Application of

Geophysical Method
in Mineral Exploration
Ms. Bhagya Wickramasooriya
Intended Learning Outcomes

• To explain underlying principles of mineral exploration

process in modern mineral exploration targeting.
• To demonstrate a firm proficiency in techniques used in
exploring for different commodities in different geological
environments.
• To analyze data and take necessary decision by analyzing
results of exploration process
What is Geophysics?
• Pure (Academic) Geophysics – Studying various Erath processes from
a theoretical physics approach
• Purpose: To understand Earth processes (Earth’s gravity, magnetic field)
• Often called: Solid Erath Geophysics
• Applied (Geological) Geophysics – Using physical properties of the
earth to provide information about the subsurface
• Purpose: To better characterization of the geology of the subsurface
• Physics Lab – Used to test physics hypotheses/theories about general
physical processes. Not really concerned about the earth.
• Purpose: To better understanding of physics laws
Example: Gravity
• Pure (Academic) Geophysics
• Measure mass of the Earth
• Measure average density

• Applied (Geological) Geophysics

• Measure small changes in g  detect subsurface voids

Applied geophysics requires knowledge and understanding of pure

geophysics!
Why study Geophysics?

• Who hire geophysicists?

• Energy companies
• Mining companies
• Government agencies
• Engineering consulting firms
• Environmental consulting firms
Why Geophysics Useful?
Why Geophysics Useful?
• Geology • Geophysics
Limited to the surface of Can truly “look in to the
the Earth Earth”
• Boreholes are an exception, Gives less detailed
but are expensive and only information about much
give limited information (<13 larger areas
km depth)
Can study non-tangible
Gives extremely detailed things (No destruction the Earth
data about small areas structures like in bore holes)
Provides information about • Forces, waves, magnetic
the past fields etc..
 How do geophysicists “Look at” Rocks?
• Geologists mainly look at • Geophysicists look at rocks differently
rocks visually • Measure properties such as density,
resistivity, magnetic properties,
• Map rock occurrence elastic moduli, radioactivity, etc.
• Visually identify mineral • Use these properties to infer rock
content type/composition
• Optical microscope • Results are non-unique because many
rocks may have similar properties
• SEM
• “Indirect” approach, but offers
• Direct approach information that is not possible to
visually or direct obtain
How do geophysicists “Look at” Rocks?

Basalt
Feldspar, Quartz, Biotite

Biotite gneiss Similar in terms of their magnetic characteristics.

Diorite
Geophysical
Exploration

• Geophysical methods offer a means

of looking into the earth.
• Geophysical exploration can be
conducted on
• the surface of the earth,
• in the air (also called airborne
geophysics or remote sensing)
or
• in the sea (known as marine
geophysics, offshore
exploration).
 Geophysical Exploration
Surface Geophysics Airborne Geophysics Marine Geophysics
Study of the Earth's subsurface from the Collecting geophysical data from Studying the Earth's subsurface beneath
ground surface using various geophysical instruments mounted on aircraft flying bodies of water, such as oceans, seas, and
methods above the Earth's surface lakes
Deploying sensors or instruments on the Utilize sensors mounted on airplanes or Utilize specialized equipment deployed
ground surface to collect data helicopters to collect data over large areas from ships or research vessels to collect
quickly data
Seismic surveys (reflection and refraction), Airborne magnetic surveys, airborne Marine seismic surveys (using air guns or
electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), electromagnetic (EM) surveys, and seismic streamers), marine
ground-penetrating radar (GPR), magnetic airborne gamma-ray spectrometry, more electromagnetic (EM) surveys, marine
surveys, and gravity surveys recently gravity magnetic surveys, marine gravity surveys,
and acoustic imaging (e.g., side-scan sonar,
multibeam echosounders)

