CTE 111 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER & INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Computer Fundamental HANDBOOK

Developed By: IKUEJAWA ABIOLA OLADEJI (CPMP,

ACIPM, ACIEHS, CCSP, ACICRM, AESM)

NOVEMBER 9, 2023
best solution polytechnic, akure, ondo state
KM 12, Ondo Road, Akure, Nigeria
Week 1: Understand the history, classification and impact of computers

1.1 Define computer

Introduction
The computer is fast becoming the universal machine of the twenty-first century.
Early computers were large in size and too expensive to be owned by
individuals. Thus they were confined to the laboratories and few research
institutes. They could only be programmed by computer engineers. The basic
applications were confined to undertaking complex calculations in science and
engineering. Today, the computer is no longer confined to the laboratory.
Computers, and indeed, computing have become embedded in almost every item
we use. Computing is fast becoming ubiquitous. Its application in engineering,
communication, space science, aviation, financial institutions, social sciences,
humanities, the military, transportation, manufacturing, the extractive industries to
mention but a few.

Definitions
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the
user and processes these data under the control of set of instructions (called
program) and gives the result (output) and saves output for the future use. It can
process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and logical) calculations.
Also Computer can be defined as an electronic machine which accept data as
inform of input and process it as informs of out and store or keep it for future use.
Computer is a GIGO Machine (Garbage IN, Garbage OUT).
The term computer is obtained from the word compute. A computer is an electronic
device that inputs (takes in) facts (known as data), and then processes (does something to
or with) it. Afterwards it outputs, or displays, the results for you to see.

Data is all kinds of facts, including, pictures, letters, numbers, and sounds.
There are two main parts of computers, hardware and software. Hardware is all of the
parts of the computer you can see and touch. Software is the instructions that a computer
uses to do what you ask it to. Pieces of software are often called programs. The basic
function performed by a computer is the execution of a program.

Figure 1.1 – A Complete computer system

A computer has four functions:

a. Accepts data Input
b. Processes data Processing
c. Produces output Output
d. Stores results Storage

1.2 The basic components of the computer systems

A personal computer is not a single unit. A typical computer consists of several basic
parts or components that work together. To perform any computer task you need two
major components: the hardware and the software.
[1] The hardware is the physical components of a computer system. Generally,
you can think of the hardware as any part of the computer that you can see or
touch. Although the hardware of a computer is capable of performing
marvelous tasks, it cannot accomplish any of them without the vital
 instructions that the software provides.
[2] The software is a set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. You
can’t see or touch the software, although you can see packages that contain
the software. It is typically distributed on CD-ROM disc and is installed on
the computer hard drive.

Hardware Components
The major hardware components of the personal computer consist of the following:
[1] Input Devices: Input devices are the computer hardware that accepts data and
instructions from a user. Input devices have been built in many forms to help in
communicating with the computer. The most common input devices are the
keyboard and the mouse.
i. The Keyboard: The keyboard of the personal computer comes in a
number of styles. The various models may differ in size and shape, but
except for a few special purpose keys, MDS keyboards are laid out
almost identifiably. The most common keyboard used today was
established by IBM. The computer keyboard is more than just a
typewriter. It contains all of the keys required for typing letters,
numbers, plus the keys for entering commands and moving around on
the screen. There are 101 keys arranged in groups: Alphanumeric,
Numeric, Function and Arrow/Cursor movement keys, and Computer
keys.
ii. A mouse is a pointing device that enables you to quickly move around
on the screen, and to select commands from menus rather than type the
commands. A mouse is useful because it enables the user to point at
items on the screen and clicks a button to select the item. It is
convenient for entering certain data.
 iii. Track Balls: A trackball is an input device that works like an upside-
down mouse. You rest your hand on the exposed ball and the fingers on
the button. To move the cursor around the screen, you roll the ball
with your thumb. Trackballs are much popular with notebook
computers. They require less desk space than the mouse.
iv. The Joystick: This is a pointing device commonly used for games. It is
not used for business applications.
v. The Pen: It is an input device that allows a user to write on or point at
a special pad on the screen of a pen-based computer, such as a personal
digital assistant (PDAS).
vi. The Touch Screen: A computer screen that accepts input directly into
the monitor; users touch electronic buttons displayed on the screen. It is
appropriate in environment where dirt or weather would render
keyboards and pointing devices useless.
vii. The Scanner: This is an input device used to copy images into a
computer memory without manual keying. It works by converting any
image into electronic form by shinning light on the image and sensing
the intensity of reflection at every point. There are several kinds of
scanners. These includes: hand held, flatbed, and sheet- feds.
viii. The Bar-Code Reader: This is one of the most commonly used input
devices after the keyboard and mouse. It is commonly found in
supermarkets and department stores. This device converts a pattern of
printed bars on products into a product number by emitting a beam of
light frequently from a laser that reflects off the bar code image. A light
sensitive detector identifies the bar-code image by special bars at both
ends of the image. Once it has identified the barcode, it converts the
individual bar patterns into numeric digits.
Input Devices

[2] Processing Devices: Basically two components handle processing in a computer:

the central processing unit (CPU) and the memory.
[3] The Central Processing Unit (CPU): The central processing unit (CPU) is a tiny
electronic chip known as the micro processor located in the system unit. It is
 installed on the main circuit board of the computer, the motherboard. The CPU as the
name implies is where information is processed within the computer. In this regard,
you might think of the CPU (processor) as the brain of the computer. The CPU is
otherwise known as microprocessor. Every CPU has at least two basic parts. The
control unit and the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The control unit coordinates all
the computer activities and contains the CPUs instruction to carry out commands.
The ALU is responsible for carrying out arithmetic and logic functions. In other
words, when the control unit encounters an instruction that involves arithmetic and
logic it refers it to the ALU.
[4] Memory: What happens to all the information we put into the computer: before,
while and after information is processed? It is held in the computer memory or
Random Access Memory (RAM). The memory to which we are referring here is not
the kind of long-term storage that allows you to save work on a floppy disk and
months later to use it, but rather a short term holding area that is built into the
computer hardware. While the CPU is fast and efficient, it cannot remember anything
by itself. It often refers to the memory in the computer for software instruction and to
remember what it is working on. The term RAM and memory are often
interchangeable. RAM refers to the way the CPU searches through memory for the
information it needs. For the workings of a memory, information is stored in memory
chips. The CPU can get information faster from RAM than it can from a disk. A
computer then reads information or instruction from disks and stores the information
in the RAM where it can get the information quickly. The CPU processes the
information and then returns to the RAM.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) Memory

[5] Storage Devices: Among the most important part of a computer system are the
devices that allow you to save data or information. The physical components or
materials on which data are stored are called storage media. A storage device is a
piece of hardware that permanently stores information. Unlike electronic memory, a
storage device retains information when electric power is turned off. There are
several storage devices and primary among them are:
a. The Floppy Disk: The floppy disk is a circular flat piece of plastic made of a flexible
(or floppy) magnetic material on which data are recorded. Floppy disk drives store
data on both sides of the disks. Earlier computers stored data on only a single side of
the floppy disk.
b. The Hard Disk: The hard disk is generally not visible because hard disks are usually
enclosed within the system unit. The hard disk is a stack of metal platters that spin on
one spindle like a stack of rigid floppy disks. Unlike floppy disks where the disk and
 drive are separate, the hard-disk drive, or hard drive is the whole unit. Generally you
cannot remove the hard disk from its drive; however some manufacturers make
removable hard disks that plug into a separate drive unit.
c. The CD-ROM: CD-ROM disks are hard, plastic, silver – a colored disk. CD-ROM is
an acronym for Compact Disc Read – Only Memory. This implies that the disk can
only be read. You cannot change or overwrite the contents of a CD-ROM disk.
d. Tape Drives: A tape drive is a device that reads and writes data to the surface of a
magnetic tape, generally used for backing up or restoring the data of an entire hard
disk.
e. The Zip Drive: Zip drives are an alternative to tape backup units or tape drives. A
zip drive can be internal or external. Zip drives have
removable cartridges or disk. A zip drive holds about 100MB to 250 MB of Data.

Storage Devices
[6] Output Devices: Output devices return processed data, that is, information back to
the user. In other words, output devices allow the computer >talk? to us. The most
common output devices are the monitor and the printer. Others include modems and
speakers.
a. The Monitor: The monitor is an output device that enables the computer to display
to the user what is going on. It has a screen like that of a television. It is commonly
referred to as the screen or display. It is the main source for output of information
from the computer. As data is entered through an input device, the monitor changes
to show the effects of the command. Messages displayed on the screen allow the user
to know if the command is correct.
b. The Printer: The printer is an output device that produces on hard copy or a print out
 on a paper i.e. it takes data from its electronic form and prints it out on paper. There
are three principal types of printers; Laser, Inkjet and Dot – Matrix.
c. The Sound Card: Sound Cards, otherwise known as sound boards, is a hard ware
board. It is a device that produces audio sounds and usually provides ports in the back
of a computer for external speakers. It is installed in one of the expansion slot inside
the system unit?s motherboard.
d. The Modem: The modem is a device that allows a computer to communicate with
another computer through a telephone line. Both computers need compatible modem.
With a modem, a computer and required software, you can connect with other
computers all over the world.

Output Devices
Software Components
Software is a set of instructions that operate a computer, manipulate the data and execute
particular functions or tasks. In other words, it is a programs, routines, and symbolic
languages that control the function of the hardware.
For software (the instructions) to perform various functions, it must be programmed.
That is, the instructions need to be written in a programming language that the computer
can understand. Without a program, a computer is useless.

Computer program is a sequence of instructions that can be executed by a

computer to carry out a process.
There are two kinds of software, systems software and applications software.
[1] Applications Software: Applications software includes programs that user access to
carry out work. They include applications for the following functions.
 Word processing is the most common applications software. The great advantage of
word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes without retyping
the entire document. Word processors make it easy to manipulate and format
documents. Example of word processing software is Microsoft Office Word, Microsoft
Works Word, Open Office Word, etc.
 Spreadsheets are computer programs that let people electronically create and
manipulate spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in rows and columns with
predefined relationships to each other). Spreadsheets are used for mathematical
calculations such as accounts, budgets, statistics and so on. Example; Microsoft Excel,
Lotus 1, 2, 3, and SPSS.
 Database management applications are computer programs that let people create and
manipulate data in a database. A database is a collection of related information that can
be manipulated and used to sort information, conduct statistical analyses or generate
reports. Example is Microsoft Access, Microsoft SQL, MySQL and Oracle database.
 Presentation packages and graphics are computer programs that enable users to create
highly stylized images for slide presentations and reports. They can also be used to
produce various types of charts and graphs. Many software applications include
graphics components including: paint programs, desktop publishing applications and
so on. Example is Microsoft PowerPoint.
 Communications applications typically include software to enable people to send faxes
and emails and dial into other computers.

[2] Systems Software: includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the
computer to function. The most important program that runs on a computer is the
 operating system. Every general-purpose computer
[3] must have an operating system in order to run other programs. This includes
controlling functions such as the coordination of the hardware and applications
software, allocating storage facilities, controlling the input and output devices and
managing time sharing for linked or networked computers.

Functions of an Operating System

• Booting of Computer: This is the first process which takes place the moment the
computer's electrical switch is put on. During this process all the peripherals
connected to the computer are checked and validated; at the end of the validation
process, the OS signals the user to begin working on the computer.
• Providing User Interface: The OS provides an interface for the user, either as a
command line interface or as a graphical user interface. This enables the user to
communicate with the computer.
• Managing the Hardware: OS controls and manages hardware resources. For
example, OS manages the selection and operation of devices used for input,
output and storage. In other words the OS serves as the intermediary between
programs and hardware.
• Managing the File System: The operating system groups? data together into -
logical compartments for storage on disk. These groups of data are called files.
The computer stores information in files. Files may contain program instructions
or data created or used by a program. The OS maintains the list of files on a disk.
• Supporting Programs: Another major function of an OS is to provide services to
other programs. Often these services are similar to those that the OS provides
directly to users. For example when you want your word- processing program
to retrieve a document, the word processor will list the files in the directory
that you specify.
• Some of the other services that an OS provides to programs are:
 saving files to disk reading them from disk into memory
 checking available disk or memory space
 allocating memory to hold data for a program
Categories of an Operating System
1. Multitasking the Operating System/Multi Programming: This is an OS that is
able to run more than one program task per operation time.

There are two types of multitasking operating systems cooperative and preemptive.
• Cooperative Multitasking: This requires cooperation between the OS and
application programs. In this case the programs are written in such a way that they
periodically check with the OS to see whether any other program needs the CPU. If
a program needs the CPU, they relinquish control of the CPU to the next program.
Cooperative multitasking is common with Macintosh OS and DOS computers
running Microsoft Windows.
• Preemptive Multitasking: Under this scheme, the OS maintain a list of processes
(programs) that are running. Each process on the list is assigned a priority by the
OS when it is started. At any time, the OS can intervene and modify the priority
list. The OS also retains control of the amount of time that it spends with any
process before going to the next process. UNIX, OS/2 and Windows NT employ
preemptive multitasking.
2. Multi-user Operating Systems: A multi-user OS allows more than a single user
access to a computer at the same time. Of course, to accomplish this, a multi-user
OS must also be capable of multitasking. Only UNIX OS and Windows NT are
capable of supporting multiple users. UNIX provides three ways to let people use
the same PC at the same time.
• The first way to connect to a PC running UNIX is from another computer
with a modem. The remote user can log in and run
programs, list files, send e-mails read the news and otherwise do
everything they could do if they were physically in front of the UNIX computer.
 • The second way to connect to a UNIX computer is by attaching terminals to the
PC. Terminals are inexpensive devices that consist of a keyboard, and a monitor.
• The third way to tap into a UNIX computer multi-user capabilities is with a network.
3. Multiprocessing Operating Systems: A special type of OS is required to use a
computer equipped with more than one CPU. In other words, multiprocessing
requires an OS capable of using and managing a series of CPUs. There are two
types:

• With asymmetrical multiprocessing one main CPU retains the overall control of
the computer as well as that of the other microprocessor.
• On the other hand in symmetrical multiprocessing there is no single controlling
CPU. This arrangement provides a linear increase in system capacity for each
processor added to the system.
• Some extensions of UNIX supports asymmetric multiprocessing while Windows
NT supports symmetric multiprocessing.

Types of Operating Systems

1. DOS (Disk Operating System): MS-DOS used to be the most common and
most popular of all the PC operating systems. The reason for its popularity then
is because of the overwhelming volume of available software and large
installation of Intel-based PCs. DOS runs on any of the Intel microprocessor.
DOS functions through the command–line interface i.e. DOS functions by
commands.
2. Microsoft Windows: Microsoft Windows is a version of DOS. It was released in
1987. Microsoft Windows can run standard DOS programs either in a window
within the Graphic Use Interface (GUI) or on a full-screen. To take full
advantage of the Microsoft environment you need programs written for Microsoft
 Windows.
3. Operating Systems 2 (OS/2): 1BM and Microsoft teamed up to develop the
Operating System 2(OS/2) to take full advantage of the multitasking capabilities
of the newly introduced Intel 80286 microprocessor. OS/2 like DOS has a
character–based command-line mode, but unlike DOS, the command interpreter
is a separate program from the OS kernel and is only involved when you click on
the OS/2. OS/2 runs only on Intel 80286 and later Intel processors.
4. The Macintosh OS: The Macintosh OS is a purely graphic machine. In fact
there is no equipment of a command-line interface available for it. Its tight
integration of OS, GUI and desktop make it desirable for people who do not want
to deal with a command-line interface. The Macintosh OS only runs on
Macintosh machine. The Macintosh OS has an additional network protocol built
into it and is ideal for desktop publishing. Installing and configuring a Macintosh
with new hardware device is simple.
5. UNIX: UNIX is the first OS that runs on many different types of computers. It
runs on Cray supercomputers, PCs, and everything in between including
mainframes and minicomputers. UNIX is older than all the other PC operating
systems and in many ways served as a model for them. UNIX is based on a
simple idea-small is better. Every command and program that makes up the OS is
designed to do a simple very specific task and do it well. UNIX is an extremely
robust and capable OS that utilizes command –line and there are so many
commands.
6. Microsoft Windows NT: Microsoft Windows NT is a new OS designed from
scratch for the most modern and capable machines available. Microsoft Windows
NT offers built-in features that no other PC OS has – with the possible exception
of UNIX. In addition to the traditional UNIX features of strict system security,
built-in networking, built-in communications and electronic mail services
 development and system administration tools, and a GUI. Microsoft Windows
NT can run Microsoft Windows applications and many UNIX applications,
directly. Like OS/2 it is a 32-bit OS that can use 386, 486 and Pentium
processors Microsoft Windows NT is multitasking and purely graphical OS
with network software to make a network client or server. It is single- user and
allows access to command line interface of the DOS unlike the Macintosh.

