures for mucus production
103
Factors Ensuring Efficient Gas Exchange:
Large surface area: The presence of millions of alveoli maximizes the surface
available for gas exchange, increasing diffusion efficiency.
Moist surfaces: The alveoli are lined with a thin layer of moisture, allowing gases
to dissolve and diffuse more easily.
Thin walls: Both alveoli and capillary walls are only one cell thick (~0.001 mm),
minimizing the diffusion distance for gases.
Rich blood supply: A dense network of capillaries surrounds the alveoli, ensuring
a continuous flow of blood to maintain steep concentration gradients for oxygen
and carbon dioxide.
Continuous ventilation: Regular breathing replenishes oxygen levels in the
alveoli and removes carbon dioxide, sustaining the concentration gradient for
efficient gas exchange.
Gas Composition in Inhaled vs. Exhaled Air:
Inhaled air: ~21% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide
Exhaled air: ~16% oxygen, ~4% carbon dioxide 104
As compared to the exhaled air, the inhaled air contains (EUEE 2016)
A. 70% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide and 30% nitrogen.
B. 16% oxygen, 4% carbon dioxide and 80% nitrogen.
C. 80% oxygen, 20% carbon dioxide and 0.04% nitrogen.
D. 21% oxygen, 0.04% carbon dioxide and 80% nitrogen.
How does oxygen is transported in the human body? It is transported (EUEE
2016)
A. By simple diffusion along concentration gradient from the lungs to the heart.
B. From the red blood cells to actively respiring tissues by facilitated diffusion.
C. From the lungs to actively respiring tissue by hemoglobin of RBC.
D. By the blood plasma from lower concentration to higher concentration.

105
.

PART 8
Factors Affecting Breathing Rate
The effect of smoking on the lungs and the rest of
the body
Breathing Hygiene
When Breathing Fails

106
Factors Affecting Breathing Rate
The breathing rate is influenced by various factors that increase the body's
oxygen requirements. The main factors include:
Exercise
Anxiety
Drugs
Environmental factors
Altitude
Weight
Smoking

107
Effect of Exercise on Breathing Rate
The average resting breathing rate for an adult is 12–14 breaths per minute.
At rest, the volume of air inhaled and exhaled per breath (tidal volume) is about 500
cm³, which is 15% of lung capacity.
Vital capacity refers to the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled.
When oxygen demand increases, breathing rate can rise in two ways:
 Faster breathing (increased frequency)
 Deeper breathing (increased tidal volume)
 Usually, a combination of both occurs.
Muscles require more oxygen and glucose during exercise for increased energy
production.
Increased muscle activity produces more carbon dioxide, which must be removed
efficiently.
As a result:
 Breathing rate increases to take in more oxygen.
 Depth of breathing increases, allowing more air exchange per breath.
 More oxygen is transported to muscles, and excess carbon dioxide is expelled. 108
Regular exercise:
Enlarges the lungs, improving their efficiency.
Strengthens muscles, including respiratory muscles, improving breathing
efficiency.
Enhances blood circulation, ensuring efficient oxygen and carbon dioxide
transport.
Supports heart and lung function, making the respiratory system more effective.
Reduces post-exercise stiffness and increases reaction time
Fit individuals:
 Have a lower resting breathing rate due to increased lung capacity.
 Take in more air per breath, reducing the need for frequent breaths.
 Experience less oxygen debt during strenuous activities.

109
Anxiety
Triggers a "fight or flight" response, increasing breathing rate.
Prepares the body for extra oxygen intake and rapid response.
Drugs
Stimulants (e.g., khat, amphetamines, cocaine) increase breathing rate.
Depressants (e.g., sedatives) decrease breathing rate, sometimes dangerously.
Some drugs can interfere with oxygen transport, leading to severe effects.
Environmental Factors
Higher temperatures increase breathing rate as the body works to cool down.
Elevated CO₂ in the air triggers faster breathing.
Altitude
Higher altitudes have lower oxygen levels, increasing breathing rate.
Over time, the body adapts by producing more red blood cells and increasing
lung capacity.
People living at high altitudes naturally have larger lungs and more alveoli.
110
Weight
Excess weight makes deep breathing harder due to fat pressing on the
diaphragm.
Overweight individuals often have higher breathing rates due to oxygen demand.
Exercise improves breathing efficiency, helping reduce weight-related issues.
Smoking
Tobacco smoke contains nicotine, carbon monoxide, and thousands of chemicals.
Carbon monoxide reduces oxygen transport in the blood, leading to oxygen
deprivation.
Pregnant smokers risk premature births, low birth weight, and stillbirths.
Long-term smoking leads to lung damage, reduced lung capacity, and increased
breathing effort.