Mineral exploration, environmental studies Regional geological mapping, mineral Understanding the geological structure of
(e.g., groundwater mapping, contaminant exploration (especially in remote or ocean basins, continental margins, and
plume delineation), engineering (e.g., site inaccessible areas), environmental surveys submarine features, offshore oil and gas
characterization for construction projects), (e.g., mapping groundwater resources, exploration, marine mineral exploration,
archaeology (e.g., locating buried detecting environmental contaminants), marine geohazard assessment (e.g.,
structures or artifacts), and geological and geological hazard assessment (e.g., submarine landslides, seafloor spreading),
mapping. mapping faults, subsurface structures). oceanographic research, and marine
environmental studies
 What is Geophysical Exploration
• Exploration geophysics is an
• applied branch of geophysics, which uses physical methods
seismic,
gravitational and geodesy,
magnetic,
electrical,
electromagnetic
• at or near the surface of the Earth
• to measure the physical properties of the subsurface along with the
anomalies in those properties.
• All geophysical methods remotely sense a material property of
the earth
seismic velocity,
rock density,
electrical resistivity,
magnetization
Radioactivity etc.
• Knowledge of these material properties must be then
interpreted to determine which rock type is present.
• Geophysical and geological studies complement one another.
Geophysical Methods
• Passive Methods
• Involving measurements of naturally existing fields
• This includes magnetic and gravitational fields, naturally
occurring alpha and gamma radiations, and natural
electrical fields

• Active Methods
• An external source of energy is introduced into the ground,
and the resulting response is measured
• This include electrical and electromagnetic techniques,
seismic methods (common)
 Geophysical Methods

Passive Methods Active Methods

Sound waves are generated with an

Naturally occurring signal explosion
Geophysical Methods
• Magnetic Survey
• Gravity Method
• Radiometric
• Resistivity Survey
• Spontaneous Polarization (SP)
• Induced Polarization (IP)
• Continuous Wave Electromagnetics
• Transient Electromagnetics (TEM)
• Remote Source Methods
• Seismic Method
• Ground Penetration Radar (GPR)
• Borehole Geophysics
Method Measured Parameter Operative Physical Principal Application
Property
Seismic Travel time of seismic Density and elastic
wave modules
Gravity Strength of Gravitational Density
Hydrocarbo/mineral/
Field
metal exploration
Magnetic Strength of Magnetic Magnetic susceptibility
Field

Electrical Earth Resistance Electrical Conductivity Mineral Exploration

Resistivity Groundwater
Exploration
Electromagnetic Response to Electrical Conductivity Mineral/ graphite/
Electromagnetic radiation Sulphide Exploration
Groundwater
Exploration
Method Measured Parameter Operative Physical Principal Application
Property
Self Potential Electrical Potential Electrical Conductivity Hydrocarbon
exploration
Mineral /gold
Exploration
Induce Ground Resistance Electrical Capacitance Mineral Exploration
Polarization
Radar Travel Time of Reflected Dielectric Constant Hydrocarbon
Radar Pulses Exploration
Mineral Exploration
 Advantages of Geophysical
Method in Mineral Exploration

• Higher speed of operation/ Rapid Data

Acquisition

• The ability to survey areas where

ground access is difficult or impossible

• Availability of a wide range of the

geophysical method.
 Advantage of Geophysical Method in Mineral
Exploration
• Type of physical property to which the method is response clearly determines its
range of applications
• Magnetic body:- Magnetic method – Magnetic susceptibility

• Water table:- Seismic or electrical method – Saturated rock characterized by

higher electrical conductivity and seismic velocity

• The ability to use geophysical exploration in a different stage of exploration

programs
• Area selection
• Data gathering
• Data evaluation
Advantage of Geophysical Method in Mineral
Exploration
• Ability to Selection of type of method depend on stage of
exploration

• Eg:- Reconnaissance survey – Carried on Air due to high speed of

operation (broad and quick examination of the study area )