1.3 The development of computers, in particular: Abacus, Pascal, Babbage,

Hollerith, ENIAC etc.

Ancient Times

Early Man relied on counting on his fingers and toes (which by

the way, is the basis for our base 10 numbering system). He
also used sticks and stones as markers. Later notched sticks and
knotted cords were used for counting. Finally came symbols
written on hides, parchment, and later paper. Man invents the
concept of number, then invents devices to help keep up with the numbers of his
possessions.

Roman Empire

The ancient Romans developed an Abacus, the first "machine"

for calculating. While it predates the Chinese abacus we do not
know if it was the ancestor of that Abacus. Counters in the
lower groove are 1 x 10n, those in the upper groove are 5 x 10n
Industrial Age - 1600

John Napier, a Scottish nobleman and

politician devoted much of his leisure time
to the study of mathematics. He was
especially interested in devising ways to aid
computations. His greatest contribution was
the invention of logarithms. He inscribed
logarithmic measurements on a set of 10 wooden rods and thus was able to do
multiplication and division by matching up numbers on the rods. These became known as
Napier’s Bones.

1621 - The Sliderule

Napier invented logarithms, Edmund Gunter invented the

logarithmic scales (lines etched on metal or wood), but it was
William Oughtred, in England who invented the sliderule. Using the
concept of Napier’s bones, he inscribed logarithms on strips of wood
and invented the calculating "machine" which was used up until the mid-1970s when the
first hand-held calculators and microcomputers appeared.
1642 - Blaise Pascal(1623-1662)

Blaise Pascal, a French

mathematical genius, at
the age of 19 invented a
machine, which he
called
the Pascaline that could
do addition and subtraction to help his father, who was also a mathematician. Pascal’s
machine consisted of a series of gears with 10 teeth each, representing the numbers 0 to
9. As each gear made one turn it would trip the next gear up to make 1/10 of a revolution.
This principle remained the foundation of all mechanical adding machines for centuries
after his death. The Pascal programming language was named in his honor.

1673 - Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646-1716)

Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz

invented differential and integral
calculus independently of Sir Isaac
Newton, who is usually given sole
credit. He invented a calculating
machine known as Leibniz’s Wheel or
the Step Reckoner. It could add and
subtract, like Pascal’s machine, but it could also multiply and divide. It did this by
repeated additions or subtractions, the way mechanical adding machines of the mid to
late 20th century did. Leibniz also invented something essential to modern computers
— binary arithmetic.

1725 - The Bouchon Loom

Basile Bouchon, the son of an organ maker, worked in the textile
industry. At this time fabrics with very intricate patterns woven into
them were very much in vogue. To weave a complex pattern, however
involved somewhat complicated manipulations of the threads in a
loom which frequently became tangled, broken, or out of place. Bouchon observed the
paper rolls with punched holes that his father made to program his player organs and
adapted the idea as a way of "programming" a loom. The paper passed over a section of
the loom and where the holes appeared certain threads were lifted. As a result, the pattern
could be woven repeatedly. This was the first punched paper, stored program.
Unfortunately the paper tore and was hard to advance. So, Bouchon’s loom never really
caught on and eventually ended up in the back room collecting dust.

1728 - Falçon Loom

In 1728 Jean-Batist Falçon, substituted a deck of punched cardboard cards for the paper
roll of Bouchon’s loom. This was much more durable, but the deck of cards tended to get
shuffled and it was tedious to continuously switch cards. So, Falçon’s loom ended up
collecting dust next to Bouchon’s loom.

1745 - Joseph Marie Jacquard (1752-1834)

It took inventor Joseph M.
Jacquard to bring together
Bouchon’s idea of a continuous
punched roll, and Falcon’s ides
of durable punched cards to
produce a really workable
programmable loom. Weaving
operations were controlled by punched cards tied together to form a long loop. And, you
could add as many cards as you wanted. Each time a thread was woven in, the roll was
clicked forward by one card. The results revolutionized the weaving industry and made a
lot of money for Jacquard. This idea of punched data storage was later adapted for
computer data input.
1822 – Charles Babbage (1791-1871) and Ada Augusta, The Countess of Lovelace

Charles Babbage is known as the

Father of the modern computer
(even though none of his
computers worked or were even
constructed in their entirety). He
first designed plans to build, what
he called the Automatic
Difference Engine. It was designed to help in the
construction of mathematical tables for navigation.
Unfortunately, engineering limitations of his time made it impossible for the computer to
be built. His next project was much more ambitious.

While a professor of mathematics at Cambridge University (where

Stephen Hawkin is now), a position he never actually occupied, he
proposed the construction of a machine he called the Analytic Engine.
It was to have a punched card input, a memory unit (called the store), an
arithmetic unit (called the mill), automatic printout, sequential program
control, and 20-place decimal accuracy. He had actually worked out a
plan for a computer 100 years ahead of its time. Unfortunately it was
never completed. It had to wait for manufacturing technology to catch up to his ideas.

During a nine-month period in 1842-1843, Ada Lovelace translated Italian

mathematician Luigi Menabrea's memoir on Charles Babbage's Analytic Engine. With
her translation she appended a set of notes which specified in complete detail a method
for calculating Bernoulli numbers with the Engine. Historians now recognize this as the
world's first computer program and honor her as the first programmer. Too bad she has
such an ill-received programming language named after her.
1880s – Herman Hollerith (1860-1929)
The computer trail next takes us to, of all
places, the U.S. Bureau of Census. In 1880
taking the U.S. census proved to be a
monumental task. By the time it was
completed it was almost time to start over
for the 1890 census. To try to overcome this
problem the Census Bureau hired Dr.
Herman Hollerith. In 1887, using Jacquard’s idea of the punched card data storage,
Hollerith developed a punched card tabulating system, which allowed the census takers
to record all the information needed on punched cards which were then placed in a
special tabulating machine with a series of counters. When a lever was pulled a number
of pins came down on the card. Where there was a hole the pin went through the card and
made contact with a tiny pool of mercury below and tripped one of the counters by one.
With Hollerith’s machine the 1890 census tabulation was completed in 1/8 the time. And
they checked the count twice.

After the census Hollerith turned to using his tabulating machines for business and in
1896 organized the Tabulating Machine Company which later merged with other
companies to become IBM. His contribution to the computer then is the use of punched
card data storage. BTW: The punched cards in computers were made the same size as
those of Hollerith’s machine. And, Hollerith chose the size he did because that was the
same size as the one dollar bill at that time and therefore he could find plenty of boxes
just the right size to hold the cards.

1939-1942 Dr. John Vincent Atanasoff(1903-1995) and Clifford Berry (1918-1963)

Dr. John Vincent

Atanasoff and his
graduate assistant,
Clifford Barry, built
the first truly
electronic computer,
called the Atanasoff-
Berry Computer or ABC. Atanasoff said the idea came to him as he was sitting in a small
roadside tavern in Illinois. This computer used a circuit with 45 vacuum tubes to perform
the calculations, and capacitors for storage. This was also the first computer to use binary
math.

1943 – Colossus I

The first really successful electronic computer was built

in Bletchley Park, England. It was capable of
performing only one function, that of code breaking
during World War II. It could not be re-programmed.

1944 – Mark I - Howard Aiken (1900-1973) and Grace Hopper (1906-1992)

In 1944 Dr. Howard Aiken of Harvard

finished the construction of the Automatic
Sequence Controlled Calculator, popularly
known as the Mark I. It contained over
3000 mechanical relays and was the first
electro-mechanical computer capable of
making logical decisions, like if x==3
then do this not like If its raining outside I need to carry an umbrella. It could perform
an addition in 3/10 of a second. Compare that with something on the order of a couple of
nano-seconds (billionths of a second) today.

The important contribution of this machine was that it was programmed by means of a
punched paper tape, and the instructions could be altered. In many ways, the Mark I was
the realization of Babbage’s dream.

One of the primary

programmers for the Mark I
was Grace Hopper. One day
the Mark I was malfunctioning
and not reading its paper tape
input correctly. Ms Hopper
checked out the reader and
found a dead moth in the mechanism with its
wings blocking the reading of the holes in the
paper tape. She removed the moth, taped it into her log book, and recorded... Relay #70
Panel F (moth) in relay. First actual case of bug being found.
She had debugged the program, and while the word bug had been used to describe
defects since at least 1889, she is credited with coining the word debugging to describe
the work of eliminating program errors.

It was Howard Aiken, in 1947, who made the rather short-sighted comment to the effect
that the computer is a wonderful machine, but I can see that six such machines would
be enough to satisfy all the computing needs of the entire United States.

1946 – ENIAC - J. Prosper Eckert (1919-1995) and John W. Mauchly (1907-1980)

The first all electronic computer was the Electrical

Numerical Integrator and Calculator, known
as ENIAC. It was designed by J. Prosper Eckert and
John W. Mauchly of the Moore School of
Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania.
ENIAC was the first multipurpose electronic computer, though very difficult to re-
program. It was primarily used to computer aircraft courses, shell trajectories, and to
break codes during World War II.
ENIAC occupied a 20 x 40 foot room and used 18,000 vacuum tubes. ENIAC also could
never be turned off. If it was it blew too many tubes when turned back on. It had a very
limited storage capacity and it was programmed by jumper wires plugged into a large
board.

1948 – The Transister

In 1948 an event occurred that was to forever

change the course of computers and electronics.
Working at Bell Labs three scientists, John
Bordeen (1908-1991) (left), Waltar Brattain
(1902-1987) (right), and William Shockly (1910-
1989) (seated) invented the transistor.

The change over from vacuum tube circuits to

transistor circuits occurred between 1956 and
1959. This brought in the second generation of computers, those based on transisters. The
first generation was mechanical and vacuum tube computers.

1951 – UNIVAC

The first practical electronic computer was built

by Eckert and Mauchly (of ENIAC fame) and
was known as UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer). The first UNIVAC was used
by the Bureau of Census. The unique feature of the UNIVAC was that it was not a one-
of-a-kind computer. It was mass produced.

1954 – IBM 650

In 1954 the first electronic computer for business was installed at General Electric
Appliance Park in Louisville, Kentucky. This year also saw the beginning of operation of
the IBM 650 in Boston. This comparatively inexpensive computer gave IBM the lead in
the computer market. Over 1000 650s were sold.

1957-59 – IBM 704

From 1957-1959 the IBM 704 computer appeared, for

which the Fortran language was developed. At this time the
state of the art in computers allowed 1 component per chip,
that is individual transistors.

1958 - 1962 – Programming languages

From 1958-1962 many programming languages were developed.

FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator)

COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language)
 LISP (LISt Processor)
ALGOL (ALGOrithmic Language)
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code)

1964 – IBM System/360

In 1964 the beginning of the

third-generation computers came
with the introduction of the IBM
System/360. Thanks to the
new hybrid circuits (that gross
looking orange thing in the
circuit board on the right), the
state of the art in computer technology allowed for 10 components per chip.

1965 - PDP-8

In 1965 the first integrated circuit computer, the PDP-8 from Digital
Equipment Corporation appeared. (PDP stands for Programmable
Data Processor) After this the real revolution in computer cost and
size began.

1970 - Integrated Circuits

By the early 70s the state of the art in computer technology allowed for
1000 components per chip. To get an idea of just how much the size of
electronic components had shrunk by this time look at the image on the
right. The woman is peering through a microscope at a 16K RAM
memory integrated circuit. The stand she has her microscopy sitting on
is a 16K vacuum tube memory curcuit from about 20 years previous.

1971

The Intel corporation produced the

first microprocessor chip which was
a 4-bit chip. Today’s chips are 64-
bit. At approximately 1/16 x 1/8
inches in size, this chip contained
250 transistors and had all the computing power of ENIAC. It matched IBM computers
of the early 60s that had a CPU the size of an office desk.

1975 – Altair 8800

The January 1975 issue of Popular

Electronics carried an article, the first, to
describe the Altair 8800, the first low-
cost microprocessor computer which had
just became commercially available.
Late 1970s to early 1980s – The Microcomputer Explosion

During this period many

companies appeared and
disappeared, manufacturing a
variety
of microcomputers (they were
called micro to distinguish
them from the mainframes which some people referred to
as real computers). There was Radio Shack’s TRS-80, the
Commodore 64, the Atari, but...

1977 - The Apple II

The most successful of the early

microcomputers was the Apple II,
designed and built by Steve Wozniak.
With fellow computer whiz and business
savvy friend, Steve Jobs, they started
Apple Computer in 1977 in Woz’s garage. Less than three years later the company
earned over $100 million. Not bad for a couple of college dropout computer geeks.

Click here to see an interesting article from the March 2016

issue of Smithsonian Magazine about Woz and the Apple I.
1981
In 1981, IBM produced their first microcomputer. Then the
clones started to appear. This microcomputer explosion fulfilled
its slogan computers by the millions for the millions. Compared
to ENIAC, microcomputers of the early 80s:
Were 20 times faster (Apple II ran at the speed of ¼
Megahertz).
Had a memory capacity as much as 16 times larger
(Apple had 64 K).
Were thousands of times more reliable.
Consumed the power of a light bulb instead of a locomotive.
Were 1/30,000 the size.
Cost 1/10,000 as much in comparable dollars
(An Apple II with full 64 K of RAM cost $1200 in 1979.
That’s the equivalent of about $8000 to $10000 in today's dollars)

1984-1989

In 1984 the Macintosh was introduced. This was

the first mass-produced, commercially-available
computer with a Graphical User Interface. In
1989 Windows 1.0 was introduced for the PC. It
was sort of Mac-like but greatly inferior.
Macintosh owners were know to refer to it
sarcastically as AGAM-84 Almost as Good As Macintosh 84.

1990s
Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the 90s:
Were 36,000 times faster (450 Megahertz was the average speed)
 Had a memory capacity 1000 to 5000 times larger (average was between 4 and
20 Megabytes)
Were 1/30,000 the size
Cost 1/30,000 as much in comparable dollars (A PC still cost around $1500 the
equivalent of about $2500 in 2008 dollars)

Early 2000s
Compared to ENIAC, microcomputers of the early 2000s:
Are 180,000 times faster (2.5+ Gigahertz is the average speed)
Have a memory capacity 25,000 times larger (average 1+ Gigabytes of RAM)
Are 1/30,000 the size
Cost 1/60,000 as much in comparable dollars (A PC can cost from $700 to
$1500)

Data Storage
Data storage has also grown in capacity and shrunk in size as dramatically as have
computers. Today a single data DVD will hold around 4.8 gigabytes. It would take
90,000,000 punch cards to hold the same amount of data. And, there is talk of a new high
density video disk (HVD) that will be able to hold fifty times that much data. That's more
than 240 gigabytes.
Just how much data is that
8 bits = 1 byte
1024 bytes = 1 kilobyte
1024 K = 1 Megabyte = 1,048,576 bytes
1024 Mb = 1 Gigabyte = 10,73,741,824 bytes
1024 Gb = 1 Terabyte = 1,099,511,627,776 bytes
1024 Tb = 1 Petabyte = 1,125,899,906,842,624 bytes
1024 Pb = 1 Exabyte = 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 bytes
1024 Eb = 1 Zettabyte = 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 bytes
1024 Zb = 1 Yottabyte = 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 bytes
1.4 Classify computers according to generations from 1st – 5th generation

The Five Generations of Computers

Each generation of computer is characterized by a major technological development
that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in increasingly
smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices. Read about
each generation and the developments that led to the current devices that we use today.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.
Their characteristics are:
 Very big, taking up entire rooms
 Very expensive to operate
 Using a great deal of electricity
 Generated a lot of heat
 Often malfunctions
 Relied on machine language to perform operations
 Able to solve only one problem at a time.
Their input was based on punched cards and paper tape. The Output was displayed on
printouts. The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation
computing devices.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers.
Their characteristics are:
 The computers become smaller
 They are faster, cheaper and are more energy-efficient
 They are more reliable than the first-generation computers.
 They used assembly language to perform operations
 Generated lesser heat
 Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for
output.
These were the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which
moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called
semiconductors. Characteristics of computers in this generation are:

 They were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

 Drastical increase in speed
 The computers are highly efficient
 Keyboard is used as input device
 Monitor and printouts are used for output

Users interacted with the third generation computers through an operating system, which
allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program
that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass
audience because.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of
integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip.
 What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the
computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls -
on a single chip.
 In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple
introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop
computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to
use microprocessors.
 As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth
generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld
devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices are based on artificial intelligence. They are still in
development. Applications that have been developed so far in this generation are:

 Voice recognition that is being used today.