111
The effect of smoking on the lungs and the rest of the body
Smoking has severe effects on the respiratory system, primarily due to the harmful
chemicals present in tobacco smoke(Tar & carbon monoxide)
The main damaging component is tar, a sticky black substance that accumulates in the
lungs, leading to various diseases and long-term health complications.
Smoking-Related Diseases
a) Bronchitis
Tar accumulation leads to the anaesthetization of cilia, preventing them from removing
dirt and bacteria.
This increases the risk of bronchitis, an infection causing inflammation of the bronchi.
b) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Tar buildup damages the delicate alveolar structures.
Larger air spaces form in the lungs, reducing the surface area for gas exchange.
COPD leads to chronic breathlessness and significantly impacts life expectancy. 112
c) Lung Cancer
Up to 90% of lung cancers are directly linked to smoking.
Tar contains carcinogens, increasing the likelihood of mutations that cause
cancer.
Smoking also increases the risk of throat, mouth, and larynx cancers.
d) Cardiovascular Diseases
Chemicals in tobacco smoke damage blood vessels.
This increases the risk of heart attacks, strokes, and thrombosis due to blocked
arteries.

113
How does body exercise affect the breathing rate? When the body (EGSECE 2008)
A. gets rest, breathing rate increases
B. begins exercise, the breathing rate increases.
C. gets rest, breathing is totally lost.
D. begins exercise, the breathing rate decreases.
Identify the correct statement about the effect of exercise on breathing rate.
(EUEE 2014)
A. The vital capacity of the lungs decrease during heavy exercise.
B. The tidal volume of air at rest is greater than the tidal volume of air during
exercise.
C. Fast and deep breathing are the result of demanding less oxygen.
D. Exercise and getting fit makes the lungs efficient.

114
What is the scientific reason behind the preference of high altitude areas for
training by the Ethiopian Athletes? Because(EUEE 2016)
A. The RBCs produced are more efficient than those at low altitude.
B. It helps them to adapt to the high atmospheric pressure of mountains.
C. The oxygen density is higher than the low altitude.
D. It helps them to increase their lung capacities.

115
The Impact of Smoking on Families and Society
Money spent on tobacco reduces resources for essential needs like food,
education, and healthcare.
Families suffer financially if a smoker becomes too ill to work.
Smoking-related diseases cause pain and suffering for families.
Loss of a parent due to smoking has severe emotional and economic impacts.
Increased burden on national healthcare systems due to smoking-related
illnesses.

Smoking rates in Ethiopia remain relatively low compared to other countries.

A 2007 study in Addis Ababa showed that only 4.5% of teenage boys and 1% of
teenage girls were smokers.
The majority of Ethiopian youth recognize the dangers of smoking.
Continued efforts are needed to maintain awareness and prevent an increase in
smoking rates.
116
Breathing Hygiene
The respiratory system is a major entry point for microbes that cause diseases.
Practicing good breathing hygiene helps reduce the risk of infection and prevents
the spread of diseases.
Bad breath is often caused by poor oral hygiene, such as food trapped in the
teeth or tongue.
To prevent bad breath:
Brush your teeth and clean your tongue (especially the back) regularly.
If bad breath persists, consult a doctor, as it may indicate gut or kidney problems.
Respiratory infections like colds and tuberculosis spread through droplets
released when speaking, laughing, coughing, or sneezing.
To minimize the spread of germs:
Cough or sneeze into your hand or the crook of your elbow, then wash it
immediately.
Medical professionals may wear masks to prevent transmission of infections. 117
When Breathing Fails
Breathing failure can result from accidents, drowning, or heart attacks.
When breathing stops, death can occur within minutes due to oxygen deprivation.
Mouth-to-mouth resuscitation (expired air resuscitation) can be a lifesaving procedure
in such cases.
Steps for Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation
1. Call for Help - Loudly ask for assistance or use a phone to call emergency services.
2. Check for Consciousness
Speak to the casualty, use their name if known, and ask if they can hear you.
Do not perform artificial respiration on a conscious patient.
3. Open the Airway
Remove any obstacles from the mouth (e.g., vomit, water weed).
Tilt the head back and lift the chin to open the airway. This may restart breathing.
Call for help again if necessary.
118
4. Check for Breathing
Put your head near the casualty’s nose and mouth.
Look for chest movements, listen for breathing sounds, and feel for breath on
your cheek.
Observe for at least 5 seconds before deciding the person is not breathing.
5. Ensure an Open Airway
Keep the head tilted back and pinch the nostrils closed.
Use a clean cloth over the mouth to prevent infection transmission.
6. Begin Mouth-to-Mouth Resuscitation
Take a deep breath and seal your mouth around the casualty’s mouth.
Breathe out firmly until the chest rises, indicating air has entered the lungs.
7. Allow the Chest to Fall - Remove your lips and let the chest fall naturally.
8. Continue Resuscitation
Repeat at a steady rate of about 12 breaths per minute.
Look for signs of color returning and spontaneous breathing.
Continue until medical help arrives. 119
.