• Electrical and seismic method not use because they require

physical contact with ground
Advantage of Geophysical Method in Mineral Exploration
• Non-Destructive Nature: Geophysical methods allow exploration without
disturbing the surface or subsurface environment
• Cost-Effectiveness: Geophysical surveys can cover large areas relatively quickly
and at a lower cost compared to traditional drilling methods. This cost efficiency is
particularly beneficial in the early stages of exploration when broad-scale
assessments are needed to identify potential mineralization zones
• Depth Penetration: Many geophysical methods EM and gravity surveys, have the
capability to penetrate deep into the subsurface
• Complementary Information: Provide complementary information to other
exploration methods (geological mapping and geochemical analysis). Integrating
geophysical data with geological and geochemical data enhances the
understanding of subsurface geological structures and improves the targeting of
exploration efforts.
Advantage of Geophysical Method in Mineral Exploration
• Used of geophysical surveys in combination resulted in the removal of
ambiguity arising from one survey
• Metalliferous Mineral deposit

Initial Survey Airborne magnetic and

electromagnetic method

Magnetic Method
Detail Investigation Gravity Method
Seismic Method
Advantage of Geophysical Method in Mineral
Exploration
• Commonly carried out in number of stage
Eg- Offshore oil and gas exploration

Reconnaissance Survey Gravity method

Identify large Sedimentary basin

1st round seismic Identify Potential Area

exploration

2nd round seismic Identify Location, Extend

exploration
Main Field of Application of Geophysical Survey

Application Survey Method

Fossil Fuel S,G, M, [EM]
Metaliferous Ore M, EM, E, SP, IP, R
Bulk material (Sand/ S, [E], [G]
Gravel)
S = seismic, E =Electrical
G = Gravity, M= Electromagnetic
sp = selfpotential, R= Radar
IP = Induce Polarization
 Planning a Geophysical Survey
• Any geophysical survey tries to determine the nature of
the subsurface
• Every survey must be planned according to a strategy
• The success of geophysical methods is often site-specific
• Define Objectives: Clearly articulate the goals and
objectives of the geophysical survey. Determine what
specific geological features or targets you aim to
investigate,
• Potential mineralization zones, geological structures, or
alteration zones
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Step 01: Target identification
• Geophysical methods locate boundaries between contrasting physical
properties
• Such contrasts give rise to geophysical anomalies
• Targets usually include oil/gas traps, buried structures/objects, groundwater,
ore
• The selected geophysical method must be the one most sensitive to the
investigated property
• Anomalies correspond to the size, shape and orientation of the
feature/object
Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Step 02: Data Acquisition