 Parallel processing and superconductors which is helping to make artificial

intelligence a reality.

 Quantum computation, molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face
of computers in years to come.

The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural

language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
1.5 Classes of computers
Computers can be classified based on the following parameters:
 Type of data processed
 The size
 The Purpose or scope
 The age of technology

Classification by type of data processed

In this category, we have
 Digital computers
 Analog computers
 Hybrid computers
a. Digital computer

These are computers that operate on discrete values. That is, values that occur at a point
in time. E.g. 0,1,2,3… The output from digital computers is usually in the form of
discrete values. This class of computers is commonly found in the business
environments, and they include Desk Calculators, adding machines, and most of the
computers we have around, that is, the personal computers.

b. Analog computer

An analog computer is a form of computer that uses continuous physical phenomena

such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being
solved. The output of analog computers is usually represented in the form of smooth
curves or graphs from which information can be read.
Electronic analog computers Mechanical analog computers

In general, analog computers are limited by real, non-ideal effects. These are examples
of analog computers that have been constructed or practically used:
 differential analyzer
 Kerrison Predictor
 mechanical integrator
 MONIAC Computer (hydraulic model of UK economy)
 operational amplifier
 planimeter
 Range keeper
 slide rule
 thermostat
 Torpedo Data Computer
 Water integrator
 Mechanical computer
c. Hybrid computer

Hybrid computers are computers that comprise features of analog

computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves
as the controller and provides logical operations, while the analog
component normally serves as a solver of differential equations.

In general, analog computers are extraordinarily fast, since they can solve
most complex equations at the rate at which a signal traverses
the circuit, which is generally an appreciable fraction of the speed of light.
On the other hand, the precision of analog computers is not good; they are
limited to three, or at most, four digits of precision.

Hybrid computers can be used to obtain a very good but relatively

imprecise 'seed' value, using an analog computer front-end, which is then
fed into a digital computer iterative process to achieve the final desired
degree of precision. With a three or four digit, highly accurate numerical
seed, the total digital computation time necessary to reach the desired
precision is dramatically reduced, since many fewer iterations are required.

Consider that the nervous system in animals is a form of hybrid computer.

Signals pass across the synapses from one nerve cell to the next as discrete
(digital) packets of chemicals, which are then summed within the nerve
cell in an analog fashion by building an electro-chemical potential until its
threshold is reached, whereupon it discharges and sends out a series of
digital packets to the next nerve cell. The advantages are at least threefold:
noise within the system is minimized (and tends not to be additive), no
 CTE 111 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER & INFORMATION TECHNOL

common grounding system is required, and there is minimal degradation of

the signal even if there are substantial differences in activity of the cells
along a path (only the signal delays tend to vary). The individual nerve
cells are analogous to analog computers; the synapses are analogous to
digital computers.

Note that hybrid computers should be distinguished from hybrid

systems. The latter may be no more than a digital computer equipped with
an Analog-to-digital converter at the input and/or a Digital-to-analog
converter at the output, to convert analog signals for ordinary digital signal
processing, and conversely, e.g., for driving physical control systems,
such as servomechanisms.

Classification by Purpose or Scope

Using scope as a criterion, computers can be classified into two broad categories:

(a) Dedicated or Special purpose computers: These are computers that are
designed to carry out only specified task. The series of instructions that these
types of computer follow to carry out its operation is in-built and cannot be
modified. E.g. word processor, robots used in car manufacturing plants.
(b) General Purpose Computers: These are computers designed to perform a wide
variety of operations. They can be programmed to carry out scientific oriented
applications or business oriented ones just by changing the series of
instructions in its memory.

Classification by Size
Using physical size as a factor, the following types of computers can be identified:

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(a) Micro-Computers: These are computers that are small in size which can be placed
on the desk or lap or palm.

(b) Mini Computers: These are large computers that support multi users. Their speed
of operations is high compared to micros.

(c) Mainframe Computers: These are very large computers that support multi users.
Their speed of operations and memory capacity is larger than that of a mini
computer.

Classification by Age of Technology

This classification is also referred to as generations of computers. See our discussion on
generations of computers in week three.

1.7 The benefits of computers to the society

Ever since the first IBM PC was sold in 1981 and the bundling of Microsoft's Windows
Operating System on subsequent easy-to-use PCs, computers have revolutionized the
way individuals, students and enterprises work, communicate, live, educate and entertain.
Computers are now integral to virtually every possible human and non-human activity.
The benefits of computers to society are manifold.
Work
Computers are now used in every domain, field and sector and across industries. They are
used for a variety of tasks, applications and activities and to enhance productivity on all
fronts.

Communication

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The advent of the Internet and its proliferation have force-multiplied the usage of
computers. People all over the world are able to communicate, engage and interact with
each other using IM, email, blogs, online forums, social media and other options.
Jobs Influence
The widespread use and application of computers has created multiple industries, derived
sectors and professions and facilitated job opportunities for millions of people.
Entertainment
High-end desktops and full-featured notebook PCs have become all-in-one entertainment
systems for millions of users as they watch movies, sports events and news programs,
shop, socialize, download videos and play games.
Education
Computers have simplified and streamlined the process of education for millions of
young teens, college going students and post-graduates. The use of computers has
democratized the influence, reach and penetration of education and knowledge to
students in far-flung and geographically remote regions.

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Week 2: The concept and management Information Technologies

2.1 The concept of Information Systems

Information system, an integrated set of components for collecting, storing, and

processing data and for providing information, knowledge, and digital products. Business
firms and other organizations rely on information systems to carry out and manage their
operations, interact with their customers and suppliers, and compete in the marketplace.
Information systems are used to run interorganizational supply chains and electronic
markets. For instance, corporations use information systems to process financial
accounts, to manage their human resources, and to reach their potential customers with
online promotions. Many major companies are built entirely around information systems.
These include eBay, a largely auction marketplace; Amazon, an expanding electronic
mall and provider of cloud computing services; Alibaba, a business-to-business e-
marketplace; and Google, a search engine company that derives most of its revenue from
keyword advertising on Internet searches. Governments deploy information systems to
provide services cost-effectively to citizens. Digital goods—such as electronic books,
video products, and software—and online services, such as gaming and social
networking, are delivered with information systems. Individuals rely on information
systems, generally Internet-based, for conducting much of their personal lives: for
socializing, study, shopping, banking, and entertainment.

As major new technologies for recording and processing information were invented over
the millennia, new capabilities appeared, and people became empowered. The invention
of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century and the invention of
a mechanical calculator by Blaise Pascal in the 17th century are but two examples. These
inventions led to a profound revolution in the ability to record, process, disseminate, and

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reach for information and knowledge. This led, in turn, to even deeper changes in
individual lives, business organization, and human governance.

The first large-scale mechanical information system was Herman Hollerith’s census
tabulator. Invented in time to process the 1890 U.S. census, Hollerith’s machine
represented a major step in automation, as well as an inspiration to develop computerized
information systems.

One of the first computers used for such information processing was the UNIVAC I,
installed at the U.S. Bureau of the Census in 1951 for administrative use and at General
Electric in 1954 for commercial use. Beginning in the late 1970s, personal
computers brought some of the advantages of information systems to small businesses
and to individuals. Early in the same decade the Internet began its expansion as the global
network of networks. In 1991 the World Wide Web, invented by Tim Berners-Lee as a
means to access the interlinked information stored in the globally dispersed computers
connected by the Internet, began operation and became the principal service delivered on
the network. The global penetration of the Internet and the Web has enabled access to
information and other resources and facilitated the forming of relationships among people
and organizations on an unprecedented scale. The progress of electronic commerce over
the Internet has resulted in a dramatic growth in digital interpersonal communications
(via e-mail and social networks), distribution of products (software, music, e-books, and
movies), and business transactions (buying, selling, and advertising on the Web). With
the worldwide spread of smartphones, tablets, laptops, and other computer-based mobile
devices, all of which are connected by wireless communication networks, information
systems have been extended to support mobility as the natural human condition.

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As information systems enabled more diverse human activities, they exerted a profound
influence over society. These systems quickened the pace of daily activities, enabled
people to develop and maintain new and often more-rewarding relationships, affected the
structure and mix of organizations, changed the type of products bought, and influenced
the nature of work. Information and knowledge became vital economic resources. Yet,
along with new opportunities, the dependence on information systems brought new
threats. Intensive industry innovation and academic research continually develop new
opportunities while aiming to contain the threats.

2.2 Information Technology Infrastructure

Information technology infrastructure is defined broadly as a set of information

technology (IT) components that are the foundation of an IT service; typically physical
components (computer and networking hardware and facilities), but also
various software and network components.

According to the ITIL Foundation Course Glossary, IT Infrastructure can also be termed
as “All of the hardware, software, networks, facilities, etc., that are required to develop,
test, deliver, monitor, control or support IT services. The term IT infrastructure includes
all of the Information Technology but not the associated People, Processes and
documentation.”

IT infrastructure, also called technology infrastructure, is what enables a company to

build and run the applications that underpin its business. It includes
compute, network, workplace, data platform and edge capabilities. Traditional
infrastructure primarily concerns hardware, data centers and servers that are manually
configured, managed and maintained.

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With modern cloud infrastructure, applications and data are accessible from anywhere.
Thus, it includes a mix of cloud environments, on-premise data centers and edge
computing devices all connected by enterprise networks. This flexibility requires a
dynamic infrastructure engineering discipline that integrates innovation, automation and
optimization.

2.3 Computer Based Information Systems

Computer(-Based) Information System is essentially an IS using computer technology

to carry out some or all of its planned tasks. The basic components of computer based
information system are:

 Hardware– these are the devices like the monitor, processor, printer and keyboard,
all of which work together to accept, process, show data and information.

 Software– are the programs that allow the hardware to process the data.
 Databases– are the gathering of associated files or tables containing related data.
 Networks– are a connecting system that allows diverse computers to distribute
resources.
 Procedures– are the commands for combining the components above to process
information and produce the preferred output.

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The first four components (hardware, software, database and network) make up what
is known as the information technology platform. Information technology workers could
then use these components to create information systems that watch over safety
measures, risk and the management of data. These actions are known as information
technology services.

Computer Based Information System (CBIS) is an information system in which the

computer plays a major role. Such a system consists of the following elements:

 Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes the
computer itself, which is often referred to as the central processing unit (CPU), and
all of its support equipment’s. Among the support equipment’s are input and output
devices, storage devices and communications devices.
 Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any)
that support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct

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the circuitry within the hardware parts of the Computer Based Information System
(CBIS) to function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are
generally stored on some input / output medium-often a disk or tape.
 Data: Data are facts that are used by program to produce useful information. Like
programs, data are generally stored in machine-readable from on disk or tape until the
computer needs them.
 Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of
a computer system. “Procedures are to people what software is to hardware” is a
common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a CBIS.
 People: Every Computer Based Information System (CBIS) needs people if it is to be
useful. Often the most over-looked element of the CBIS is the people: probably the
components that most influence the success or failure of information system.

CBIS is a data processing system into a high-quality information and can be used as tools
that support decision-making, coordination and control as well as visualization and
analysis.

The general term, computer-based information systems (CBIS), is a constellation of a

variety of information systems, such as office automation systems (OAS), transaction
processing systems (TPS), management information systems (MIS), and management
support systems (MSS).

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Types of Computer Based Information Systems

1. Transaction Processing Systems

The most fundamental computer based system in an organisation pertains to the

processing of business transactions. A transaction processing system can be defined as a
computer based system that captures, classifies, stores, maintains, updates and retrieves
transaction data for record keeping and for input to other types of CBIS. Transaction
Processing Systems are aimed at improving the routine business activities on which all
organizations depend. A transaction is any event or activity that affects the whole
organisation. Placing orders, billing customers, hiring of employees and depositing
cheques are some of the common transactions. The types of transactions that occur vary
from organisation to organisation.

But this is true that all organisations process transactions as a major part of their daily
business activities. The most successful organisations perform this work of transaction
processing in a very systematic way. Transaction processing systems provide speed and
accuracy and can be programmed to follow routines without any variance.

2. Management Information System

Data processing by computers has been extremely effective because of several reasons.
The main reason being that huge amount of data relating to accounts and other
transactions can be processed very quickly. Earlier most of the computer applications
were concerned with record keeping and the automation of routine clerical processes.
However, in recent years, increasing attention has been focused on computer applications
providing information for policy making, management planning and control

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purposes. Management Information System are more concerned with management

function. MIS can be described as information system that can provide all levels of
management with information essential to the running of smooth business. This
information must be as relevant, timely, accurate, complete and concise and economically
feasible

3. Decision Support Systems

It is an information system that offers the kind of information that may not be predictable,
the kind that business professionals may need only once. These systems do not produce
regularly scheduled management reports. Instead, they are designed to respond to a wide
range of requests. It is true that all the decisions in an organisation are not of a recurring
nature. Decision support systems assist managers who must make decisions that are not
highly structured, often called unstructured or semi-structured decisions. A decision is
considered unstructured if there are no clear procedures for making the decision and if
not all the factors to be considered in the decision can be readily identified in advance.
Judgement of the manager plays a vital role in decision making where the problem is not
structured. The decision support system supports, but does not replace, judgement of
manager.

4. Office Automation Systems

Office automation systems are among the newest and most rapidly expanding computer
based information systems. They are being developed with the hopes and expectations
that they will increase the efficiency and productivity of office workers-typists,
secretaries, administrative assistants, staff professionals, managers and the like. Many
organisations have taken the First step toward automating their offices. Often this step

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involves the use of word processing equipment to facilitate the typing, storing, revising
and printing of textual materials. Another development is a computer based
communications system such as electronic mail which allows people to communicate in
an electronic mode through computer terminals. An office automation system can be
described as a multi-function, integrated computer based system that allows many office
activities to be performed in an electronic mode.

Categories of different information systems with their characteristics have been described
briefly in table below.

Category of Information System Characteristics

Transaction Processing System Substitutes computer-based processing

for manual processes. Includes record-
keeping applications.

Management Information System Provides input to be used in the

managerial decision process. Deals with
supporting well structured decision
situations. Typical information
requirements can be anticipated

Decision Support System Provides information to managers who

make judgements about particular
situations. Supports decision makes in
situations that are not well structured.

Office Automation System It is a multi-function, integrated

computer based system, that allows
many office activities to be performed in
an electronic mode.

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2.4 The differences among data, information, and knowledge

Data, information, and knowledge are often used interchangeably. However,

these terms represent different stages of value creation from data to decision-
making.