120
Suppose your friend falls suddenly due to heart attack while he is playing
football. The victim needs artificial breathing to keep him alive until medical
support arrives. Which activity is strictly prohibited in this situation? (EUEE 2015)
A. Make sure the airway is open and the head is tilted back
B. Give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation if he is conscious
C. Remove any obstacles from the mouth that might block the airway
D. Open the airway by removing any obstacles from the mouth

121
.

PART 9
3.4 Cellular Respiration
Aerobic Respiration
Anaerobic Respiration

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3.4 Cellular Respiration
Respiration is the biochemical process in which energy is released from glucose
or other organic molecules within cells.
It provides energy necessary for cellular activities.
There are two types of respiration: aerobic respiration and anaerobic
respiration.
Role of Body Systems in Respiration
The digestive system breaks down food into glucose.
The breathing system provides oxygen for respiration and removes carbon
dioxide.
The circulatory system transports oxygen and glucose to cells and carries away
waste products

123
Aerobic Respiration
Takes place in the mitochondria of cells.
Uses oxygen to break down glucose and release energy.
The general equation for aerobic respiration:
Glucose + Oxygen ➞ Carbon dioxide + Water + Energy (ATP)
Mitochondria and Respiration
 Mitochondria are rod-shaped organelles found in most cells.
 They have a folded inner membrane that provides a large surface area for
respiration enzymes.
 Cells that require more energy (e.g., muscle cells, liver cells, and retinal cells)
contain many mitochondria.
Energy released during respiration is stored in ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
molecules.
ATP consists of an adenosine molecule and three phosphate groups. 124
When cells need energy, ATP is broken down into ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate)
and an inorganic phosphate, releasing energy.
The reaction is reversible, allowing ATP to be regenerated.

125
Importance of ATP in the Body
Metabolism: ATP provides energy for metabolic processes.
 Metabolism consists of anabolism (building large molecules) and catabolism
(breaking down molecules).
Muscle Contraction: ATP is essential for muscle movement (e.g., heartbeats,
breathing, digestion, and voluntary movements).
Regulating Body Temperature: ATP helps maintain a constant body temperature
by generating heat in cold conditions and powering sweat glands in hot
conditions.
Active Transport: ATP is required to transport substances against a
concentration gradient across cell membranes

