KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF PRIMARY EDUCATION
Name: Mkandawire Mercy
ID Number: 202460275
Course: EDU 340
Lecture: Mr Musonda M
Task: Assignment 1
Due date: 30 /04/2025
Question: According to Subrahman (2005), gender equality in education has multiple dimensions.
Outline and discuss the four (4) dimensions of gender equality and the interventions put forward for
achieving equality in education.

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Gender equality in education is a fundamental human right and a critical component of achieving
inclusive development (UNESCO, 2020). Globally, efforts to ensure both girls and boys access,
participate in, and benefit equally from educational systems have gained momentum, yet significant
disparities persist—particularly in sub-Saharan Africa. In Zambia, cultural norms, poverty, and
inadequate educational infrastructure continue to limit girls’ access to quality education, especially in
rural and peri-urban areas (FAWEZA, 2018). Despite the introduction of gender-sensitive policies
and reforms, Zambia’s education system still faces challenges such as early marriage, teenage
pregnancy, and societal expectations that prioritize boys' education over girls'. These obstacles not
only affect access to education but also perpetuate cycles of poverty and inequality, undermining
national development goals. This essay examines the four dimensions of gender equality in education
as outlined by Subrahman (2005): equality of access, equality in the learning process, equality of
educational outcomes, and equality of external results. Using practical examples from Zambia and
referencing current interventions, it evaluates how effectively the country has addressed these
dimensions in pursuit of gender parity in education. The essay begins with a focus on access, before
analyzing the learning environment, outcomes, and long-term socio-economic implications of
education on gender equality.

According to Subrahman (2005), equality of access to education refers to the equal opportunity for
all individuals, regardless of gender, to enroll in and attend school. It implies that both boys and girls
should have the same rights and conditions for starting education, including financial, geographic,
and social access. True equality of access removes systemic barriers such as discriminatory
admission policies, cultural biases, and economic constraints that disproportionately affect one
gender—typically girls in many low-income countries. Ensuring equality of access is the first step
toward achieving comprehensive gender parity across all levels of education and contributes
significantly to national development and empowerment.

In Zambia, gender disparities in access to education remain prevalent, particularly in rural and
marginalized communities. Girls are more likely to drop out of school due to poverty, early marriage,
and the burden of domestic responsibilities (Ministry of General Education, 2020). While boys may
also face challenges, girls are disproportionately affected by cultural beliefs that devalue their
education and prioritize boys as future breadwinners. According to UNESCO (2021), Zambia’s net
enrollment rate for girls in secondary school is significantly lower than that of boys, especially in
provinces like Eastern and Northern. Additionally, menstrual hygiene challenges and lack of safe
school environments contribute to absenteeism and school abandonment among adolescent girls.

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These systemic inequalities not only restrict girls' educational attainment but also limit their future
socioeconomic opportunities. Addressing these disparities requires targeted, gender-responsive
strategies that not only remove barriers but also actively promote and support girls' participation in
education.

To promote equal access, the Government of Zambia has implemented several key interventions.
First, the Free Basic Education Policy abolished school fees at the primary level, removing a major
financial barrier that prevented many girls from attending school. Secondly, the Re-entry Policy
allows adolescent mothers to return to school after giving birth, combating stigma and ensuring
continued education. A successful example is seen in Central Province, where re-enrollment of
young mothers has increased due to community sensitization programs.

Furthermore, scholarship schemes targeting girls—supported by organizations like FAWEZA and

Equality in the learning process refers to the provision of a school environment where both boys and
girls experience equitable treatment, respect, participation, and support during the learning
experience (Subrahman, 2005). This includes the use of gender-sensitive teaching methods, unbiased
learning materials, and inclusive classroom dynamics that encourage both genders to perform and
participate equally. True equality in the learning process ensures that gender stereotypes are
challenged, and that female learners have the same opportunities as male learners to express
themselves, develop confidence, and achieve academic success. It also requires schools to create
physically and emotionally safe spaces conducive to learning for all.