Line configuration
–The way data are collected depends on the target
–Two methods; (a) Profiling (b) Mapping
–Profiling generates the variation of a measured parameter along a 2D cross-
section
–Measurements along a series of parallel lines or a grid generate a
contoured map (isolines)
–The best orientation of a profile is perpendicular to the strike of the target
–Length of the profile should exceed the expected width of the anomaly
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Step 02: Data Acquisition
• 1st Step: get data
• Usually data gathered by some geophysical
device
• Most surveys are comprised of linear
traverses or transects
• Typically constant data spacing
• Perpendicular to target
• Resolution based on target
• Best for elongated targets
• When the data is plotted (after various
calculations have been made)  Profile
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Step 02: Data Acquisition
• Grids
• When transects are combined a grid can
be formed
• Good for round or blob-shaped targets or if
target geometry is unknown
• Useful for making contour maps
• Allows transects to be created in multiple
directions
Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Step 02: Data Acquisition
Station Intervals
–The point at which a discrete measurement is made is called a “station”
–Distance between successive measurements is “station interval”
–Optimum station interval should be decided considering the expected
size of the target (fine enough to resolve the anomaly, large enough to
save costs)
–Reconnaissance surveys may have “coarser” station intervals
–Line spacing in an aerial survey determines the data resolution
–Larger line spacing can “smear out” higher frequencies of anomalies
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Step 03: Data Reduction
• Often the raw data collected is not useful
• Data must be converted to a useful form
• Removing the unwanted signals is data reduction
(reduce the effect of topography/surface)
• Targets are often reorganized by an “anomaly” in
the data
• Values are above and below the surrounding data
averages
• Not all geophysical targets produce spatial
anomalies
• Ex: Seismic refraction produces travel time curves 
depth to interfaces
Basic steps of the geophysical
methods
Step 03: Data Reduction
Geophysical Anomaly
• Local variation in a measured
geophysical parameter
related to some normal
background value
• Such variations is attributed
to a localized subsurface zone
of distinctive physical
property and possible
geological importance.
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Step 04: Noise cancelation to obtain signal
• Even after data is reduced, a profile may not
reveal a clear anomaly due to noise.
• Noise: Unwanted fluctuations in measured data
• May be spatial or temporal
• What causes noise?
• Signal: The data you want, i.e. no noise
• Noise can be remove using mathematical
techniques
• Stacking
• Fourier Analysis
• Signal Processing
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Step 04: Noise cancelation to obtain signal
How Noise Generates
• Instrumental Noise: This noise originates from the measuring equipment itself
• Man-made (cultural) noise: Human activities like vehicular traffic, industrial
machinery, or construction work near the survey area. Vibrations from these
activities can propagate through the ground and interfere with seismic or
ground-penetrating radar surveys.
• Environmental Noise: Environmental factors such as electromagnetic
interference (EMI) from power lines, radio transmissions, lightning, or cosmic
radiation can introduce noise into geophysical measurements
• Natural Noise: Natural phenomena such as seismic activity, wind, water flow, or
biological activity (e.g., animal movements)
• Prior knowledge of expected noise is required in a survey
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Stacking
• Stacking is used when
• Noise is random
• Signal is weak
• Instrument is not sensitive
• If noise is random
• Take multiple readings
• Sum the readings
• Noise cancels out
• Destructive interference
• Signals should add
• Constructive interference
• Stacking improve signal to noise ratio
• Commonly used with numerous techniques
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Resolution
• Resolution is an indicator of the quality of
data
• Even if you have a good signal to noise ratio,
detection of your target depends on your
resolution
• Know what you are looking for before you begin
• Know the limits of your data resolution
• Resolution is inversely proportion to the
penetration depth
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Step 05: Modeling
• Most geophysical data is twice removed from
actual geological information
• Reduced data is modeled
• Models
• Aim to describe a specific behavior or process
• Are only as complex as data allows
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Analog Model
Model Types
• Models also come in several flavors based on
technique
• Conceptual model
• Models an idea.. No math/physical parts
• Analog Model
• A tangible mode “scaled” to reproduce geological
phenomena Empirical Model
• Empirical Model
• Based on trends in data
• Analytical Model
• Solves an equation. Usually deals with simple system
• Numerical Model (complex)
• Computer-based approximations to an equation
• Thousands, millions, or billions of calculations and
possibilities
• Can handle complex systems
 Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Geological Interpretations
• After data is collected and modeling is
complete the result must be interpreted into
the geological context.
• Use all available data
• Don’t only look, when you can hear and touch!
• Interpretations are also typically non-unique
• Many geological materials have similar properties
• Best interpretations use all available data, geological,
geophysical, chemical etc..
Basic steps of the geophysical methods
Data Processing
• All data has noise
• Devices do not give useful measurements; must convert data
• The better you can handle data, the more employable you will
be
Geophysical Techniques
for Mineral Exploration
Ms. Bhagya Wickramasooriya
What do these things have in common?
Seismic Methods
The Seismic Reflection Method Ground Penetrating Radar

• A dynamic geophysical • Utilizes similar theory, but

technique of generating a sound source is electromagnetic waves
wave at a source and recording
the time it takes for components
of that seismic energy to return
to the surface and be recorded
by receivers.
Reflection Seismology
• Seismic reflection is the single most important techniques foe seeing into
the Earth.
• It is useful for shallow and deep depths (Mannar basin 4000 m )
• Massively used by the oil and gas industry
• It can be detect:
• Stratigraphy
• Faults
• Folds
• Oil and gas reservoirs
• Groundwater resources
• Why so popular?
• Produces results that actually look a lot like an actual geologic cross section!!
• Within a short time period it can cover very large area
 Reflection Seismology
• 1920’s – 1930’s, seismic reflection developed for oil/gas exploration in
sedimentary basins.
• Since 1970’s, valuable in understanding structure of mid-lower crust.
• Popular for three main reasons:
• Reflection data is commonly portrayed as profile resembling “geologic cross
section”
• Offers high resolution of subsurface data
• Cheaper than blindly drilling
• Cover large area