126
Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic respiration is a type of respiration that occurs in muscle cells when
oxygen supply is insufficient, typically during vigorous exercise.
Glucose is still used for energy production, but without oxygen, leading to much
less energy (ATP) being produced compared to aerobic respiration.
Lactic acid is produced as a byproduct of anaerobic respiration, which is different
from the carbon dioxide produced in aerobic respiration.
After exercise, lactic acid needs to be broken down, which requires extra oxygen.
This excess oxygen is referred to as the oxygen debt.
Even after muscle activity has ceased, the heart rate and breathing rate remain
high to supply extra oxygen to "pay off" this debt.
Reaction for Anaerobic Respiration: Glucose ➡ Lactic Acid + Energy (ATP)
Oxygen Debt Repayment: Lactic Acid + Oxygen ➡ Carbon Dioxide + Glucose + Water
127
After prolonged periods of anaerobic respiration, muscle cells become fatigued
and inefficient due to the buildup of lactic acid, causing muscle cramp.
Anaerobic respiration is less efficient because it does not completely break down
glucose, resulting in much less ATP being produced.
As a result, muscles tire quickly and cannot perform as efficiently.
. .
Anaerobic respiration occurs in all living organisms, not just humans.
It is especially important in certain microorganisms, like yeast.
Yeast(a single-celled fungus) can perform both aerobic and anaerobic
respiration.
When oxygen is available, yeast cells respire aerobically by breaking down sugar
to produce energy, water, and carbon dioxide.
In the absence of oxygen, yeast breaks down sugar to produce ethanol (alcohol)
and carbon dioxide. This process is called fermentation.
Anaerobic Respiration Reaction (Fermentation): Glucose ➡Ethanol + CO₂ + Energy (ATP)
128
Yeast requires aerobic respiration for growth and reproduction, as it provides
more energy.
However, once the yeast cells grow in large numbers and oxygen becomes
limited, they switch to anaerobic respiration (fermentation).
The production of ethanol during fermentation is crucial in various human
industries.
Bread Making: Yeast is used in bread-making, where the carbon dioxide
produced during fermentation causes dough to rise.
Alcoholic Drinks: Yeast fermentation is also used to produce alcoholic drinks like
beer and wine.
Yeast has been used in food and drink production since ancient times, with
records indicating its use in bread-making in Ancient Egypt (around 4000 BC) and
in wine production in Iran (around 5400-5000 BC).

129
During cellular respiration, ATP is made from (EGSECE 2008)
A. ADP and phosphate
B. ADP and nitrate
C. ADP and phosphorus
D. ADP and nitrogen
What is the importance of ATP to the body? It is used to transport (EGSECE 2008)
A. Some materials against concentration gradient.
B. ions from high concentration to low concentration.
C. Carbon dioxide through the cell membrane.
D. Water molecules through cell membrane.

130
Which one of the following statements is correct about anaerobic respiration? It
(EGSECE 2008)
A. Is the main source of energy for warm blooded animals.
B. Breaks down food to release energy without oxygen.
C. Produces carbon dioxide and water as a byproduct.
D. Produces more ATP than aerobic respiration.
Even though anaerobic respiration results in much less amount of ATP, cells are
forced to use it when there is shortage of (EGSECE 2010)
A. O2
B. HCO3
C. CO2
D. N2

131
.

PART 10
3.5 The circulatory system
The Blood Vessels
The human heart

132
3.5 The circulatory system
The circulatory system transports essential substances like oxygen, nutrients, and
hormones to cells.
It also removes waste products such as carbon dioxide.
In larger organisms like humans, simple diffusion cannot adequately supply cells,
making a more complex transport system necessary.
The circulatory system maintains homeostasis and supports cellular function,
growth, and repair.
The circulatory system consists of three main components
Heart
Blood vessels
Blood

133
A double circulation
Humans have a double circulation, which consists of two circuits:
Pulmonary circulation: Blood flows from the heart to the lungs and back, where
oxygen is absorbed, and carbon dioxide is released.
Systemic circulation: Blood is pumped from the heart to the rest of the body and
back, delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues and organs.
Double circulation ensures the blood is fully oxygenated in the lungs before
being distributed to the body.
It is highly efficient, especially in warm-blooded, active animals, allowing optimal
oxygen supply to tissues.
In animals with single circulation (e.g., fish), the blood loses oxygen to tissues as
it travels, meaning many parts of the body do not receive fully oxygenated blood.

134
.

135
.

136
The Blood Vessels
There are three main types of blood vessels in the human body: arteries, veins,
and capillaries.
Each type has specific functions and structures to perform their roles in the
circulatory system.
Arteries:
Arteries carry blood away from the heart
All arteries carry oxygenated blood except the pulmonary arteries and umbilical
artery
Pulmonary arteries carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs
Umbilical artery carries deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta.
Arteries have thick walls with muscle and elastic fibers to withstand high
pressure and stretch as blood is pumped.
Blood in arteries is bright red due to high oxygen content. 137
Arteries have a pulse, which can be felt in places like the wrist.
If an artery is cut, blood spurts out rapidly due to high pressure.
Veins:
Veins carry blood towards the heart
All veins carry deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary veins and the umbilical vein
Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart
Umbilical vein carries oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus
Veins have thinner walls and blood is under low pressure.
No pulse in veins, but they often have valves to prevent back-flow of blood.
Blood in veins is dark red due to lower oxygen content.
Capillaries:
Link arteries and veins, allowing the exchange of substances.
Have very thin walls (one cell thick) for easy diffusion.
Blood in capillaries moves from arteries to tissues and organs, where exchange occurs.
Oxygen and glucose pass out of the blood, and carbon dioxide and waste products pass
into the blood, by diffusion along a concentration gradient.
The blood then flows from capillaries into veins for recirculation. 138
.