Despite policies promoting inclusivity, learning disparities persist within Zambian classrooms.
Gender biases in teaching practices, classroom interactions, and instructional materials continue to
undermine girls’ participation and performance (UNESCO, 2020). For example, textbooks often
depict males in leadership or professional roles while females are relegated to domestic tasks,
reinforcing stereotypes that limit girls' aspirations. Teachers may unintentionally allocate more
attention or praise to boys, particularly in math and science subjects (FAWEZA, 2018). In mixed-
gender settings, girls are less likely to ask questions or lead discussions due to cultural expectations

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of submissiveness. Furthermore, female students often face sexual harassment and bullying in
schools, affecting their confidence and engagement in class activities. In STEM (science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics), girls remain underrepresented, especially at higher education levels,
due to a lack of mentorship and encouragement from educators. These disparities hinder girls from

Zambia has adopted several strategies to address gender disparities in the learning process. Gender-
sensitive pedagogy training for teachers—supported by the Ministry of Education and organizations
like FAWEZA—has been rolled out in several provinces to promote inclusive teaching approaches
and challenge stereotypes in the classroom. Curriculum reforms have been initiated to revise
textbooks and remove gender biases in illustrations and narratives (Ministry of General Education,
2020). Additionally, STEM initiatives for girls, such as the “Girls in STEM” clubs supported by
UNESCO and CAMFED, encourage female participation in science and math subjects through
mentorship, hands-on learning, and exposure to female role models. Girls' clubs within schools
provide safe spaces for peer learning, mentorship, and life skills development, enhancing girls’ self-
esteem and agency. These interventions contribute to a more equitable classroom environment that
supports academic achievement and confidence-building for female learners across Zambia.

Equality of educational outcomes refers to the ability of learners from all genders to achieve similar
academic results, complete education cycles at comparable rates, and transition successfully to the
next level of education or employment (Subrahman, 2005). It goes beyond mere access and
participation to examine the actual performance and achievements of boys and girls. Equal outcomes
are influenced by factors such as academic support, school retention, socio-emotional wellbeing, and
home learning environments. Achieving outcome equality requires removing the systemic and
institutional disadvantages that prevent learners—especially girls—from excelling in examinations,
graduating on time, or accessing post-education opportunities.

Zambia continues to face significant gender gaps in educational outcomes, especially at the
secondary and tertiary levels. While enrollment has improved, many girls still lag behind boys in
academic performance, particularly in mathematics and sciences (UNESCO, 2021). Girls are more
likely to drop out due to teenage pregnancy, early marriage, or economic hardship. According to the
Ministry of General Education (2020), the Grade 12 completion rate for girls remains lower than for
boys, particularly in rural areas. Menstrual-related absenteeism is a major contributing factor, as
many schools lack proper sanitation facilities or do not provide menstrual hygiene products.
Additionally, inadequate academic and emotional support, combined with gender-based violence and
societal pressures, hinders girls from performing to their full potential. These challenges compromise
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girls' ability to transition into tertiary education or the workforce, further entrenching the cycle of
gender inequality in Zambia’s education system.

To improve educational outcomes for girls, Zambia has implemented a range of supportive measures.
Menstrual hygiene management (MHM) programs, introduced in partnership with UNICEF and local
NGOs, have provided sanitary pads and improved water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) facilities
in schools, helping to reduce absenteeism among adolescent girls. Guidance and counseling services
have been strengthened in some secondary schools to address students’ emotional and academic
needs and reduce dropout rates. In addition, targeted academic support initiatives, such as after-
school tutoring and remedial classes for girls, are being piloted in districts like Chipata and Kasama.
Organizations such as CAMFED offer mentorship programs and peer learning groups, which have
shown positive results in boosting academic performance and self-esteem. These interventions aim to
level the playing field so that girls can perform just as well as boys and have equal chances of
completing their education successfully.

Equality of external results refers to the extent to which education translates into equal social and
economic opportunities for both males and females after leaving the school system (Subrahman,
2005). This dimension examines whether learners of all genders can access similar employment
opportunities, wages, and career progression. It also considers their ability to participate equally in
civic and political life. Achieving equality in external results requires the dismantling of gender
barriers in the labor market, including biases in hiring practices, unequal pay, occupational
segregation, and limited access to entrepreneurship or leadership positions for women, especially in
traditionally male-dominated fields.