Data are the raw alphanumeric values obtained through different acquisition methods.
Data in their simplest form consist of raw alphanumeric values.
Information is created when data are processed, organized, or structured to provide
context and meaning. Information is essentially processed data.
Knowledge is what we know. Knowledge is unique to each individual and is the
accumulation of past experience and insight that shapes the lens by which we interpret,
and assign meaning to, information. For knowledge to result in action, an individual must
have the authority and capacity to make and implement a decision. Knowledge (and
authority) are needed to produce actionable information that can lead to impact.

The flow and characteristics of these terms are illustrated in Figure 1 and Table 1. Table
2 provides examples of data, information, and knowledge for water data.

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Figure 1: The flow from data to information to knowledge.

The flow from data to information and knowledge is not uni-directional. The knowledge
gained may reveal redundancies or gaps in the data collected. As a result, an actionable
insight may be to change the data collected, or how those data are converted into
information, to better meet user needs.
Table 1: Characteristics of data, information, and knowledge (adopted from de Vries
2018).

Data Information Knowledge

Should be
Is objective Is subjective
objective

Has no Has a meaning Has meaning for a specific purpose

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Data Information Knowledge

meaning

Is
Is processed Is processed and understood
unprocessed

Is Is quantifiable,
quantifiable, there can be Is not quantifiable, there is no knowledge
there can be information overload
data overload overload

Table 2: Examples of transforming water data to information to knowledge that leads to action.

Data Information Knowledge

Convert gage
height to stream
flow estimates to Restrict withdraws because
Stream gage height
provide summary streamflow is below 7Q10
stats for last 10
years

Amount of Assess whether Prioritize investing in floodplain

precipitation in rain annual mapping given increases in
gage precipitation is

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Data Information Knowledge

increasing,
decreasing, or precipitation over last 20 years
staying the same

Combine lead
level, customer,
Alert customers with lead levels
Amount of lead in and drinking
exceeding safe drinking water
water samples water standards
standards
data to locate
violations

Correlate volume
of treated water Continue investing in the low flush
Volume of treated
with number of toilet rebate program give large
water
low-flush toilets water savings
installed over time

2.5 Examples of Information Systems

1. Transaction Processing System

An example is an online air ticket booking system, that collects data from users and
generates an airline ticket and a bill. Typical organizational departments that use

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transaction processing systems are sales, account, finance, plant, engineering, human
resource, and marketing. Data can be generated from sales order, cash receipts,
accounting, inventory management, depreciation accounting, etc.

2. Management Information System

A management information system(MIS) is used to oversee the performance of the

organization. The results from the TPS are input into the MIS to produce management
reports that can predict or control future organizational performance. An MIS can be used
in different ways within the enterprise like a budgeting system to gather information to
set accurate budget monthly or annually based on reports of how much money has been
spent by the organization in a specific period of time. Other examples could be as a sales
system analyzing data gathered from point of sales and as a human resource information
system for collating information about employees, attendance, performance management
etc.

3. Customer Relationship Systems

CRSs track customer activities, purchasing trends, customer inquiries etc. They allow
customers to interact with companies for service, product feedback, and problem
resolutions.

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4. Decision Support System

Decision support systems are used by managers to provide solutions to problems that are
dynamic in nature. This kind of system uses data from internal systems like TPS and MIS
to find the best possible choice or alternative to a given problem. They find answers
through statistical analysis and mathematical models.

5. Office Automation System

OAS is useful to improve the efficiency of employees who are required to perform
repetitive tasks of data processing. Office functions such as mailing, fax, typing, records
management all fall under this category.

6. Business Intelligence Systems

They predict future sales patterns, summarize current costs and forecast revenues

7. Knowledge Management Systems

KMS analyze, organize and share knowledge with organization members for innovation
and improved performance

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8. Enterprise Collaboration System

ECS stress on team effort or collaboration across different functional teams by enabling
collaborative effort and improving communication and sharing of data

2.6 Explain web-based systems in organisations and their importance

A web-based system is an application that is accessed via HTTP. The term web-based is
usually used to describe applications that run in a web browser. It can, though, also be
used to describe applications that have a very small component of the solution loaded on
the client’s PC. The host server for a web-based system could be a local server, or it
could be accessed via the internet.

Benefit/ Importance of Web-Based System in Organization

Lower Development Costs

A web-based application runs in a web browser. That means that a single, responsive web
application can be used across multiple device types. Although web apps will need to be
tested on different browsers, there is no need to test them on different operating systems.
This makes development and testing much easier. It cuts development costs and reduces
development time.
Easy Installation and Maintenance

Unlike traditional software that is loaded on each device, web applications run from a
host server. There is no installation on local machines. Software upgrades are all
completed centrally. That reduces the costs of installing and upgrading software. It also
ensures that all users are always using the same version of the software.

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Accessible Anywhere

Users can access a web-based system anywhere. So long as they have an internet
connection, a web browser, and the appropriate login details. This means that users can
access the data they need when they are away from the office. It also brings the
possibility of staff working from home.
Easy Data Sharing and Collaboration

The sharing of data and collaborating on projects is made much easier with web-based
systems. Data is stored in one central location, so users can share data and work together
on projects. It is also easier to integrate web-based systems than isolated desktop
applications.
Centralized Security

As web apps are installed on web servers, security is controlled by an IT professional.

That avoids sensitive corporate information being held on many local client PCs, which
are not as secure. Employees can access data when they are away from the office via a
web application. So, it is not necessary for data to be held anywhere other than the secure
central location.
Reduced Hardware Costs

Web-based systems can eliminate the need for powerful client PCs. Processing is carried
out on the host server. The host server can be engineered to efficiently service
simultaneous, peak demand. So, the storage, processor, and memory requirements for
client PCs can be reduced. Taken across an entire organization, this can represent a large
cost saving for some businesses.
Increased Efficiency

In most businesses, the deployment of web-based solutions leads to the streamlining of

business processes. Often, paper-based processes can be replaced by workflow-based
solutions. Business process improvements can lead to higher employee productivity and
lower costs.

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Adaptable to Changing Workloads

The deployment of web-based applications requires no software loading on the client’s

PC. All that is needed is the setting up of a new user and the relevant secure access
controls. This can be a major benefit for growing businesses, or for seasonal businesses.
Users can be added or removed very quickly.
Greater Availability of Information

Web-based systems make it easier to provide access to real-time information. The paper
reports that might take days to prepare and distribute can be replaced with online reports
and digital dashboards. That can improve the quality and the speed of decision-making,
right across an organization.
Web-based custom software development can provide businesses with significant cost
savings and productivity improvements. Now that internet access is almost universally
available and internet speeds have significantly improved, applications that previously
had to be client-based can now be deployed on the web.
Although this is the case in developed Western countries, it is not the case worldwide. In
some countries, internet access is unreliable. So, major deployment of web-based
applications may still not be possible. International organizations with overseas offices
may not yet be able to take full advantage of web-based solutions.
For domestic organizations, though, web-based systems have a promising future. From
web-based office applications, like content management systems and productivity
applications, to custom web-based software developed specifically for your organization,
the foundation of many future software solutions is likely to be web-based.

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Week 3: The fundamentals of computer hardware

3.1 Elements of computer systems

There are six main elements that make up a computer system. They all interact with each
other and perform the task at hand. Let us take a look at all of them.

1] Hardware

These are all the physical aspects of a computer system. They are tangible, i.e. you can see
and touch them. Hardware components are the electronic or mechanical instruments, like

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keyboard, monitor, printer etc. They help the users interface with the software, and also
display the result of the tasks being performed.

Hardware can actually be of four types, depending on which function they perform. The
four types of hardware are,

 Input Hardware: For users to input data into the computer system. Examples:
Keyboard, mouse, Scanner

 Output Hardware: To translate and display the result of the data processing =.
Example: Monitor Screen, Printer etc

 Processing and Memory Hardware: Where data and information are processed and
manipulated to perform the task at hand. It is also the workspace of the computer,
where it temporarily stores data. Examples: Central Processing Unit (CPU), Read
Only Memory (RAM)

 Secondary Storage Hardware: Where the computer system stores data permanently.
Example: Harddisk, Pendrive etc
2] Software

Software is nothing but a set of programmes (computer instructions), which helps the user
to do a set of specific tasks. It helps the user interact with the computer system with the help
of hardware. Software, as you can imagine, is the intangible aspect of the computer system.

Basically, there are six main types of software, which are as follows,

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 Operating System: These specialized programmes allow the communication between

software and hardware. The operating systems run all the other computer
programmes, and even regulate the startup process of the computer. Examples:
Windows XP, Macintosh etc

 Application Software: These are designed to perform a specific task or a bunch of

tasks. They can be user-designed (specific to the user’s needs) or readymade
application software. Example: PowerPoint, Tally etc.

 Utility Software: Like operating systems, it is a system software. It helps maintain and
protect the computer system. For example, Anti-virus software is a utility software.

 Language Processors: Software that interprets computer language and translates it

into machine language. It also checks for errors in language syntax and fixes the
problems.

 System Software: This types of software control the hardware, the reading of the data
and other such internal functions.

 Connectivity Software: The special software that facilitates the connection between
the computer system and the server. This allows the computer to share information
and communicate with each other.
3] People

The people interacting with the computer system are also an element of it. We call this
element the Liveware. They are the ultimate “users” of the computer systems. There are
three types of people that interact with the system, namely

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 Programmers: Professionals who write the computer programs that allow users to
interact with the computer. They must have technical knowledge of computers
and computer languages.

 System Analyst: They mainly design data processing systems, and solve problems that
arise in data processing

 End-Users: Also known as operators, they are the people who interact with the
computer system.
4] Procedures

These are a set of instructions, written in code, to instruct a computer on how to perform a
task, run a software, do calculations etc. There are three types of procedures in a computer
They are,

 Hardware-Oriented Procedure: Instructs the hardware components of the system,

ensures they work smoothly

 Software Oriented Procedure: Provides instructions to launch and run software

programs

 Internal Procedures: Directs the flow of information and sequences the data
5] Data

Data is essentially the raw facts and figures that we input in the computer. The data gets
processed via the computer system and becomes information, which is processed and
organized data. Information can then be used for decision-making purposes.

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The measurement of data is done in terms of “bytes”. One kilobyte (KB) is approximately
1000 bytes, 1 megabyte (MB) is 1 million bytes and finally, 1 gigabyte (GB) is
approximately 1 billion bytes.

6] Connectivity

This is when the computers are linked to a network. It facilitates sharing of information,
files, and other facilities. Computers can connect to a network via LAN cables, Bluetooth,
Wi-Fi, satellites etc. The internet is the most obvious example of connectivity in a computer
system.

3.2 Computer hardware components

A typical computer system consists of a computer case, a power supply unit, a

motherboard, a central processing unit (CPU), main memory, and a hard disk drive. Input
devices include a keyboard, mouse, microphone, video camera, and image scanner.
Output devices include a monitor, speakers, and a printer.

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3.3 Three major components of computer hardware (input, processing and output).

Every computer system has the following three basic components:

1. Input unit
2. Processing (Central processing unit)
3. Output unit

While there are other components as well, these three are primarily responsible for
making a computer function. They must work in complete synergy because that will
ensure smooth overall functioning. Hence, we can even call them building blocks of a
computer system.
Input Unit
These components help users enter data and commands into a computer system. Data can
be in the form of numbers, words, actions, commands, etc. The main function of input
devices is to direct commands and data into computers. Computers then use their CPU to
process this data and produce output.
For example, a laptop’s keyboard is an input unit that enters numbers and characters.
Similarly, even a mouse can be an input unit for entering directions and commands. Other

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examples include barcode readers, Magnetic Ink Character Readers (MICR), Optical
Character Readers (OCR), etc.
Another example of input devices is touch-screens. Users can simply touch these screens
without using any other device to enter commands. From smartphones to ATM machines,
these input devices are becoming very popular these days.

Processing (Central Processing Unit (CPU))

After receiving data and commands from users, a computer system now has to process it
according to the instructions provided. Here, it has to rely on a component called the central
processing unit. The CPU further uses these three elements:

a) Memory Unit

Once a user enters data using input devices, the computer system stores this data in its
memory unit. This data will now remain here until other components of CPU process it.
The memory unit uses a set of pre-programmed instructions to further transmit this data to
other parts of the CPU.

b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit

This part of the CPU performs arithmetic operations. It does basic mathematical
calculations like addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, etc. Further, it can even
perform logical functions like the comparison of data.

c) Control Unit

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This unit is the backbone of computers. It is responsible for coordinating tasks between all
components of a computer system. The control unit collects data from input units and sends
it to processing units depending on its nature. Finally, it also further transmits processed
data to output units for users.

Output Unit

The third and final component of a computer system is the output unit. After processing of
data, it is converted into a format which humans can understand. After conversion, the
output units displays this data to users. Examples of output devices include monitors,
screens, printers and speakers. Thus, output units basically reproduce the data formatted by
the computer for users’ benefit.

3.4 The functions of the peripheral devices

A peripheral device is a device that either enters information into a computer system or
receives information from the computer system. The normal workflow of a computer
system is the following.

It receives data and commands from the user, processes the data according to the given
commands, presents the processed data to the user, and stores or prints the processed data
if the user gives a command to save or print.

Except for the components that process the given data, all other components of a
computer system are known as peripheral devices.

In simple words, if a hardware component is not part of the core components and is used
either to put information into the computer system or to get information from the

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computer system, then it is a peripheral device. The core components of a computer

system are the components that control the computer system and process the data.

A computer system can function without peripheral devices but it cannot function without
core components. Examples of core components are CPU, motherboard, power supply,
RAM, and ROM. Keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer, scanner, and USB drive are
examples of peripheral devices.

Types of peripheral devices

Peripheral devices are classified into three types. These types are input devices, output
devices, and input/output devices.

An input device inserts data or commands into the computer system. A keyboard, mouse,
scanner, barcode reader, digital pen, webcam, microphone are some examples of input
devices.

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An output device receives the processed data from the computer system and presents
that data to the user. A monitor, printer, speaker, headphone, and projector are some
examples of output devices.

An input/output device can perform both input and output functions. A hard drive, USB
drive, memory card, tape drive, and NIC are some examples of input/output devices.

Examples of peripheral devices

So far we have discussed what a peripheral device is and how many types of peripheral
device are. Now, let's discuss some most common peripheral devices and their functions.

Keyboard

A keyboard is the most common and important input device. It allows the user to enter
letters, numbers, and symbols. When a user presses a key on a keyboard, the keyboard
sends a unique signal to the computer. The processing unit of the computer receives the
signal and translates the signal to know which key is pressed.

Mouse

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A mouse is another important input device. It uses point-and-click technology to interact

with the system. Most mice have two buttons and a scroll wheel between them. To track
motion, a ball was used in older mice. Modern mice use laser light to track motion.

Webcam

A webcam is a popular input device. It captures live videos and photos. Usually, it is
inbuilt on laptops and tablets. Mostly, it is used for video calls and live presentations.

Scanner

A scanner is another popular input device. It is used to scan documents. Normally, it is

used to save and use a soft copy of the document.

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Monitor

A monitor is one of the most important output devices. It receives output from the
processing unit and displays that output. The output displayed on the monitor is
temporary. Because of this, the output displayed on the monitor is called the soft copy of
the output. To make it permanent, you have to store it on other output devices.

Printer

A printer is another important output device. It prints the given output. After printing, the
output is permanently stored on the paper. Because of this, the output printed on the
paper is called the hard copy of the output. There are mainly three types of printers: dot-
matrix, inkjet, and laser. A dot printer uses pins and an ink-coated ribbon for printing. An
inkjet printer uses liquid ink for printing while a laser printer uses a laser toner for
printing.

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Speaker

A speaker is a popular output device. It plays the audio output signals. Laptops and
tablets have inbuilt speakers. On desktop computers, they can be attached via ports.

Hard disk

A hard disk is the most important input/output device. It provides both input and output
functionalities. When a computer reads data from the hard disk, the hard disk provides
input functionality. When the computer stores data on the hard disk, the hard disk
provides output functionality.