139
Which of the following statements is true about blood vessels? (EGSECE 2008)
A. Pulmonary artery supplies oxygenated blood to the stomach
B. Hepatic arteries supply oxygenated blood to the kidneys
C. Coronary artery supplies oxygenated blood to the heart.
D. Renal artery supplies oxygenated blood the liver.
Blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood and return it to the heart are
(EGSECE 2010)
A. Arteries
B. Veins
C. Lymph vessels
D. Capillaries

140
The capillaries are blood vessels that have thin wall and large surface area since
their function is(EUEE 2014)
A. transport of oxygenated blood.
B. exchange of substances.
C. return of blood to the heart.
D. transport of deoxygenated blood.

141
The human heart
The human heart is a reddish-brown muscular organ that beats continuously,
from early development in the uterus until death, pumping blood throughout the
body.
The heart has four chambers
Atria (upper chambers ,singular: atrium): right and left atrium
 Thin-walled chambers that receive blood
Ventricles(lower chambers): right and left ventricles
 Thick-walled chambers that pump blood to the lungs and the body
• The heart functions as two pumps that beat simultaneously, circulating blood
approximately 70 times per minute.
• The heart is composed of cardiac muscle, a unique muscle type capable of
contracting and relaxing continuously without tiring.
142
The walls of the heart are primarily muscle, and they are supplied with blood by
the coronary arteries, providing oxygen and glucose, while the coronary veins
carry deoxygenated blood away, feeding back into the right atrium.
Atria have thinner walls, enabling them to stretch and hold a larger volume of
blood.
Ventricles have thicker walls, especially the left ventricle, which pumps blood
around the entire body.
The right ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs.

143
.
Pulmonary valve Aortic valve

Tricuspid valve Bicuspid (mitral) valve

144
The working of the heart
Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the body via the superior and
inferior vena cavae.
The right atrium contracts, pushing blood into the right ventricle.
The right ventricle contracts and pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery
which carries it to the lungs for oxygenation.
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium from the lungs via the pulmonary
veins.
The left atrium contracts, sending blood into the left ventricle.
The left ventricle contracts, sending oxygenated blood into the aorta, which
distributes it around the entire body.

145
Heart Valves
The heart has valves to regulate blood flow:
Bicuspid valve
Tricuspid valve
Semilunar valves (half-moon shaped)- Pulmonary valve & Aortic valve
These valves open to allow blood to flow in the right direction and close to prevent
backflow, ensuring that blood moves efficiently.
The sounds of the heartbeat we hear through a stethoscope are caused by the closing
of these valves as the heart contracts.
Tricuspid valve (between the right atrium and the right ventricle) – prevents backflow
of blood into the right atrium when the right ventricle contracts.
Bicuspid (mitral) valve (between the left atrium and the left ventricle) – prevents
backflow of blood into the left atrium when the left ventricle contracts.
Pulmonary valve (between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery) – prevents
backflow of blood into the right ventricle after it is pumped into the pulmonary artery.
Aortic valve (between the left ventricle and the aorta) – prevents backflow of blood
into the left ventricle after it is pumped into the aorta. 146
Blood Pressure and the Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle consists of two main phases: diastole and systole.
Diastole is the phase during which the heart muscles relax, allowing the heart
chambers to fill with blood.
Systole occurs when the heart muscles contract, pumping blood forcefully out of
the heart and into the arteries.
As the heart goes through these phases, the pressure of the blood in the arteries
constantly changes.
This variation in pressure is why doctors take two different measurements when
checking blood pressure-to capture both the highest and lowest pressures during
the cardiac cycle.
During systole, the contraction of the heart generates the highest pressure in
the arteries.
This is known as the systolic blood pressure—the top number in a blood
pressure reading. 147
During diastole, the heart is relaxed and filling with blood.
At this time, the arterial pressure is lower, and this is recorded as the diastolic
blood pressure—the bottom number in a blood pressure reading.
A typical or normal blood pressure is around 120 mmHg over 80 mmHg, written
as 120/80.
However, it’s important to note that blood pressure is not constant.
It naturally fluctuates throughout the day depending on factors such as physical
activity, stress levels, posture, and even sleep.

