Stem cells and maintenance

of adult tissues

Name – Bhoomi
Course –BSc life science (II year)
Roll no. - 23583054
 Stem cells
Stem cells play a crucial role in maintaining and
repairing adult tissues throughout life. These adult
stem cells (also called somatic stem cells) reside in
various tissues and contribute to homeostasis,
regeneration, and repair after injury.
Stem cells are a special type of cells that have two
important properties. They are able to make more
cells like themselves. That is, they self-renew. And
they can become other cells that do different things
in a process known as differentiation.
Three unique properties of stem cells

• Stem cells are capable of dividing and renewing

themselves for long periods.

• They are "unspecialized" and they can give rise

to specialized cell types.

• A stem cell is "uncommitted," until it receives a

signal to develop into a specialized cell.
 Types of stem cells
There are several types of stem cells, classified based on their
potential to differentiate into different cell types and their origin.
Here’s an overview of the main types:
1. Embryonic Stem Cells (ESCs)
Origin: These stem cells are derived from early-stage embryos,
typically at the blastocyst stage.
Potency: Pluripotent (can differentiate into almost any cell type in
the body).
Characteristics: ESCs have the highest potential for differentiation,
making them valuable for research and regenerative medicine.
However, their use raises ethical concerns due to the destruction of
embryos during isolation.
Example: ESCs can differentiate into cells of the three primary germ
layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm), such as neurons, blood
cells, or liver cells.
• 2. Adult Stem Cells (Somatic Stem Cells)
• Origin: These stem cells are found in various tissues throughout the body and
are responsible for maintaining and repairing those tissues.
• Potency: Typically multipotent (can differentiate into a limited number of cell
types related to the tissue from which they originated).
• Characteristics: Adult stem cells are less versatile than ESCs but play a
crucial role in tissue repair and homeostasis. They are also more ethically
accepted since they are not derived from embryos.
• Types:
• Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs): Found in bone marrow, these
stem cells give rise to all types of blood cells (red blood cells, white
blood cells, platelets).
• Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs): Found in bone marrow, fat, and
other tissues, MSCs can differentiate into bone, cartilage, muscle, and
fat cells.
• Neural Stem Cells (NSCs): Located in specific areas of the brain,
these stem cells can produce neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes.
• Epidermal Stem Cells: Found in the skin, these cells regenerate the
skin's epidermis.
3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)
Origin: These are adult cells that have been reprogrammed into a pluripotent state
by introducing specific genes.
Potency: Pluripotent (can differentiate into nearly all cell types, similar to ESCs).
Characteristics: iPSCs are created by reprogramming somatic (adult) cells,
typically skin or blood cells, back into an embryonic-like state. They are highly
versatile and avoid the ethical concerns associated with ESCs. iPSCs are often
used for research and have great potential for therapeutic applications.
Example: iPSCs can be derived from a patient’s own cells and used for
personalized treatments, such as replacing damaged tissues or studying disease
mechanisms.

4. Perinatal Stem Cells

Origin: These stem cells are found in the tissue of the placenta, amniotic fluid,
and umbilical cord after birth.
Potency: They are typically multipotent and have the potential to differentiate into
a variety of cell types.
Characteristics: Perinatal stem cells are less controversial than ESCs and are
increasingly being studied for regenerative therapies. They can be stored from
birth and used in future treatments.
Example: Cells from the umbilical cord have been shown to differentiate into
blood cells, muscle cells, and neurons, and they hold potential for treating
conditions like leukemia or immune system disorders.
5. Cancer Stem Cells (CSCs)
Origin: These stem cells are found within tumors and are thought
to be responsible for the growth and spread of cancer.
Potency: They are multipotent, but their potential for
differentiation is often limited to the specific tumor they originate
from.
Characteristics: Cancer stem cells are a subpopulation of cancer
cells that can self-renew and fuel the progression ofthe disease.
They are believed to contribute to tumor resistance to
chemotherapy and radiation.
Example: CSCs can be found in various cancers, such as
leukemia, breast cancer, and brain tumors.
 Applications

• Stem cells can be used to study development

• Stem cells may help us understand how a complex organism develops from a fertilised egg.
• In the laboratory, scientists can follow stem cells as they divide and become increasingly specialized, making
skin, bone, brain, and other cell types. Identifying the signals and mechanisms that determine whether a stem
cell chooses to carry on replicating itself or differentiate into a specialized cell type, and into which cell type,
will help us understand what controls normal development.
• Some of the most serious medical conditions, such as cancer and birth defects, are due to abnormal cell
division and differentiation.
• A better understanding of the genetic and molecular controls of these processes may yield information about
how such diseases arise and suggest new strategies for therapy. This is an important goal of stem cell research
 Adult Stem Cells and Tissue Maintenance
• Adult Stem Cells:
Adult stem cells are undifferentiated cells found in various tissues that have the ability to differentiate into specialized cells of that tissue while also self-
renewing to maintain the stem cell population. These cells are often multipotent, meaning they can give rise to multiple types of cells, but typically those
that belong to the tissue where the stem cells are located.
1. Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs):
Location: Bone marrow
Function: Responsible for producing blood cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets).
Significance: Key in blood homeostasis, regeneration after injury, and immune responses.
2. Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs):
Location: Bone marrow, adipose tissue, and other connective tissues
Function: Can differentiate into bone, cartilage, fat, and muscle cells.
Significance: Play a role in repairing musculoskeletal tissues, including bone fractures, cartilage defects, and ligament injuries.
3. Neural Stem Cells (NSCs):
Location: Brain (e.g., hippocampus, subventricular zone), spinal cord
Function: Give rise to neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes.
Significance: Vital for neurogenesis (generation of new neurons) and repairing damage in the central nervous system.
4. Epithelial Stem Cells:
Location: Skin, intestines, cornea, and other epithelial tissues
Function: Generate skin cells, intestinal cells, and corneal cells.
Significance: Essential for wound healing and maintenance of the epithelial layers that protect and line body surfaces.
 Role of Stem Cells in Adult Tissue Maintenance
Adult tissues have a constant need for regeneration and repair due to wear and tear, injury, and other biological processes. Stem cells play a
pivotal role in maintaining tissue homeostasis, allowing for the continuous replenishment of cells and facilitating tissue re pair when
necessary. Below is a detailed breakdown of how stem cells contribute to adult tissue maintenance:

1. Continuous Regeneration of Tissues

• Skin: Epidermal stem cells are located in the basal layer of the skin and continuously regenerate skin cells (keratinocytes). Thi s helps
maintain the integrity of the skin as it is constantly exposed to environmental stress and damage.
• Blood: Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), found in the bone marrow, generate all types of blood cells, including red blood cells, wh ite
blood cells, and platelets. This replenishes the blood supply throughout life and ensures immune function.
• Gut: The epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract are replaced frequently. Stem cells in the crypts of the intestine gener ate new cells to
maintain the gut lining and ensure proper digestive function.

2. Repair After Injury

• Muscle: Satellite cells, a type of muscle stem cell, remain dormant in muscle fibers but activate after injury. These cells prolife rate and
differentiate into new muscle fibers, aiding in muscle regeneration and repair.
• Liver: The liver is highly regenerative. When the liver is injured or part of it is removed, liver stem cells (or hepatocytes) are activated to
regenerate lost tissue. This regenerative ability allows the liver to recover from injury or damage effectively.
• Bone: Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) in bone marrow respond to fractures by differentiating into osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) and
osteocytes (mature bone cells), facilitating bone repair and regeneration.
3. Maintenance of Organ Function
• Neural Tissue: In specific areas of the brain (such as the hippocampus), neural stem cells (NSCs) are responsible for producing new neuron s
and supporting cells (glial cells). These stem cells play a role in memory, learning, and the brain's ability to recover from injury, albeit to a
limited extent.
• Vascular System: Endothelial progenitor cells help repair damaged blood vessel linings and support vascular health. These cells contribute to
the repair of blood vessels after injury or in conditions like cardiovascular disease.
4. Stem Cell Niches
• Stem Cell Niches: Stem cells reside in specialized microenvironments within tissues called "niches." These niches provide the necessary
signals to maintain stem cell behavior (whether they remain dormant, proliferate, or differentiate). For example, the HSC nic he in the bone
marrow regulates blood cell production, while the epidermal niche regulates skin cell regeneration.
5. Impact of Aging
• Decline in Regenerative Capacity: With age, stem cell function decreases, which results in slower tissue repair and regeneration. This can
contribute to age-related conditions such as thinning skin, muscle wasting, and weakened immune responses. The body's ability to repair tissue
after injury also becomes less efficient.
6. Stem Cell Therapy
• Potential for Regenerative Medicine: Stem cell-based therapies are being explored to help regenerate damaged tissues and organs. For
example:
• Bone Marrow Transplant: Hematopoietic stem cells are used to treat blood cancers and blood disorders.
• Stem Cells for Heart Disease: Research is exploring the use of stem cells to regenerate damaged heart tissue after heart attacks.
• Neurodegenerative Diseases: Neural stem cells are being investigated as treatments for conditions like Parkinson’s disease and spinal
cord injuries.
 Stem Cells in Tissue Repair and Regeneration
• In Response to Injury:
Activation and Mobilization: When tissue is injured, stem cells in the affected area are activated to proliferate and
differentiate into the cell types needed for repair. For example, skin stem cells activate after a wound to replace lost or
damaged skin cells.
• Regenerative Capacity:
Some tissues have a high regenerative capacity, such as the liver, which can regenerate from a small portion of tissue.
In contrast, tissues like the heart or brain have limited regenerative potential, often leading to scar tissue formation
instead of complete repair.
• Challenges in Tissue Regeneration:
Fibrosis: In some tissues (e.g., heart and liver), rather than full regeneration, injury can lead to scar tissue formation
(fibrosis), which compromises tissue function.
• Examples of Tissue Repair:
Skin Injury: Epidermal stem cells regenerate skin after cuts or abrasions.
Liver Regeneration: Hepatic stem cells aid in the regeneration of liver cells after partial resection or injury.
 Mechanism of
Tissue Maintenance
• Self-Renewal:
Continuous Renewal: Adult stem cells divide asymmetrically to create one stem cell (self-renewal) and one differentiated
cell.
Importance in Tissue Homeostasis: Ensures the stem cell pool remains intact over the organism's lifespan, providing a long-
term source for tissue repair.
• Differentiation:
Tissue-Specific Differentiation: Stem cells differentiate into specific cell types depending on the tissue they reside in.
Example: In the skin, stem cells in the basal layer of the epidermis differentiate into keratinocytes, the main cell type in the
outer layer of the skin.
• Environmental Regulation:
The Niche: The microenvironment where stem cells reside, providing signals that regulate their behavior (e.g., self-
renewal vs. differentiation).
Examples of Niche Factors:
• Extracellular Matrix (ECM): Provides physical support and biochemical signals.
• Adjacent Cells: Release factors that can stimulate stem cell division or differentiation.
• Growth Factors and Cytokines: Signals that tell stem cells when to divide or differentiate.