USB drive

USB drives are another popular input/output device. They are compact and small. They
are mostly used to transfer data between computers that are not connected. When you

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transfer data from a computer to the USB drive, the USB drive provides output
functionality. When you transfer data from a USB drive to the computer, the USB drive
provides input functionality.

NIC

NIC stands for the network interface card. A NIC is an input/output device. A computer
uses a NIC to connect the network. When the computer sends data to the network, it uses
the output function of the NIC. When the computer receives data from the network, it
uses the input function of the NIC.

3.5 The function of C.P.U.

The CPU is the brain of a computer, containing all the circuitry needed to process input,
store data, and output results. The CPU is constantly following instructions of computer
programs that tell it which data to process and how to process it. Without a CPU, we
could not run programs on a computer.

3.6 Explain the following computer hierarchy: - Supercomputers - Mainframe

Computers - Workstations - Microcomputers

Micro Computers
The microcomputer is also recognized as a personal computer; these are comparatively
economical. Microcomputers are small computers incorporating a microprocessor,
Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, storage area, an input unit, and an output unit.

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It is a general-purpose computer that is outlined for personal use. Such computers are
made with minimum circuitry mounting over a single circuit board. They are fit for
personal work that may be making an assignment, at the office for office work, watching
a movie, etc. Examples include Desktop, Laptop, tablets, smartphones, etc.

The Mini Frame or Mini Computer

Minicomputers are comparatively smaller than mainframe computers or can say a
minicomputer lies within the mainframe and microcomputer as it is smaller than the
mainframe but larger than a microcomputer.

Minicomputers are digital and multi-user computer systems with the connection of more
than one CPU. Thus, multiple users can work on these computers simultaneously. Mini-
frame computers are employed in institutes and work units for tasks such as billing,
accounting, and record management.

Mainframe Computer
Computers utilized by large organisations to manage bulk data are designated as
Mainframe computers. Mainframe computers are multi-programming, high-performance
and multi-user computers, which implies they can manage the workload of more than 100
users at a time on the computer.

The storage capability of the mainframe is enormous, with a high-speed data process as
well. The main purposes of such a type of computer include managing customer
statistics, census, and other heavy data in a single device.

Mainframe computers, therefore, are mainly employed by departmental and commercial

organizations like Banks, Scientific research centres, companies, and governmental
departments like railways, paying employees, ticket booking, maintaining details of
purchases by users, keeping detailed tax details, etc.

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Supercomputer
Supercomputers come under the biggest, fastest, powerful, and most expensive type of
computer for processing data type; they are designed to process an immense amount of
data. A supercomputer can treat trillions of instructions/directions in a second. It has
thousands of interconnected processors.

Supercomputers are especially used in scientific and engineering applications such as

weather forecasting, quantum mechanics, climate research, scientific simulations, nuclear
energy research, etc where a high level of performance is required.

Examples: IBM Roadburner, INTEL ASIC RED. PARAM-1000, BM Blue Gene, and
CRAY-XMP-14.

Assignment

3.7 Describe how to select and specify computer.

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Week 4: Know the basics, uses and types of computer software

4.1 Software and its various types

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and execute
specific tasks. It is the opposite of hardware, which describes the physical aspects of a
computer. Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs
that run on a device. It can be thought of as the variable part of a computer, while
hardware is the invariable part.

The two main categories of software are application software and system software. An
application is software that fulfills a specific need or performs tasks. System software is
designed to run a computer's hardware and provides a platform for applications to run on
top of.

Other types of software include programming software, which provides the programming
tools software developers need; middleware, which sits between system software and
applications; and driver software, which operates computer devices and peripherals.

Early software was written for specific computers and sold with the hardware it ran on. In
the 1980s, software began to be sold on floppy disks, and later on CDs and DVDs.
Today, most software is purchased and directly downloaded over the internet. Software
can be found on vendor websites or application service provider websites.

Examples and types of software

Among the various categories of software, the most common types include the following:

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 Application software. The most common type of software, application software is a

computer software package that performs a specific function for a user, or in some
cases, for another application. An application can be self-contained, or it can be a
group of programs that run the application for the user. Examples of modern
applications include office suites, graphics software, databases and database
management programs, web browsers, word processors, software development tools,
image editors and communication platforms.

 System software. These software programs are designed to run a computer's

application programs and hardware. System software coordinates the activities and
functions of the hardware and software. In addition, it controls the operations of the
computer hardware and provides an environment or platform for all the other types of
software to work in. The OS is the best example of system software; it manages all the
other computer programs. Other examples of system software include the firmware,
computer language translators and system utilities.

 Driver software. Also known as device drivers, this software is often considered a
type of system software. Device drivers control the devices and peripherals connected
to a computer, enabling them to perform their specific tasks. Every device that is
connected to a computer needs at least one device driver to function. Examples
include software that comes with any nonstandard hardware, including special game
controllers, as well as the software that enables standard hardware, such as USB
storage devices, keyboards, headphones and printers.

 Middleware. The term middleware describes software that mediates between

application and system software or between two different kinds of application
software. For example, middleware enables Microsoft Windows to talk to Excel and
Word. It is also used to send a remote work request from an application in a computer

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that has one kind of OS, to an application in a computer with a different OS. It also
enables newer applications to work with legacy ones.

 Programming software. Computer programmers use programming software to write

code. Programming software and programming tools enable developers to develop,
write, test and debug other software programs. Examples of programming software
include assemblers, compilers, debuggers and interpreters.

4.2 Distinguish between the machine level, low – level and high – level languages

Both of these are types of programming languages that provide a set of instructions to a
system for performing certain tasks. Though both of these have specific purposes, they
vary in various ways. In this section, we will discuss the difference between high-level
and low-level languages. But before that, let us first know more about programming
languages and their purpose.

What is a Programming Language?

Programming languages define and compile a set of instructions for the CPU (Central
Processing Unit) for performing any specific task. Every programming language has a set
of keywords along with syntax- that it uses for creating instructions.

Till now, thousands of programming languages have come into form. All of them have
their own specific purposes. All of these languages have a variation in terms of the level
of abstraction that they all provide from the hardware. A few of these languages provide
less or no abstraction at all, while the others provide a very high abstraction. On the basis
of this level of abstraction, there are two types of programming languages:

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 Low-level language
 High-level language
The primary difference between low and high-level languages is that any programmer
can understand, compile, and interpret a high-level language feasibly as compared to the
machine. The machines, on the other hand, are capable of understanding the low-level
language more feasibly compared to human beings.

What are High-Level Languages?

 One can easily interpret and combine these languages as compared to the low-level
languages.
 They are very easy to understand.
 Such languages are programmer-friendly.
 Debugging is not very difficult.
 They come with easy maintenance and are thus simple and manageable.
 One can easily run them on different platforms.
 They require a compiler/interpreter for translation into a machine code.
 A user can port them from one location to another.
 Such languages have a low efficiency of memory. So it consumes more memory
than the low-level languages.
 They are very widely used and popular in today’s times.
 Java, C, C++, Python, etc., are a few examples of high-level languages.

What are Low-Level Languages?

 They are also called machine-level languages.

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 Machines can easily understand it.

 High-level languages are very machine-friendly.
 Debugging them is very difficult.
 They are not very easy to understand.
 All the languages come with complex maintenance.
 They are not portable.
 These languages depend on machines. Thus, one can run it on various platforms.
 They always require assemblers for translating instructions.
 Low-level languages do not have a very wide application in today’s times.

Difference Between High-Level and Low-Level Languages

Parameter High-Level Language Low-Level Language

Basic These are programmer-friendly These are machine-friendly

languages that are manageable, languages that are very difficult
easy to understand, debug, and to understand by human beings
widely used in today’s times. but easy to interpret by
machines.

Ease of Execution These are very easy to execute. These are very difficult to
execute.

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Process of High-level languages require the Low-level language requires an

Translation use of a compiler or an interpreter assembler for directly translating
for their translation into the the instructions of the machine
machine code. language.

Efficiency of These languages have a very low These languages have a very
Memory memory efficiency. It means that high memory efficiency. It
they consume more memory than means that they consume less
any low-level language. energy as compared to any high-
level language.

Portability These are portable from any one A user cannot port these from
device to another. one device to another.

Comprehensibility High-level languages are human- Low-level languages are

friendly. They are, thus, very easy machine-friendly. They are,
to understand and learn by any thus, very difficult to understand
programmer. and learn by any human.

Dependency on High-level languages do not Low-level languages are

Machines depend on machines. machine-dependent and thus
very difficult to understand by a
normal user.

Debugging It is very easy to debug these A programmer cannot easily

languages. debug these languages.

Maintenance High-level languages have a simple It is quite complex to maintain

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and comprehensive maintenance any low-level language.

technique.

Usage High-level languages are very Low-level languages are not

common and widely used for very common nowadays for
programming in today’s times. programming.

Speed of Execution High-level languages take more The translation speed of low-
time for execution as compared to level languages is very high.
low-level languages because these
require a translation program.

Abstraction High-level languages allow a Low-level languages allow very

higher abstraction. little abstraction or no
abstraction at all.

Need of Hardware One does not require a knowledge Having knowledge of hardware
of hardware for writing programs. is a prerequisite to writing
programs.

Facilities Provided High-level languages do not Low-level languages are very

provide various facilities at the close to the hardware. They help
hardware level. in writing various programs at
the hardware level.

Ease of The process of modifying The process of modifying

Modification programs is very difficult with programs is very easy in low-
high-level programs. It is because level programs. Here, it can

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every single statement in it may directly map the statements to

execute a bunch of instructions. the processor instructions.

Examples Some examples of high-level Some examples of low-level

languages include Perl, BASIC, languages include the Machine
COBOL, Pascal, Ruby, etc. language and Assembly
language.

4.3 Define a translator

A translator or language translation program is a software application or service that

translates text or speech from one language to another.

Translators can also interpret programming code, converting it to instructions that a

computer can understand and execute. For example, a compiler is an example of a
translator that takes a programming language (e.g., C++) and translates into machine
language or assembly language the computer can understand.

4.4 Types of translators: assembler, compiler, and interpreter

1. Compiler
The language processor that reads the complete source program written in high-level
language as a whole in one go and translates it into an equivalent program in machine
language is called a Compiler. Example: C, C++, C#.
In a compiler, the source code is translated to object code successfully if it is free of
errors. The compiler specifies the errors at the end of the compilation with line numbers
when there are any errors in the source code. The errors must be removed before the

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compiler can successfully recompile the source code again the object program can be
executed number of times without translating it again.

2. Assembler
The Assembler is used to translate the program written in Assembly language into
machine code. The source program is an input of an assembler that contains assembly
language instructions. The output generated by the assembler is the object code or
machine code understandable by the computer. Assembler is basically the 1st interface
that is able to communicate humans with the machine. We need an assembler to fill the
gap between human and machine so that they can communicate with each other. code
written in assembly language is some sort of mnemonics(instructions) like ADD, MUL,
MUX, SUB, DIV, MOV and so on. and the assembler is basically able to convert these
mnemonics in binary code. Here, these mnemonics also depend upon the architecture of
the machine.
For example, the architecture of intel 8085 and intel 8086 are different.

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3. Interpreter
The translation of a single statement of the source program into machine code is done
by a language processor and executes immediately before moving on to the next line is
called an interpreter. If there is an error in the statement, the interpreter terminates its
translating process at that statement and displays an error message. The interpreter
moves on to the next line for execution only after the removal of the error. An
Interpreter directly executes instructions written in a programming or scripting
language without previously converting them to an object code or machine code. An
interpreter translates one line at a time and then executes it.
Example: Perl, Python and Matlab.

4.5 Bespoke application packages

Bespoke application or software means customized application software which is

designed and developed as per your business requirements. Bespoke application software
is tailored to the exact requirements of the project or organization that optimizes business
processes.

Bespoke application or software (aka tailored or custom software) is a computer

programme developed for a SPECIFIC organisation, person or purpose….hence bespoke.

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Examples of bespoke application or software Amazon.com, Ebay, etc. Amazon.com

and eBay are classic examples of tailored software. Instead of using a ready-made e-
commerce template to sell a range of items, Amazon and eBay have developed their own
bespoke e-commerce platform which connects buyers and sellers.

Assignment

4.8 Explain software evaluation and selection

4.9 Explain Software Licensing Upgrade and Open Source Software

4.10 Explain procedural Languages and Nonprocedural Languages

Procedural Language: In procedural languages, the program code is written as a

sequence of instructions. User has to specify “what to do” and also “how to do” (step by
step procedure). These instructions are executed in the sequential order. These
instructions are written to solve specific problems.
Examples of Procedural languages:
FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, BASIC, C and Pascal.

Non-Procedural Language: In the non-procedural languages, the user has to specify

only “what to do” and not “how to do”. It is also known as an applicative or functional
language. It involves the development of the functions from other functions to construct
more complex functions.
Examples of Non-Procedural languages:
SQL, PROLOG, LISP.
Difference between Procedural and Non-Procedural language:

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Procedural Language Non-Procedural Language

It is command-driven language. It is a function-driven language

It works through the mathematical

It works through the state of machine.
functions.

Its semantics are quite tough. Its semantics are very simple.

It returns only restricted data types and

It can return any datatype or value
allowed values.

Overall efficiency is low as compared

Overall efficiency is very high.
to Procedural Language.

Size of the program written in Procedural Size of the Non-Procedural language

language is large. programs are small.

It is suitable for time critical

It is not suitable for time critical applications.
applications.

Iterative loops and Recursive calls both are Recursive calls are used in Non-
used in the Procedural languages. Procedural languages.

Week 5-6: Understand security and safety procedures within a computer

environment

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5.1 Computer Security

Computer security refers to measures and controls that ensure the confidentiality,
integrity and availability of the information processed and stored by a computer. This
includes everything from protecting physical information assets, to data security and
computer safety practices.

5.2 The need for computer room safety and security

Cybercrime is incredibly common — according to the Cybersecurity & Infrastructure

Security Agency (CISA), 1 in 3 homes in the United States has a computer infected with
malware and 600,000 Facebook accounts are hacked every single day. Many of these
breaches could have been avoided with proper security practices.
Computer security protects individuals and organizations against cyber threats and the
loss of important data. Becoming the target of a cybercriminal can be incredibly
damaging and disruptive to daily activities, whether personal or professional. So, why is
computer security so important? Because understanding the basics of computer security
can help you avoid headaches and keep your data safe from others. Having your identity
stolen or your accounts compromised can involve hours lost with account recovery — as
well as significant financial losses.

Computer security is also an important component of computer infrastructure in an

enterprise setting. Cybersecurity specialists are becoming increasingly important for
organizations across the globe to protect their business infrastructure from outside threats.
Becoming an expert in computer security can lead to a lucrative, exciting career.
Need for Computer Security because of:

1. Data theft

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Most personal and enterprise computer systems are enticing targets for hackers. Data
theft involves accessing secured, private data assets for the purpose of stealing the data
itself or gaining ongoing access to databases for the purpose of corporate espionage.

2. Denial of Service attacks

Denial of Service (DoS) attacks aim to shut down a machine or network with a flood of
traffic to make service unavailable for targeted users. Along the same line, Distributed
Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks are another common cybersecurity threat in which
multiple systems orchestrate an attack on a single target. These cyber threats are very
common and can be used to take down servers or render services inaccessible.

3. Malware

Short for malicious software, malware is a class of computer software designed to disrupt
a computer system in order to gain access to, take control over, steal or damage digital
assets. This cyber threat includes computer viruses, worms, trojan horses, ransomware
and many other malicious programs. These types of computer threats require ongoing
vigilance on the part of computer security professionals to keep systems safe, and to
adjust as new types of malware constitute new computer security threats.

4. Backdoors

No computer system is perfect, and many pieces of software contain backdoors (i.e.,
unintentional vulnerabilities that can give bad actors access to a system without going
through normal security procedures). Backdoors can be added for legitimate reasons, or
they can be the result of poor development or configuration practices — either way, they
constitute a cybersecurity threat that must be addressed. Finding, detecting and

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preventing backdoor access can be difficult, so proper development and configuration

practices are critical.