148
Which of the following structures of the human heart is correctly matched with
its function? (EGSECE 2008)
A. Right atrium - receives oxygenated blood from lung.
B. Right ventricle - pumps oxygenated blood to the body.
C. Left atrium - receives oxygenated blood from lung.
D. Left ventricle - pumps deoxygenated blood to the lung.
The valves of the heart play a significant role to (EGSECE 2009)
A. Allow the transport of blood in the right direction.
B. Supply blood to the cardiac muscle and atrium.
C. Transport deoxygenated blood into the lung.
D. Transport oxygenated blood to the rest of the body.

149
What is the cause of back flow of blood into the atria from the ventricles? It
could be damage of the (EUEE 2014)
A. aorta.
B. pulmonary artery.
C. pulmonary vein.
D. valves.
Which one of the following sentences is correct about the activities of the heart?
(EUEE 2015)
A. As the heart beats blood travels through the arteries with a uniform pressure.
B. The noise of heartbeat one hears through a stethoscope is the sound of valves.
C. Systole is when the heart muscles relax and it fills with blood.
D. Diastole is when the heart muscles contract and force the blood out.

150
Which one of the following structures of the heart is correctly matched with its
function? (EUEE 2015)
A. Right ventricle - contracts and forces blood into the left ventricles.
B. Left atrium - contracts and forces blood into the right ventricles.
C. Right atrium - contracts and forces deoxygenated blood into the lungs
D. Left ventricle - contracts and forces oxygenated blood around the body.
Which one of the following statements is well justified, why the left ventricle is
tough in nature? Because it(EUEE 2016)
A. Forces oxygenated blood out of the heart.
B. Returns deoxygenated blood to the heart.
C. Returns oxygenated blood to the heart.
D. Forces deoxygenated blood out of the heart.

151
The Flexible Heart
When the body is at rest, the heart beats at a steady pace of around 70 beats
per minute, providing sufficient blood supply to meet the needs of the body's
cells.
During exercise, the muscles require more oxygen and nutrients, so the heart
needs to supply more blood.
To meet this demand, the heart increases its pulse rate, going from 70 beats per
minute at rest to 120-140 beats per minute during intense physical activity.
The heart also increases the volume of blood pumped per beat to enhance blood
circulation to muscles and tissues.
Fit individuals tend to have a larger and stronger heart, allowing their heart to
pump more blood with each beat.
As a result, people who are physically fit often have a slower resting heart rate,
with some athletes having resting heart rates as low as 50 beats per minute.
152
The heart doesn't always beat at a steady rhythm.
The heart rate increases when the body needs more blood, such as during
exercise, or in response to stress, anxiety, or anger.
Situations such as sitting an exam or having an argument can raise your heart
rate just as much as intense physical exertion

153
.

PART 11
The Blood
Human blood groups
Common Problems of the Circulatory System

154
The Blood
Blood is a complex mixture of cells and liquid, and it is the transport medium in
the circulatory system.
Blood is made up of two main components: plasma and blood cells
Plasma:
The liquid portion of blood, called plasma, is pale yellow in color and makes up
about 55% of the blood's volume.
Plasma carries red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. It also transports
substances like:
 Carbon dioxide: From the organs to the lungs for exhalation.
 Urea: Waste product from protein breakdown, carried to the kidneys for removal
in urine.
 Digested nutrients: Small, soluble products from digestion carried to organs and
cells. 155
.

156
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes):
Red blood cells are one of the main components of blood.
They are more numerous than any other type of blood cell and are specially adapted to
carry out their main function: transporting oxygen from the lungs to body cells.
Red blood cells are packed with hemoglobin, a red pigment responsible for carrying
oxygen.
Hemoglobin is a large protein molecule with four iron atoms folded into its structure.
In the lungs, where oxygen concentration is high, hemoglobin combines with oxygen to
form oxyhemoglobin (bright scarlet in color).
In the tissues, where oxygen concentration is lower, oxyhemoglobin breaks down into
hemoglobin and oxygen.
This reversible reaction allows efficient oxygen loading and unloading depending on the
oxygen levels.