Despite educational gains, women in Zambia face persistent inequalities in the labor market.
According to the Zambia Labour Force Survey (ZLFS, 2020), women are overrepresented in
informal and low-paying sectors such as domestic work, subsistence agriculture, and market
vending, while underrepresented in high-paying, formal employment. Fewer women hold decision-
making or technical positions in sectors like engineering, finance, or information technology. Even
among degree holders, gender pay gaps remain prevalent. Socio-cultural norms, limited access to
capital, and discriminatory hiring practices further hinder women’s career progression. Additionally,
young women with secondary or tertiary education often face employer biases regarding family
responsibilities, affecting hiring and promotion. These patterns reflect a disconnect between girls’
improved educational participation and their socioeconomic empowerment. Without equal outcomes

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in employment and economic participation, the full benefits of gender equality in education remain
unrealized, perpetuating cycles of poverty and marginalization for many Zambian women.

Several interventions have been introduced in Zambia to promote gender equality in external
educational outcomes. The TEVET (Technical Education, Vocational and Entrepreneurship Training)
Authority, supported by the government and cooperating partners, has prioritized skills training
programs for women and girls, particularly in male-dominated fields like carpentry, plumbing, and
ICT. These programs are available in centers such as NORTEC and Kitwe Trades School and are
often subsidized for female students. Mentorship programs, spearheaded by NGOs like CAMFED
and Women in Engineering Zambia (WIEZ), connect female graduates with professional mentors to
guide career development and build confidence. In addition, the National Gender Policy (2014)
supports affirmative action measures, including female quotas in public service recruitment and
political representation. These efforts aim to address historical inequalities and empower women to
translate their education into tangible career and leadership outcomes, thus closing the gender gap in
Zambia’s socio-economic development.

While Zambia has made notable progress, several challenges impede the achievement of full gender
equality in education. Deep-rooted cultural norms continue to value boys’ education more than girls’,
particularly in rural areas. Weak enforcement of policies—such as the re-entry policy and anti-
discrimination laws—limits their effectiveness. Furthermore, there is inadequate monitoring and
evaluation of gender-focused interventions, resulting in poor data to inform policy. Funding
constraints also hamper the scaling of successful programs like girls' clubs and STEM initiatives.
Addressing these persistent barriers requires sustained political commitment, stronger community
engagement, and better resource allocation across all levels of the education system.

In conclusion, this essay explored the four key dimensions of gender equality in education—access,
learning process, educational outcomes, and external results—with reference to Zambia. Progress has
been made through policies such as free education, re-entry initiatives, and targeted support for girls
in STEM and the labor market. However, gender disparities persist due to cultural, economic, and
institutional barriers. To advance gender equality, Zambia must strengthen implementation, increase
investment in education, and prioritize monitoring and accountability. With continued multi-sectoral
collaboration, the country can ensure that education truly empowers all learners, regardless of
gender, and contributes to sustainable national development.

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 References

CAMFED Zambia. (2022). Girls’ education and empowerment in Zambia: Progress report.
Retrieved from https://www.camfed.org

FAWEZA. (2018). Girls’ education in Zambia: A situational analysis. Lusaka: Forum for African
Women Educationalists of Zambia.

Ministry of Gender. (2014). National Gender Policy. Lusaka: Government of the Republic of
Zambia.

Ministry of General Education. (2020). Education statistical bulletin 2019. Lusaka: Government of
Zambia.

Subrahman, R. (2005). Gender equality in education: Definitions and dimensions. UNESCO.

TEVETA. (2021). Annual performance report. Lusaka: Technical Education, Vocational and
Entrepreneurship Training Authority.

UNESCO. (2020). Global education monitoring report 2020: Gender report – A new generation.
Paris: UNESCO.

UNESCO. (2021). Education and gender equality: Zambia country profile. Retrieved from
https://www.unesco.org

Zambia Statistics Agency. (2020). Zambia labour force survey 2020. Lusaka: Government of
Zambia.