Wildcat Drilling – a form of high-risk exploratory drilling, is the process

of drilling for oil or natural gas in unproven or fully exploited areas
that either have no concrete historic production records or have been
completely exhausted as a site for oil and gas output
 Seismic Reflection: The Basics

• In the simplest sense seismic

reflection is echo sounding.
• Echoes come from layers in the Earth,
not fish
• Ex: A ship sends out a seismic pulse
• The pulse is reflected back to a receiver
on the ship’s bottom after some time
has passed
• The various arrivals can be used to map
out subsurface “reflectors” or layers
 Limitation of Seismic Reflection
1. The vertical scale on seismic reflection
profiles is time, not depth
• Velocity varies with depth (due to the change
of the density), so time cannot be easily
converted to depth
2. There may be multiple reflections off of Depth TWT (Two way
travel time)
single interfaces
• Called multiples

Density change (01) Velocity = Distance/Time

(02) Bore hole data

 Limitation of Seismic Reflection
Multiple reflections
• On their return to the surface…
• Reflected rays can also reflect back down and
then later be reflected back up
• This causes a single reflector to potentially
produce several “multiples”
• Short path (less reflections) multiples are
usually stronger
• These artifacts can be removed by
migration
Limitation of Seismic Reflection
Multiples in a seismic Section
Types of Surveys
• Seismic reflection is commonly done both on land and at sea
• Land surveys use geophones
• Measure ground motion
• Marine surveys use hydrophones
• Measure pressure changes in water
 Marine Surveys C:\Users\asus\Desktop\Offshore Seismic
Surveying.mp4
• Use a variety of sources
• Air Gun: Generates a high pressure air burst (> 100 atm, most common, increase pressure step
by step)
• Sparker: Generates a high voltage charge (rarely use – dangerous for marine animals)
• Water Gun: Pulse of high pressure water
• Aquapulse: Explosion of a mixture of gas and water
• The source type is unimportant, key is that the source can be repeated easily
• Hydrophones are floated behind the ship connected by streamers
Ship velocity is
always constant

Different barriers
(boats, fish nets) in
the sea level are
making the survey
difficult
 Land Surveys
• Not difficult as marine survey
• Use a variety of sources
• Impulsive
• Explosive: Shallow-buried explosives
• Dropping a large weight:
• Usually a few tons
• Non-impulsive
• Vibroseis
• Data recorded by geophones
• Often clusters of geophones are used for
each location to stack the data
• Moving the system is difficult
(maintaining constant velocity, barriers)
 Land Surveys
Vibroseis
• Instead of a short pulse (impulsive),
Vibroseis relies on a continuous train
of waves with a changing frequency
(non-impulsive)
• Generated by a large truck with
vibrating plates
• Common method uses in desert
areas
• Land surveys are not common in Sri
Lanka (most surveys are based on
resistivity)
 Land Surveys
Vibroseis
• The source “sweep signal” is known
and controlled
• Commonly 1- Hz; up to 30 seconds
• Low amplitude (compared to
impulsive sources)
• Can use multiple trucks vibrating the
same sweep signal to increase strength
• Has been known to get Moho reflection!
• Can easily identify the arrival on
seismograms
• Match multiple troughs and peaks
• High signal to noise ratio
• Is successful in noisy environments
 Display of seismic Reflection Data
• Seismic data is almost never plotted as
raw wiggle traces
• Plotted as either variable area or variable
density
• Variable area: shades peaks but not troughs
• Variable density: the photographic intensity
(i.e., gray value; colour) is proportional to the
amplitude
 stratigraphic layers, faults, unconformities, or fluid
What is a Reflector? contacts, that exhibit differences in seismic velocity,
density, or acoustic impedance