Computer security is often considered an “arms race,” in that computer security experts
develop tools and procedures to combat the top cybersecurity threats in the field, while
bad actors come up with new ways to exploit computer systems. Anyone interested in
working in cybersecurity needs to stay up-to-date on the latest types of computer security
threats and how to defend against them, making the field a great fit for anyone who loves
a challenge.

Safety Rules for a Computer Room

The information heart of a company is the data center – a very large computer room that
houses the servers and networking equipment that makes information available
throughout the company. Data centers in disorganized or poorly managed computer
rooms are inherently unsafe, and the likelihood of accidents increases with the level of
disarray. These accidents can result in personal injuries, server failures and computer

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room outages. Many such incidents are the result of accidents that could be avoided by
following some simple IT rules for safety.

Lock the Doors

The University of Kansus, or KU, indicates that data center doors must be secured 24/7
in accordance with ISO 27001 standards. Unauthorized or unsupervised visitors are a
danger in the computer room, both to the equipment and to themselves. Unfamiliarity
with a data center environment and natural curiosity sometimes leads visitors to push
buttons or squeeze into tight places where they should not go. Either situation can result
in a loss of power, electrical shock or other injury. IT room rules should state that
visitors allowed to enter the IT room must be screened, and they need to be
accompanied by data center personnel at all times during the visit.

Warning - High Voltage

Computer rooms consume large amounts of electricity at high voltages. Most computer
rooms also house uninterruptible power supplies and power distribution units, both of
which handle high-voltage electricity. Add to these the many power cables that supply
the electricity to the servers and other equipment and you have an accident waiting to
happen. Computer room managers should mark all high-voltage equipment accordingly
and allow only qualified technicians to open those boxes.

Maintain Optimal Temperatures

According to Heinz Mechanical Industries, or HMI, temperature monitoring devices

should be checked regularly to ensure that electrical hardware is operating safely in a
computer room. Stored data can be lost if room temperature exceeds 82 degrees. If the

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temperature falls below 50 degrees, servers can fail. Even a small computer room can
get very hot without an adequate air conditioning system, humidity control and air ducts
that maintain a consistent temperature throughout the area.

Organize Cables and Wiring

As a company adds new equipment to a computer room, there is a tendency to wire it to

the network and plan to come back and clean it up later. However, the time to clean it
up never seems to happen, and over time, a spaghetti-like tangle of wires and dangling
cables develops, causing multiple hazards for employees and the data center itself.
Professional electricians and wiring installers should be hired to route loose wires
through proper wiring channels and label each cable properly.

Job Instructions

Each computer room employee should know the IT room rules that apply to his job, and
supervisors should periodically observe employees to ensure that they are following
proper procedures. Something as seemingly harmless as tossing a ball during a slow
time could hit a sprinkler valve, causing a torrent of water on running equipment – a
dangerous electrical shock hazard.

Assignment

5.3 Explain methods of preventing hazards fire, flooding, sabotage etc

5.4 Malware infections and prevention e.g. virus and worms, Trojan horses, and
spyware

Almost everyone is familiar with the term computer virus, but only a few might have
heard about the term malware. A computer virus is a type of malware. Malware

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includes computer viruses, worms, Trojan horses, spyware, ransomware and many
others. In this post, we analyse the different types of malware including the
Wannacry, which is a form of ransomware.

What is a Malware?

 Malware is the shortened form of malicious software.

 Malware is an umbrella term used to refer to a variety of forms of hostile or
intrusive software including Ransom wares, Computer Viruses, Worms, Trojan
Horses, Spyware, Adware, Scareware etc.
 This is any program or file that is harmful to a computer user.
 The term refers to software that is deployed with malicious intent.
 Malware can be deployed even remotely, and tracking the source of malware is
hard.
 It can take the form of executable code, scripts, active content, and other software.
 These malicious programs can perform a variety of functions, including stealing,
encrypting or deleting sensitive data, altering or hijacking core computing functions
and monitoring users’ computer activity without their permission.
 This combination has enabled commercial malware providers to supply
sophisticated black markets for both malware and the information that it collects.

Evolution of Malware
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 Computer-enabled fraud and service theft evolved in parallel with the information
technology that enabled it.
 The term malware was first used by computer scientist and security
research YisraelRadai in 1990.
 Before the term malware, malicious software was referred to as computer viruses.
 One of the first known examples of malware was the Creeper virus in 1971, which
was created as an experiment by BBN Technologies engineer Robert Thomas.

What is the purpose of creating a Malware?

 Initially, it started as a prank among software developers. However, later on,

malware converted into a full-fledged industry of black and white market.
 It may be used by black hat hackers or even some governments for monitoring their
targets.
 Demand for sophisticated malware is created primarily by organised crime
syndicates and state-sponsored espionage agents.

Malware is typically used:

1. To steal information that can be readily monetized, such as login credentials, credit
card and bank account numbers,
2. And intellectual property such as computer software, financial algorithms, and trade
secrets.
3. To ransom money in Bitcoin, for example, Wannacry Ransomware.
4. Spy on computer users for an extended period without their knowledge, for
example, Reign Malware.
5. It may be designed to cause harm, often as sabotage for example Stuxnet.
6. Extort payment for example Cryptolocker.

List of Common Malware types:

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 Adware: The least dangerous and most lucrative Malware. Adware displays ads on
your computer.
 Spyware: Spyware is software that spies on you, tracking your internet activities in
order to send advertising (Adware) back to your system.
 Virus: A virus is a contagious program or code that attaches itself to another piece
of software, and then reproduces itself when that software is run. Most often this is
spread by sharing software or files between computers.
 Spam: Spamming is a method of flooding the Internet with copies of the same
message. Most spams are commercial advertisements which are sent as an unwanted
email to users. Spams are also known as Electronic junk emails or junk newsgroup
postings. These spam emails are very annoying as it keeps coming every day and
keeps your mailbox full.
 Worm: A program that replicates itself and destroys data and files on the computer.
Worms work to “eat” the system operating files and data files until the drive is
empty.
 Trojan: A Trojan horse or Trojan is a type of malware that is often disguised as
legitimate software. Trojans are written with the purpose of discovering your
financial information, taking over your computer’s system resources, and in larger
systems creating a “denial-of-service attack” which is making a machine or network

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resource unavailable to those attempting to reach it. Example: Google, AOL, Yahoo
or your business network becoming unavailable.
 Backdoors: Backdoors are much the same as Trojans or worms, except that they
open a “backdoor” on a computer, providing a network connection for hackers or
other Malware to enter or for viruses or SPAM to be sent.
 Rootkit: This one is likened to the burglar hiding in the attic, waiting to take from
you while you are not home. It is the hardest of all Malware to detect and therefore
to remove; many experts recommend completely wiping your hard drive and
reinstalling everything from scratch. It is designed to permit the other information
gathering Malware in to get the identity information from your computer without
you realising anything is going on.
 Keyloggers: Records everything you type on your PC in order to glean your log-in
names, passwords, and other sensitive information, and send it on to the source of
the keylogging program. Many times keyloggers are used by corporations and
parents to acquire computer usage information.
 Rogue security software: This one deceives or misleads users. It pretends to be a
good program to remove Malware infections, but all the while it is the Malware.
Often it will turn off the real Anti-Virus software.
 Ransomware: If you see this screen that warns you that you have been locked out
of your computer until you pay for your cybercrimes. Your system is severely
infected with a form of Malware called Ransomware. Even if you pay to unlock the
system, the system is unlocked, but you are not free of it locking you out again.
 Browser Hijacker: When your homepage changes to one that looks like those in
the images inserted next, you may have been infected with one form or another of a
Browser Hijacker. This dangerous Malware will redirect your normal search activity
and give you the results the developers want you to see. Its intention is to make
money off your web surfing. Using this homepage and not removing the Malware
lets the source developers capture your surfing interests.

How does a Malware spread?

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Cybercriminals continuously devise innovative resources to get malware into the

computer. Here are some of the most common ways of spreading:

 Email: Cybercriminals are notorious for including malicious attachments and links
in emails that appear to come from friends, reputable organisations, or other trusted
sources. Some malicious emails can even infect your computer from the email
client’s preview pane, without your opening or be downloading an attachment or a
link.
 The Internet: Surfing the Web may feel like a private activity, but in fact, you’re
exposing your computer to unwanted contact with anyone else who has a computer
and Internet access.
 Outdated software: Malwares can crawl the Internet, looking for vulnerabilities of
outmoded software to spread its influence over computer systems.
 Local Area Networks (LANs): A LAN is a group of locally connected computers
that can share information over a private network. If one computer becomes infected
with malware, all other computers in the LAN may quickly become infected as well.
 Instant messaging (IM) and peer-to-peer (P2P) file-sharing systems: If one is
using a client for these online activities, malware may spread to your computer.
 Social networks: Malware authors take advantage of many popular social
networks, infecting the massive user-data networks with worms. If a social website

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account is infected with a worm, just about anyone who visits a poster’s profile page
could “catch” the worm on her system.
 Pop-ups: Some of the most sophisticated malware spreads through well-disguised
screen pop-ups that look like genuine alerts or messages. One particularly devious
and widespread “hoax pop-up” claims to have scanned your computer and detected
malware. If you attempt to remove the malware as urged, you’ll actually install the
malware.
 Computer storage media: Malware can be easily spread if you share computer
storage media with others, such as USB drives, DVDs, and CDs. While it may seem
safe to open a CD of photos from a colleague, it’s always best to scan unfamiliar
files first for possible corruptions or security risks before you copy or open them.
 Mobile devices: Mobile malware threats have become increasingly prevalent, as
more people use their smartphones and tablets as mini-computers, helping malware
problems proliferate across additional platforms.

Recent case of Malware attack: WannaCry

In 2017 May, there was a massive global ransomware attack. The attack infected more
than 230,000 computers in 150 countries including India, demanding ransom payments in
bitcoin in 28 languages.

What is WannaCry?

 WannaCry is Encrypting Ransomware or Crypto Locker type of ransomware that is

programmed to attack Microsoft Windows software.

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 According to some statistics, hackers extorted business and institutions for more
than $209 million in Ransomware payments in the first three months of 2016. The
business of Ransomware is on pace to be a $1 billion a year crime.
 Shadow Brokers: People (Hackers) behind these attacks call themselves by this
term.

Severely affected:

 Britain’s National Health Service (NHS),

 Spain’s Telefónica,
 FedEx (USA)
 Deutsche Bahn
 Several plants of carmakers Renault and Nissan had stopped production in France
and England due to the malware,
 The Russian Interior Ministry had reported about 1,000 computers.
 Affected Areas in India: Andra Pradesh, Kerala, some Pharma companies and over
48,000 attempts of ransomware attacks were detected in India. 60% of the attempts
targeted enterprises, while 40% targeted individual customers said a cyber-security
firm, Quick Heal Technologies.

What is the Origin of Wannacry attack?

 It is said by Wikileaks that National Security Agency (NSA) of USA had these
methods to have monitored over subjects.
 This loophole was recently leaked by WikiLeaks.
 The same vulnerability of Windows Operating system was used by ransomware.
 However, Microsoft had released the security patches for the same earlier.

What does it do the computer?

 Some variants of ransomware encrypt data in such a way that it is impossible to

decrypt unless the user has an encryption key. These are
called ‘Encrypting Ransomware’ that incorporate advanced encryption methods.
 Another type of ransomware that is frequently circulated is ‘Locker ransomware,
which locks the victim out of the operating system, making it impossible to access
the desktop and any apps or files. CryptoLocker, like WannaCry, is a malware
when injected into a host system, scans the hard drive of the victim and targets
specific file extensions and encrypts them.
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How does it spread?

 Wannacry encrypts the files on an infected computer.

 It spreads by using a vulnerability in implementations of Server Message Block
(SMB) of Windows systems. This exploit is known as ETERNALBLUE.
 It encrypts hard disk/drive and then spread laterally between computers on the same
LAN.
 It also spreads through the malicious Email-attachment.

How to remain protected from ransomware?

 Regular Data Backup: This helps restore the last saved data and minimise data
loss. Ransomware also attacks servers; hence it is important to have a backup on a
disconnected hard drive or external device on the pre-defined regular basis.
 Prevention: To prevent infiltration of malware, having password protected tools to
identify and filter certain file extensions like “.exe” or “. Zip”, are essential. Emails
that appear suspicious should also be filtered at the exchange level. There are also
some tools that detect the entry of such malware with features of zero days’
protection which work on threat emulation and threat extraction techniques. Users
and businesses also need to ensure that hidden file extension is displayed since it
becomes easier to filter them.
 User awareness: Awareness among users needs to be created to avoid opening the
unsolicited attachment. Malware is typically designed to mimic identities of people
that users interact with on a regular basis either on a personal or professional level.
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 Rules in IPS: It’s necessary to create rules in the Intrusion Prevention Software
(IPS) to discard or disallow the opening of files with extension “.exe” from local
App data folders or AppData.
 Regular patch and upgrades: To prevent leaks or vulnerabilities in software,
ensure to regularly update the software versions and apply patches released by the
vendor. These patches and version are often released to wrestle with known or
newly discovered exploits and can prevent known signatures of these malware,
Trojans or ransomware to enter the system.
 Install and run anti-malware and firewall software. When selecting software,
choose a program that offers tools for detecting, quarantining, and removing
multiple types of malware.
 The combination of anti-malware software and a firewall will ensure that all
incoming and existing data gets scanned for malware and that malware can be safely
removed once detected.
 Keep software and operating systems up to date with current vulnerability
patches. These patches are often released to patch bugs or other security flaws that
could be exploited by attackers.
 Be vigilant when downloading files, programs, attachments, etc. Downloads that
seem strange or are from an unfamiliar source often contain malware.

Some Initiatives by Government of India:

 National Cyber Security Policy 2013: Indian Government already have a National
Cyber Security Policy in place. The National Cyber Security Policy document
outlines a roadmap to create a framework for comprehensive, collaborative and
collective response to deal with the issue of cyber security at all levels within the
country.
 Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) has been designated to act as a
nodal agency for coordination of crisis management efforts. CERT-In will also act
as an umbrella organisation for coordination actions and operationalization of
sectoral CERTs. CERT-in will also issue early warnings.
 Cyber Swachhta Kendra: The “Cyber Swachhta Kendra” is a Botnet Cleaning and
Malware Analysis Centre (BCMAC), operated by the Indian Computer Emergency
Response Team (CERT-In) as part of the Government of India’s Digital India
initiative under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY). Its
goal is to create a secure cyberspace by detecting botnet infections in India and to
notify, enable cleaning and securing systems of end users so as to prevent further
infections.

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5.5 Standard procedure for installing anti-virus

Antivirus programs help prevent viruses and spyware from infecting a computer and
therefore are one of the essential programs each computer should have running at all
times. There are thousands of viruses and spyware on the Internet, and any one of them
can cause damage to personal files or the computer's operating system.

If your computer does not have an antivirus program installed and running, we highly
recommend you install one today. Follow the steps below for help on how to install and
update an antivirus program on your computer.

Tip
All new versions of Microsoft Windows now include Windows Defender to help protect
your computer from viruses.

Install the antivirus program

To install an antivirus program on your computer, follow the steps below.

1. If you purchased the antivirus program from a retail store, insert

the CD (compact disc) or DVD (digital versatile disc) into the computer's
disc drive. The installation process should start automatically, with a
window opening to help guide you through the install process.

2. If you downloaded the antivirus program on the Internet, find the

downloaded file on your computer. If the downloaded file is a zip

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file, unzip the file to extract and access the installation files. Look for a file
named setup.exe, install.exe, or something similar, then double-click that
file. The installation process should start, with a window opening to help
guide you through the install process.

3. In the installation process window, follow the steps provided to install the
antivirus program. The install process provides recommended options so
the antivirus program will function properly, which in most cases can be
accepted as is. The one exception is if the install process recommends to
install any toolbars for Internet browsers or other helpful programs for
your computer. If prompted to install other software with the antivirus
program, uncheck all boxes or decline the install of those extra programs.
No additional programs should be needed for the antivirus program to
install and run successfully on your computer.