157
The oxygen released in tissues diffuses from the red blood cells into the body cells
where it is needed.
This transport system allows active life by delivering oxygen for respiration.
Special Adaptations of Red Blood Cells:
No Nucleus:
Mature red blood cells lose their nucleus.
This creates more space for hemoglobin, increasing their oxygen-carrying capacity.
Due to the absence of a nucleus, red blood cells have a short lifespan of about 100–
120 days and are constantly replaced.
Biconcave Shape:
The cells are shaped like biconcave discs.
This increases the surface area to volume ratio, enhancing the diffusion of oxygen.
The thin shape also ensures a short diffusion distance.
Thin Membrane:
The surface membrane is thin, allowing oxygen to pass in and out quickly.
Also allows cells to squeeze through narrow capillaries, ensuring oxygen reaches all
tissues. 158
White Blood Cells
White blood cells are another important component of your blood.
They are larger than red blood cells and are fewer in number.
Unlike red blood cells, they have a nucleus.
WBCs form a crucial part of the body’s defense system against microbes (germs).
Lymphocytes: Produce antibodies to fight specific microbes (antigens).
 Antibodies help destroy or neutralize invaders.
Phagocytes: Engulf and digest invading bacteria and other pathogens
(phagocytosis).
 Act as the first line of defense in infections.

159
Platelets
Platelets are small fragments of cells (not full cells).
They play a key role in blood clotting at wound sites.
Blood Clotting Process:
Platelets are activated when they reach the site of a wound.
They trigger the formation of a mesh of protein threads.
Red blood cells and more platelets get trapped in this mesh, forming a jelly-like
clot.
The clot dries and hardens into a scab.
Importance of Clotting:
Prevents excessive bleeding, even from minor cuts.
Blocks the entry of bacteria and other pathogens into the body.
Protects the new skin underneath as it heals.
160
Which of the following blood components transports waste products to kidneys?
(EGSECE 2009)
A. White blood cells
B. Platelets
C. Red blood cells
D. Plasma
The following is a list of functions of the components of blood. (EUEE 2014)
1. Transport of oxygen
2. Fight against diseases
3. Cause blood clotting
Which one of the following is a correct order of blood components responsible for the
above functions respectively? (EUEE 2014)
A. White blood cells, platelets, red blood cells
B. Platelets, white blood cells, red blood cells
C. Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
D. Red blood cells, platelets, white blood cells 161
. Antigen Antibody

162
Human blood groups
Blood grouping is based on the antigens present on the surface of red blood cells.
Antigens are special proteins found on the surface of cells, including red blood cells.
 These proteins allow cells to recognize each other and detect foreign cells.
 Antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system to bind to foreign antigens and help
destroy foreign cells.
 They are present all the time, even without being exposed to a particular antigen.

163
ABO Blood Group System
The ABO system classifies blood into four main groups based on the type of
antigens present on red blood cells and antibodies in plasma:
Blood group A:
 Red blood cells have A antigen on their surface.
 Plasma contains anti-B antibodies that attack red blood cells with B antigens.
Blood group B:
 Red blood cells have B antigen on their surface.
 Plasma contains anti-A antibodies that attack red blood cells with A antigens.
Blood group AB:
 Red blood cells have both A and B antigens.
 Plasma contains no anti-A or anti-B antibodies, allowing individuals with type AB
blood to receive any ABO blood type.
164
Blood group O:
 Red blood cells have no A or B antigens on their surface.
 Plasma contains both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.
 Since the red blood cells lack A and B antigens, individuals with type O blood can
donate to anyone, but they can only receive blood from group O.

165
Blood Transfusions
• A blood transfusion involves transferring blood from a donor to a recipient.
• This is necessary when someone loses a lot of blood due to Accidents, Surgery,
Childbirth, Injuries
• Donor and recipient blood groups must be matched to avoid agglutination.
Agglutination (Clumping)
When incompatible blood groups mix the antibodies react with the matching
antigens.
This causes agglutination – clumping of red blood cells.
Agglutinated blood cannot circulate properly and may block blood vessels,
leading to serious health risks.

166
Blood Group O: Has no antigens, so it can be donated to anyone (Universal
Donor).
Blood Group AB: Has no antibodies, so it can receive blood from any group
(Universal Recipient).
Blood Group A: Has A antigens and anti-B antibodies. It can receive blood from A
and O blood types.
Blood Group B: Has B antigens and anti-A antibodies. It can receive blood from B
and O blood types
Blood donations must be carefully screened to prevent the transmission of
infections such as HIV/AIDS.
Only people free from HIV should donate blood, and blood must be treated to
ensure it is safe for use in transfusions

167
.