• Critical Reflection: When 100% of a ray is reflected

• Happens at angles greater than the critical angle
• Sub-critical reflection: Part of the total ray energy is reflected at angles
less than the critical angle
• The amount of incident ray that is reflected depends on the acoustic
impedance
• So both density and velocity matters!
• Reflection Coefficient: ratio of reflected to incident amplitudes
• Transmission Coefficient: ratio of transmitted to incident amplitudes
Warning!! Only true of
the incident ray is nearly
normal to the interface
 Interference and Vertical resolution
• The equation for Interference can produce
negative values
• Certain reflector geometries can cause either
constructive Interference or destructive
Interference
• Interference with reflected waves affects the
resolution
• Vertical resolution is ¼ λ
• Want more details?
• Higher frequency source
• Limited depth penetration
• Want greater depth penetration?
• Lower frequency source
• Lower vertical resolution
• Same is true for GPR
 Bright Spots
• Because of large contrasts in acoustic
impedance…
• Oil and gas reservoirs produce strong
reflections
• Called “bright spot”
• No (or weak) reflections?
• Gradational boundaries
• Steeply dipping or vertical layers
 Seismic Hazards
• Seismic reflection data are also
used to help identify active
faults, define their geometries,
and slip histories, for the
characterization of earthquake
hazards
 Magnetic Methods
• In general, the magnetic content (susceptibility) of rocks is extremely variable
depending on the type of rock and its environment.

• Common causes of magnetic anomalies include

• dykes,
• faults and
• lava flows.

• In a geothermal environment, due to high temperatures, the susceptibility

decreases.

• It is not usually possible to identify with certainty the causitive lithology of

any anomaly from magnetic information alone.
 Magnetic
Methods
• Aim of Magnetic Surveying
• Investigate subsurface
geology
• Based on anomalies in
the earth’s magnetic
field
• Resulting from
magnetic properties of
the underlying rocks.
Application of magnetic method

• Locate abandoned steel well casings, buried tanks, pipes and metallic
debris
• Map old waste sites and landfill boundaries
• Map basement faults and basic igneous intrusives
• Investigate archaeological sites
Application of magnetic method

• For the of Geothermal energy exploration Ground and aero-magnetic

data used to investigate the presence of a geothermal resource in
combination with gravity.

• Aero-magnetic maps → anomalies → correlated

• surface expressions of volcanism such as craters, domes or cones
• localized basaltic lavas or plugs.
 Magnetic anomalies
• Caused by induced or remanent magnetism
• Induced magnetic anomalies are the result of secondary magnetization
induced in a ferrous body by the earth’s magnetic field.
• Remanent magnetic anomalies are characteristic properties of the rock
containing ferromagnetic minerals
• The magnetic content (susceptibility) of rocks is extremely variable
depending on the type of rock and the environment it is in
• Rocks have high magnetic susceptibility → strong local magnetic field
• Rocks have low magnetic susceptibility → weaker magnetic field
Instrumentation

• A magnetometer

• Complex instrument which

measures both the orientation
and strength of a magnetic field
 Magnetic Methods
• The Earth acts as a giant magnet, generating a field about itself that influences or captures
other objects that are either magnetic or may be magnetized, particularly objects
containing iron.

• Magnetometers, the instruments required for magnetic surveys, are simple but
sophisticated.

• Magnetic surveys may be undertaken from the air or on the ground.

• For detailed work to discover the presence of concealed deposits, magnetic surveys are
usually conducted on the surface of the earth (on the ground).

• The data are presented as a magnetic map.

Gravity Methods
• Surveys are often undertaken over large areas, and provide regional
information on the nature of rocks often at considerable depth

• Many ore minerals have higher density than the surrounding rocks.

• By measuring variations in the Earth's gravity field over an area, an

indication of the nature of the underlying geology and the likely presence
of deposits can be obtained.
Electromagnetic Method

• The resultant field is a combination of primary and secondary fields

• Secondary field differs from the primary in phase and amplitude
• The difference provides information about the geometry, size and
electrical properties of the subsurface conductor