4. When the install process is complete, close out of the install window.

5. If used, remove the CD or DVD from the computer's disc drive.

The antivirus program is now installed and ready to use. While it may not be required, we
recommend restarting your computer so that any modified settings in the operating
system can take effect correctly.

Update the antivirus program after installation

Out of the box, antivirus programs are not up-to-date and are missing the latest virus and
spyware definitions. Without the latest definitions, the antivirus program will not know

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about the most recently created viruses and spyware, making your computer vulnerable to
an infection.

After installing the antivirus program, we highly recommend you update it with the latest
virus and spyware definitions. The updates allow the antivirus program to protect your
computer from all viruses and spyware.

In many cases, the antivirus program automatically checks for and installs the latest
updates. If prompted to do so, select Yes to update the antivirus program. If it does not
prompt you to update immediately.

Enable automatic updates for the antivirus program

By default, most antivirus programs enable the automatic update feature. We strongly
recommend automatic updates be enabled to keep the antivirus program up-to-date at all
times.

To check if automatic updates are enabled in your antivirus program, follow the general
steps below.

1. Open the antivirus program.

2. Look for a Settings or Advanced Settings button or link in the antivirus

program window. If you do not see either option, look for an option
like Updates or something similar.

3. In the Settings or Updates window, look for an option like Automatically

download and apply updates. It may also refer to virus definitions
instead of updates.

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4. For the automatic updates option, check the box for that option, if not
already checked.

5. Click the Save or Apply button to save the settings change.

5.6 Computer system auditing

Computer system audit means an accounting method, involving multiple single-drug

usage reports and audits, used to determine a computer system’s ability to store, retrieve,
and process original and refill prescription dispensing information.

A computer audit is a comprehensive evaluation of an organization's IT infrastructure,

policies, and operations. It ensures systems are secure, reliable, and aligned with business
objectives. By identifying risks and inefficiencies, it helps safeguard data and optimize
performance.

Assignment

5.8 Explain the user passwords and username

5.9 Explain system vulnerabilities, attacks, and how to mitigate against them

5.10 Computer Ergonomics

Alternatively called human factors, ergonomics is the study and design of products that
reduce stress and improve comfort to the user, helping increase the users' productivity.
The picture below is an example of an ergonomic keyboard or Natural
Keyboard from Microsoft that helps relieve carpal tunnel syndrome.

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There are many potential health risks of working at a computer frequently. Your
computer set up is one element of office work or home working that should be considered
when preventing injury. Following the correct computer ergonomics can minimise your
risk of computer vision syndrome and other injuries.

Computer ergonomics addresses ways to optimise your computer workstation to reduce

the specific risks of computer vision syndrome, neck and back pain, and carpal tunnel
syndrome. It also reduces the risk of other disorders affecting the muscles, spine, and
joints.

THE CORRECT MONITOR HEIGHT AND PLACEMENT

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Placing your computer monitor so it is not level with your eyeline is a common cause of
computer vision syndrome and back and neck injury. To avoid health issues and screen
glare, position computer monitors and display screens so they are:

 level with your eyeline to prevent neck and back pain

 around an arm’s length away from your body to prevent computer vision syndrome

The following images displays the correct computer monitor placement:

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If you struggle to place your computer in the right position for your eyeline, you may
benefit from an adjustable monitor arm. Using an adjustable monitor arm can help
promote and enhance comfort and performance, minimising health risks.

RECOMMENDED PRODUCT

REDUCE SCREEN GLARE

To prevent headaches and computer vision syndrome, you should ensure you adjust your
monitor so that its brightness is approximately equal to the area behind it. If you find
yourself experiencing computer vision frequently, it may be time to adjust your computer
screen brightness.

If you still experience screen glare, you can cover your computer with an anti-glare filter
and wear anti-glare glasses.

THE CORRECT MOUSE PLACEMENT

The mouse should be positioned so it keeps your arms at or below a 90-degree angle.
Your wrists should not be straining, nor should they feel uncomfortable during use. The
image below demonstrates how a hand should be placed comfortably on the mouse:

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If you still uncomfortable holding the mouse, you can invest in a wrist rest.

THE CORRECT KEYBOARD PLACEMENT

Ergonomic experts recommend placing a keyboard just below elbow level. Your
keyboard should be flat on the desk, or gently sloping away from you. You should
position your keyboard so your elbows and arms remain as close to your sides as
possible. Your arms should sit at or below a 90-degree angle.

If you struggle to maintain the correct keyboard placement and work comfortably, an
ergonomic keyboard should be used to achieve a negative tilt. This means the keyboard
will be sloping down and away from you, so your arms and hand follow the downward
slope of your thighs.

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KEEP KEY OBJECTS CLOSE TO YOU

You should organise your ergonomic computer workstation so that key objects are close
to you. This could include your phone, notebook, water bottle and any other essential
items. This will prevent unnecessary reaching and straining.

USE A HANDS-FREE HEADSET WHEN TALKING ON THE PHONE

Using a hands-free headset can prevent strains from placing our hands in the same
position frequently when we answer the phone. It can also prevent shoulder pain if we
avoid tucking the phone between our shoulders and ears, which is a common mistake.

HOW DO YOU KNOW IF YOUR DESK IS AT THE RIGHT HEIGHT?

You can check your desk is at the right height by resting your arms at your sides in your
seating position at your desk. Keep your elbow at a 90-degree angle and your upper arms
in line with your torso. Your hands should be rested comfortably on your desk if your
desk is at the right height

WHAT IS COMPUTER DESK LIGHTING ERGONOMICS?

Ergonomic lighting is often ignored in an office, leaving employees to work under harsh,
bright lighting. Poor lighting can contribute to headaches, eye pain, tiredness, and un-
productivity. Computer desk lighting ergonomics ensures a person is working under
lighting that is adequate and not too bright or faulty.

WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS OF A SIT-STAND WORKSTATION?

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When possible, a sit-stand workstation is always recommend. The product was

introduced to keep employees as active as possible and prevent common injuries that
occur from sitting for too long. They can provide the following benefits:

 Standing can reduce back and neck pain as it provides the chance to stretch your
muscles

 Standing frequently can help improve mood and energy levels

 Combining standing and sitting throughout the day can reduce the risk of leg aches and
cramps

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COMPUTER ERGONOMICS AND WORKING FROM HOME

With the current COVID 19 pandemic, many of us are now working from home and
unable to go into our offices. When working from home, it can be hard to know the best
position to work in and the right equipment placement.

AVOID WORKING FROM A LAPTOP

If you can, avoid working from a laptop. Working from a laptop often means you are
looking down and are therefore at risk of neck and back pain. The smaller screen of a
laptop often also means we are tempted to place it closer to our eyes than necessary.

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PAY ATTENTION TO THE PLACEMENT OF YOUR MONITOR

When working from home, it can be tempting to be more relaxed about the placement of
your monitor. However, try and work in the same way as you would in the office. Follow
our guidance on the correct monitor placement to reduce the risk of injury and health
issues.

AVOID WORKING IN YOUR BED OR ON THE SOFA

Not only can working away from a proper desk reduce your motivation and productivity;
it can also be a cause of back and neck pain. When you are working in your bed or on the
sofa, your neck is not fully supported by an effective ergonomic office chair. Working
away from your desk also means your monitor or laptop is not positioned so it meets your
eye line, increasing the risk of injuries and computer vision syndrome.

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Week 7 – 8: Understand the concept of a computer network

6.1 Computer Network and its importance

Networks are systems that are formed by links. For example, roads that connect groups of
people together create a physical network. Connections with your friends create your
personal network. Websites that allow individuals to link to each other’s pages are called
social networking sites.

Computer networking refers to the practice of connecting computers and other digital
devices together to share resources and exchange information. It involves the use of
hardware and software technologies that enable communication between computers and
other devices, whether they are located in the same physical location or are
geographically dispersed.

A computer network allows for the sharing of resources such as printers, files, and
data storage, as well as the ability to communicate with other computers and access the
internet. Networking also enables collaboration between individuals and groups, and
supports the transfer of data and information across a variety of platforms and devices.

There are several types of computer networks, including local area networks (LANs),
wide area networks (WANs), metropolitan area networks (MANs), and wireless
networks. Each type of network has its own characteristics and benefits, and can be
used in different settings depending on the needs of the users.

Computer networking has become an essential component of modern society, and plays
a critical role in the functioning of businesses, governments, and individuals alike. As

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technology continues to advance, computer networking will continue to evolve and play
an increasingly important role in our daily lives.

In today’s world computer has become an integral part of the business sector for
professional activities not only for professional activities but for personal activities also.
As technologies have evolved networking came into the picture and slowly from initial
wired network technology we moved to this wireless network technology. Now if we
will think then we can know that networking impacts everything. Computer Network is
an interconnection between computers or we can say computer network is group of
computers linked to each other which enables one computer to communicate with
another computer. It acts as basis of communication in Information Technology (IT). It
is system of connected computing devices and shares information and resources
between them. The devices in network are connected by communication links
(wired/wireless) and share data by Data Communication System. There are several
types of computer networks are there, typical differences in between different types of
computer networks lies in the geographical areas they serve and their core purpose. An
example of computer network includes let us think about classroom and in class, two
friends are there with their own laptops, but communication between two processes is
established even if the two laptops are physically separated means they are in computer
network. Another example may be to let us think about our college office suppose there
are four computers and each computer generates some print jobs daily. Without
networking four computers needs four separate printers, one printer for each computer
to meet print requirement. But actually it is not if we will see all four computers are
connected to only one printer with the help of networking. Let us keep word computer
network away for some time and think about Internet then only we can know what is the
need of internet nowadays and how much important it is for our life. Starting from day
to the end of the day everyone uses Internet for their work and this internet is nothing
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but vast network that connects computers all over the world. So now I think we have
understood importance of computer networks in our daily life. Computer networking
has its various functionalities, goals, and advantages and disadvantages with it but
importance of it is truly unique. Let us go into little bit detail and know about
importance of computer networks to great extent.

Importance of Computer Networking:

In the world of Information Technology (IT) information is building block for effective
communication. Communication is medium that helps us to drive our day to day
professional and personal operations. Where computer networking acts as base of
everything as the best and most important IT solutions. Below is list of points that we
do with the help of computer networks, or things that we get benefited with the help of
computer networks or it has become possible or effective due to computer network. Let
us know all points and after that, we can understand importance of computer
networking.

 Provides best way of business communication.

 Streamline communication.
 Cost-effective resource sharing.
 Improving storage efficiency and volume.
 Cut costs on software.
 Cut costs on hardware.
 Utilizes Centralized Database.
 Increase in efficiency.
 Optimize convenience and flexibility.
 Allows File sharing.
 sharing of peripherals and internet access.
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 Network gaming.
 Voice over IP (VoIP).
 Media Center Server.
 Centralize network administration, meaning less IT support.
 Flexibility.
 Allowing information sharing.
 Supporting distributed processing.
 User communication.
 Overcoming geographic separation.
Computer networking has also played a crucial role in the development of new
technologies like cloud computing, big data analytics, and the Internet of Things have
all benefited greatly from computer networking (IoT). Businesses are now able to
gather and analyse enormous volumes of data, automate their procedures, and make
better choices faster thanks to these technologies.

In general, we can see “Communication” and “Sharing”, that is all networking is

about in simple terms. It enables everything that we do today. In the current scenario,
the business would not work without computer networking and our personal and social
life will also feel like it has been stopped.

Uses of computer network :

There are many different uses and applications for computer networks, including:

1. Resource sharing: One of the primary uses of computer networks is to share

resources, such as printers, scanners, and data storage devices. This allows multiple
users to access the same resources, which can help to reduce costs and increase
efficiency.

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2. Communication: Computer networks also facilitate communication between

individuals and groups, whether through email, instant messaging, or video
conferencing. This can be especially valuable for remote workers, or for teams that are
spread out across different locations.

3. Collaboration: Networks can enable collaboration between multiple users, allowing

them to work together on the same project or document in real-time. This can be
especially useful for teams that are working on complex projects or that need to
coordinate their efforts closely.

4. Internet access: Computer networks provide access to the internet, which is essential
for many businesses and individuals. This allows users to browse websites, access
online resources, and communicate with others around the world.

5. Data sharing: Networks allow for the sharing of data and information, whether
between users in the same organization or between different organizations. This can be
valuable for data analysis, research, and other applications that require access to large
amounts of information.

6. Security: Computer networks can be used to implement security measures, such as

firewalls and encryption, which can help to protect sensitive information and prevent
unauthorized access.

Why use computer network?

There are many reasons why computer networks are used in modern society. Some of
the key reasons include:

1. Resource sharing: Networks enable multiple users to share resources such as

printers, data storage devices, and other hardware and software resources. This can
help to reduce costs, increase efficiency, and improve productivity.

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2. Communication: Networks provide a way for individuals and groups to

communicate and collaborate with each other, whether through email, instant
messaging, video conferencing, or other means. This can be especially valuable for
businesses and organizations that have employees in different locations or who work
remotely.
3. Access to information: Networks provide access to information and data, which can
be essential for businesses and individuals who need to access information quickly
and efficiently. Networks also enable the sharing of information between individuals
and groups, which can help to facilitate collaboration and innovation.
4. Internet access: Networks provide access to the internet, which is essential for
businesses, organizations, and individuals who need to access online resources,
communicate with others around the world, and stay up-to-date with the latest news
and trends.
5. Security: Networks can be used to implement security measures such as firewalls,
encryption, and other technologies that can help to protect sensitive information and
prevent unauthorized access.
6. Remote Management: Networking allows administrators to remotely manage and
monitor devices and systems, making it easier to troubleshoot and resolve issues
without having to be physically present.
7. Cloud Computing: Networking is essential for cloud computing, allowing users to
access and use cloud-based services and applications from anywhere in the world.
8. Competitive Advantage: Networking can provide a competitive advantage by
enabling businesses and organizations to collaborate more effectively, improve
productivity, and enhance customer service.

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6.2 Different types of network topologies such as star, ring and bus

In Computer Network ,there are various ways through which different components are
connected to one another. Network Topology is the way that defines the structure, and
how these components are connected to each other.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the

sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which one
is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

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Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular

channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration
Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Mesh Topology

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels
are known as links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1, there
are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of ports required by
each device is 4. The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e.
N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total
number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology

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 Communication is very fast between the nodes.

 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the
devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number
of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet
service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is
also used in military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.

Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub
can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the
same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters
in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers. In Star
Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection),
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.

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Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection
i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number
of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system
will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

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A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office where
all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in wireless
networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-
robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus Topology,
various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet
connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bus Topology

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the
channel via drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up
to 10 Mbps.
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 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques
are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in
cable television networks.

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology
with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th
node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional
by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

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In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to
transmit the data.

Ring Topology

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.

The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.

 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one
node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility for
performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is done,
the token is to be released for other stations to use.

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3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the
token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
 Less secure.
Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical
flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic
Configuration ) are used.

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Tree Topology

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to the
secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary
hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

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A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the

top of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions
(child nodes) of the company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers
overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at
the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their respective managers and departments.

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we
have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form.
It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination
of various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol
that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it
contains a combination of all different types of networks.

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Advantages of Hybrid Topology

 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling
and network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The network
may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the backbone
through a switch or router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring topology
connecting the different rooms and offices. The wireless access points also create a
mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid topology allows for efficient
communication between different buildings while providing flexibility and redundancy
within each building.

6.3 Different types of network: LAN, MAN and WAN

A network allows various computers to communicate with other computers by

connecting via a medium. There are three major types of a computer network-namely
WAN, MAN, and LAN-designed for operating in an area that they cover. In this article,
we will discuss the primary difference between LAN, MAN, and WAN. But before we
do that, we will look into each of them individually.

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All three of these are similar yet different in various aspects- the significant difference
being their geographical locations coverage. WAN covers the largest area, MAN
comprises more area than LAN, and LAN only covers a small area.