168
On a clean glass slide, a nurse mixed donor's 'AB' blood group with recipients 'B'
blood group. What result could she observe after mixing that two blood groups?
(EGSECE 2009)
A. The color of the mixture changed to blue.
B. The mixture becomes agglutinated.
C. There was no change in appearance.
D. The red blood cells increased in size.
Which of the following blood groups has no antigen on the red blood cells?
(EGSECE 2009)
A. AB
B. O
C. B
D. A
169
During delivery, a pregnant woman whose blood type "O" has lost a lot of blood.
The doctor ordered her family to get a blood donor. What should be the blood
type of the donor? (EGSECE 2009)
A. B
B. A
C. AB
D. O
If a person with blood group "B" loses blood due to an accident, he may receive
blood donation from group (EGSECE 2010)
A. "A" & "B"
B. "AB" only
C. "B" only
D. "B" & "O"
170
Assume you wanted to demonstrate compatibility of blood groups. You took four test
tubes labeled O, A, B, and AB based on the blood group that each test tube contains.
Then you added unknown blood sample into each test tube and no agglutination was
observed in each test tube. From this, you can conclude that the unknown blood
sample was (EUEE 2014)
A. blood group B.
B. blood group 0.
C. blood group A.
D. blood group AB.
Assume your friend has a blood type that has no antigen on his red blood cells but
produces antibodies a and b, loses blood due to a car accident. If blood transfusion is
necessary to save his life, your friend can receive blood from someone with(EUEE 2016)
A. Blood type AB.
B. Blood type B.
C. Blood type O.
D. Blood type A
171
This item is based on the following list of events about the transport of oxygen
into the cell.
1. oxygen enters into the cells where it is needed.
2. hemoglobin picks up oxygen and form
oxyhemoglobin.
3. oxyhemoglobin splits to give purple-red hemoglobin
and oxygen.
4.oxygen enters into mitochondria for aerobic respiration.
Which one of the following sequence of events is correct about transport of
oxygen into the cell? (EGSECE 2008)
A. 4->3->2->1
B. 1->2->4->3
C. 2>3->1->4
D. 2->3->4->1
172
Two Common Problems of the Circulatory System
Anemia:
Anaemia occurs when there are too few red blood cells or when the levels of haemoglobin
(the oxygen-carrying red pigment) in the blood are too low.
The most common cause of anaemia is iron deficiency.
Iron-rich foods include meat, liver, apricots, eggs, and green leafy vegetables.
A lack of these in the diet can lead to anaemia.
Symptoms of anemia: Tiredness and lack of energy due to inadequate oxygen supply to body
cells.
This condition makes it harder to study or work effectively.
Girls and women are more likely to be anaemic due to iron loss during menstrual cycles,
pregnancy, and childbirth.
Malnourished individuals and those with significant blood loss, such as after an injury or
surgery, are also at risk.
Iron supplements and a diet rich in iron can help correct anaemia. 173
Hypertension (High Blood Pressure):
Hypertension occurs when blood pressure consistently exceeds 140/90 mmHg
(systolic/diastolic).
In 90% of cases, the cause is unknown (essential hypertension).
In 10% of cases, hypertension is caused by other diseases such as chronic kidney disease,
arterial diseases, or hormonal disturbances.
Risk Factors:
Age: Older individuals are more likely to develop hypertension.
Obesity, excessive salt intake, excessive alcohol consumption, sedentary lifestyle, smoking,
diabetes, and kidney diseases increase the risk.
Genetic factors can also play a role, as hypertension may run in families.
Treatment:
Lifestyle changes: Losing weight, reducing salt intake, becoming more active, and quitting
smoking can help lower blood pressure.
Medications:
 Diuretics: Increase urination to reduce blood volume, thus lowering blood pressure.
 Beta blockers: Block nerve signals that narrow arteries.
 Other medications may act on the brain or other body systems to regulate blood pressure.
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Hypertension in Ethiopia:
Recent studies show 30% of adults in cities like Addis Ababa suffer from
hypertension or are on medication to control it.
Factors contributing to this rise include obesity and low physical activity.
If left untreated, high blood pressure can lead to heart attacks and strokes.

175
Which of the following statements is true about hypertension? It (EGSECE 2008)
A. Is a deficiency disease caused by lack of iron.
B. Can be managed by reducing salt in the diet.
C. Is due to the presence of few RBC to carry hemoglobin.
D. Can be reduced during higher age and overweight of body

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THE END

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