Various other types of computer networks also exist, such as:

 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

 Enterprise Private Network (EPN)
 Storage Area Network (SAN)
 Personal Area Network (PAN)

What is LAN?

It is an abbreviation for Local Area Network. It connects various network devices in a

way that the workstations and PCs (personal computers) can share programs, tools, and
data. A single switch or stack of various switches connects a group of various devices and
computers together. They use a private addressing scheme- that the TCP/IP protocol
defines. The private addresses of every computer are unique in relation to one another. At
every LAN’s boundary, you will find routers that connect them all to a larger WAN.

The rate of data transmission is very high because it links to a very limited number of
computers. These connections exhibit a higher speed and require relatively inexpensive
hardware (for example, network adapters, hubs, Ethernet cables, etc.). A LAN covers a
very small area of about a few kilometers, and people own them privately for home,
office buildings, schools, hospitals, etc. It is very easy for people to design a LAN and
maintain it. The communication medium that it uses has coaxial cables and twisted-pair
cables. It also has minimal noise and error due to its short distance coverage.

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Data rates in early LAN ranged from 4 Mbps to 16 Mbps. This speed extends to approx
100-1000 Mbps today. The LAN has a very short propagation delay. It relies typically on
wired connections (to attain better security and speed), but it may also comprise wireless
connections. The smallest of LANs may make use of just two computers, and the larger
ones may accommodate thousands of them. Users experience high fault tolerance and
low congestion in a LAN network (like a few students playing together in the same
room).

What is MAN?

It is an abbreviation for Metropolitan Area Network. It covers a smaller area than that of
WAN and a larger area as compared to a LAN. A MAN basically connects two devices
(or more) that reside apart but in the same or different cities. It may also serve as an
Internet Service Provider (ISP), and it basically covers a larger geographical area.
Customers who need a better speed and higher-quality connectivity opt for MAN. They
are very hard to maintain and design, and their speeds range in terms of Megabytes Per
Second (Mbps).

MAN shows lesser fault tolerance and more congestion in the network. It also exhibits a
moderate rate of data transfer and propagation delay. A single organization may or may
not own a MAN, as it is very costly. It makes use of devices like Cable/Wire and Modem
for data transmission. A significant example of a MAN is those telephone company
networks that are capable of providing high-speed lines (DSL) to a cable TV network or
customers in any given city.

What is WAN?

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It stands for Wide Area Network. It basically extends over large areas, but it might stay
confined within a state or a country’s boundaries. A connection of various LANs may
also constitute a WAN. They may connect to each other using radio waves and telephone
lines. A WAN typically may stay limited to any enterprise (an organization or a
corporation) or may even be accessible to the general public. It comes with a technology
that is very expensive and relatively high-speed.

WANs are basically of two types: Point-to-Point WAN and Switched WAN. It is also
very difficult to maintain as well as design a WAN. The fault tolerance is also very less,
just like MAN, and it brings more congestion in a network. The communication medium
deployed for WAN is the Satellite Link or Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
The usual long-distance transmission leads to a higher error and voice in a WAN.

The data rate concerning a WAN is comparatively slower than LAN- about a tenth of its
speed. It is because of the higher distance that it covers and more number of terminals,
servers, etc. The speed of transmission may range in a WAN from a few Kbps (Kilobits
per second) to Mbps (Megabits per second). One of the biggest issues that WAN faces is
the propagation delay. A few devices that help in data transmission via WAN are:
Satellites, Microwaves, and Optic wires. One example of a Point-to-Point WAN is the
dial-up line connecting any home computer to the Internet. One example of a Switched
WAN is the ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) Network.

Difference Between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Parameter LAN MAN WAN

Full Form LAN is an acronym for MAN is an acronym WAN is an acronym for
Local Area Network. for Metropolitan Area

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Network. Wide Area Network.

Definition and LAN is a network that MAN is a The WAN network

Meaning usually connects a small comparatively wider spans to an even larger
group of computers in a network that covers locality. It has the
given geographical area. large regions- like capacity to connect
towns, cities, etc. various countries
together. For example,
the Internet is a WAN.

Network The LAN is private. The MAN can be The WAN can also be
Ownership Hospitals, homes, both private or both private or public.
schools, offices, etc., public. Many
may own it. organizations and
telecom operators
may own them.

Maintenance and Very easy to design and Comparatively Very difficult to design
Designing maintain. difficult to design and and maintain.
maintain.

Speed LAN offers a very high MAN offers a WAN offers a low
Internet speed. moderate Internet Internet speed.
speed.

Delay in It faces a very short It faces a moderate It faces a high

Propagation propagation delay. propagation delay. propagation delay.

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Faulty Tolerance The LAN exhibits a The MAN exhibits a The WAN also exhibits
better fault tolerance lesser fault tolerance. a lesser fault tolerance.
than the rest of the
networks.

Congestion The congestion in the It exhibits a higher It exhibits a higher

network is very low. network congestion. congestion in the
network.

Communication LAN typically allows a MAN allows multiple A huge group of

Allotment single pair of devices to computers to interact computers can easily
establish a simultaneously with interact with each other
communication. But it each other. using the WAN.
may also support more
computers.

Uses Schools, homes, It basically covers a It covers an entire

colleges, hospitals, city, a small town, or country, a subcontinent,
offices, etc., can any given area with a or an equivalent area.
privately use it. bigger radius than the
LAN.

6.4 Various LAN components

The main components of a Local Area Network (LAN) are computers, network devices,
cables, switches, routers, and a server.

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A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers and other devices that share a
common communications line or wireless link and typically share the resources of a
single processor or server within a small geographic area. The main components of a
LAN are computers, network devices, cables, switches, routers, and a server.

Computers are the primary component of a LAN. They are the devices that utilise the
network to share resources and communicate with each other. These can be desktop
computers, laptops, or even mobile devices like smartphones and tablets. Each computer
on the network is considered a node.

Network devices are essential for communication between computers. These include
Network Interface Cards (NICs), which are hardware devices that handle an interface
to a network and allow a network-capable device to connect to the network. They convert
data packets between the computer and the network data format.

Cables are used to connect the devices on the network. The most common types of
network cables used in a LAN are Ethernet cables, which are used to connect devices like
computers, routers, and switches within a local area network.

Switches are another crucial component of a LAN. They are networking devices that
connect devices on a computer network by using packet switching to receive and forward
data to the destination device. Switches allow different devices on a network to
communicate efficiently.

Routers are used to connect multiple networks and route network traffic between them.
In a LAN, a router will typically connect the local network to the internet, allowing
devices on the LAN to access the internet.

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Finally, a server is a computer that manages network resources. It is a high-powered

machine that runs software to share resources and data with other computers on the
network. Servers can serve many different functions, such as file storage, managing
printers, or hosting databases.

In summary, a LAN is made up of computers, network devices, cables, switches, routers,

and a server. Each of these components plays a crucial role in allowing devices on the
network to communicate and share resources.

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Week 9-11: Understand the principles and uses of the internet technologies

7.1 Define Internet and explain its resources

The Internet commonly referred to as the “Net?” is better described than defined, as a
global network of computers. It is often described as a network of networks because it
first began through the linking of the existing local computer networks used by
universities and governmental organizations. The Internet is a constellation of computers
around the world that speak the same language so information travels seamlessly from
one computer to another. Globally, the Internet connects scientific research, educational,
government, commercial and business networks. When you connect to the Internet, your
computer becomes part of the global network of computers. The Internet is more than a
technological marvel. The peace is quick, with messages and information racing round
the world in a few seconds. It has ushered in an era of sweeping changes in networking
and communication that has left no business, agency, organization or government
untouched.

What Does the Internet Mean?

The Internet is a globally connected network system that facilitates communication and
data services through a vast collection of private, public, business, academic, and
government networks.

The Internet is decentralized, which means there is no central authority governing its
operations. To enable communication between devices, the internet relies
on protocols and standards that govern how small units of data are formatted, addressed,
and transmitted.

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The terms internet and World Wide Web (WWW) are often used as synonyms, but
technically they are not the same thing. The Internet is a global network of interconnected
computers and networks. The World Wide Web is a service that uses the Internet’s
infrastructure to provide digital devices and applications with access to websites. Popular
internet services include email, VoIP (Voice over IP), and SMS (Short Message Service).

The Internet is the foremost important tool and the prominent resource that is being
used by almost every person across the globe. It connects millions of computers,
webpages, websites, and servers. Using the internet, we can send emails, photos, videos,
and messages to our loved ones. Or in other words, the Internet is a widespread
interconnected network of computers and electronic devices (that support Internet). It
creates a communication medium to share and get information online. If your device is
connected to the Internet then only you will be able to access all the applications,
websites, social media apps, and many more services. The Internet nowadays is
considered the fastest medium for sending and receiving information.

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History of the Internet

The Internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the first working model
called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency). It allowed multiple
computers to work on a single network which was their biggest achievement at that
time. ARPANET uses packet switching to communicate multiple computer systems
under a single network. In October 1969, using ARPANET first message was
transferred from one computer to another. After that technology continues to grow.

How is the Internet Set Up?

The internet is set up with the help of physical optical fiber data transmission cables or
copper wires and various other networking mediums like LAN, WAN, MAN, etc. For
accessing the Internet even the 2G, 3G, and 4G services and the Wifi require these
physical cable setups to access the Internet. There is an authority named ICANN
(Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) located in the USA which
manages the Internet and protocols related to it like IP addresses.

How Does the Internet Work?

The actual working of the internet takes place with the help of clients and servers. Here
the client is a laptop that is directly connected to the internet and servers are the
computers connected indirectly to the Internet and they are having all the websites
stored in those large computers. These servers are connected to the internet with the
help of ISP (Internet Service Providers) and will be identified with the IP address.
Each website has its Domain name as it is difficult for any person to always remember
the long numbers or strings. So, whenever you search for any domain name in the

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search bar of the browser the request will be sent to the server and that server will try to
find the IP address from the Domain name because it cannot understand the domain
name. After getting the IP address the server will try to search the IP address of the
Domain name in a Huge phone directory that in networking is known as a DNS server
(Domain Name Server). For example, if we have the name of a person and we can
easily find the Aadhaar number of him/her from the long directory as simple as that.
So after getting the IP address, the browser will pass on the further request to the
respective server and now the server will process the request to display the content of
the website which the client wants. If you are using a wireless medium of Internet like
3G and 4G or other mobile data then the data will start flowing from the optical cables
and will first reach towers from there the signals will reach your cell phones and PCs
through electromagnetic waves and if you are using routers then optical fiber
connecting to your router will help in connecting those light-induced signals to
electrical signals and with the help of ethernet cables internet reaches your computers
and hence the required information.

What is an IP Address?
IP Address stands for Internet Protocol Address. Every PC/Local machine is having an
IP address and that IP address is provided by the Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
These are some sets of rules which govern the flow of data whenever a device is
connected to the Internet. It differentiates computers, websites, and routers. Just like
human identification cards like Aadhaar cards, Pan cards, or any other unique
identification documents. Every laptop and desktop has its own unique IP address for
identification. It’s an important part of Internet technology. An IP address is displayed
as a set of four-digit like 192.154.3.29. Here each number on the set ranges from 0 to
255. Hence, the total IP address range from 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255.

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You can check the IP address of your Laptop or desktop by clicking on the Windows
start menu -> then right-click and go to network -> in that go to status and then
Properties you can see the IP address. There are four different types of IP addresses are
available:

1. Static IP Address
2. Dynamic IP Address
3. Private IP Address
4. Public IP Address
World Wide Web (WWW)
The world wide web is a collection of all the web pages, and web documents that you
can see on the Internet by searching their URLs (Uniform Resource Locator) on the
Internet. For example, www.geeksforgeeks.org is the URL of the GFG website, and all
the content of this site like webpages and all the web documents are stored on the world
wide Web. Or in other words, the world wide web is an information retrieval service of
the web. It provides users with a huge array of documents that are connected to each
other by means of hypertext or hypermedia links. Here, hyperlinks are known as
electronic connections that link the related data so that users can easily access the
related information hypertext allows the user to pick a word or phrase from text, and
using this keyword or word or phrase can access other documents that contain
additional information related to that word or keyword or phrase. World wide web is a
project which is created by Timothy Berner’s Lee in 1989, for researchers to work
together effectively at CERN. It is an organization, named World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C), which was developed for further development in the web.

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Difference Between World Wide Web and the Internet

The main difference between the World Wide Web and the Internet are:

World Wide Web Internet

All the web pages and web The Internet is a global network of computers that
documents are stored there on the is accessed by the World wide web.
World wide web and to find all
that stuff you will have a specific
URL for each website.

The world wide web is a service. The Internet is an infrastructure.

The world wide web is a subset of The Internet is the superset of the world wide web.
the Internet.

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The world wide web is software- The Internet is hardware-oriented.

oriented.

The world wide web uses HTTP. The Internet uses IP Addresses.
The world wide web can be The Internet can be considered a Library.
considered as a book from the
different topics inside a Library.

Uses of the Internet

Some of the important usages of the internet are:

 Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have made our life
easier, e-commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart, and Myntra are providing very
spectacular services with just one click and this is a great use of the Internet.
 Cashless Transactions: All the merchandising companies are offering services to
their customers to pay the bills of the products online via various digital payment
apps like Paytm, Google Pay, etc. UPI payment gateway is also increasing day by
day. Digital payment industries are growing at a rate of 50% every year too because
of the INTERNET.
 Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of educational
material to everyone through any server across the web. Those who are unable to
attend physical classes can choose any course from the internet and can have point-
to-point knowledge of it just by sitting at home. High-class faculties are teaching
online on digital platforms and providing quality education to students with the help
of the Internet.
 Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps is to connect
people all over the world. With the help of social networking sites, we can talk, and

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share videos, and images with our loved ones when they are far away from us. Also,
we can create groups for discussion or for meetings.
 Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There are numerous
entertainment options available on the internet like watching movies, playing games,
listening to music, etc. You can also download movies, games, songs, TV Serial,
etc., easily from the internet.
Security and the Internet
Very huge amount of data is managed across the Internet almost the time, which leads
to the risk of data breaching and many other security issues. Both Hackers and
Crackers can lead to disrupting the network and can steal important information like
Login Credentials, Banking Credentials, etc.

Steps to Protect the Online Privacy

 Install Antivirus or Antimalware.

 Create random and difficult passwords, so that it becomes difficult to guess.
 Use a private browsing window or VPN for using the Internet.
 Try to use HTTPS only for better protection.
 Try to make your Social Media Account Private.
 If you are not using any application, which requires GPS, then you can turn GPS off.
 Do not simply close the tab, first log out from that account, then close the tab.
 Try to avoid accessing public Wifi or hotspots.
 Try to avoid opening or downloading content from unknown sources.
There is an element of the Internet called the Dark Web, which is not accessible from
standard browsers. To keep safe our data, we can use Tor and I2P, which helps in

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keeping our data anonymous, that helps in protecting user security, and helps in
reducing cybercrime.
Social Impact of the Internet
The social impact of the Internet can be seen in both ways. Some say it has a positive
impact as it helps in gaining civic engagement, etc. whereas some say it has a negative
impact as it increased the risk of getting fooled by someone over the internet, getting
withdrawal from society, etc.

Whatever the impact of Social Media, one thing is that it changed the way of connecting
and interacting with others in society. The number of people increasing day by day on
social media platforms which helps in constructing new relationships over social media,
new communities are made on social media in the interest of the people. Social Media
platforms like Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, etc are the most used social media
platform for both individual and business purposes where we can communicate with
them and perform our tasks.

Advantages of the Internet

 Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows us to transfer money online
through the net banking system. Money can be credited or debited from one account
to the other.
 Education, Online Jobs, Freelancing: Through the Internet, we are able to get
more jobs via online platforms like Linkedin and to reach more job providers.
Freelancing on the other hand has helped the youth to earn a side income and the
best part is all this can be done via the INTERNET.
 Entertainment: There are numerous options for entertainment online we can listen
to music, play games can watch movies, and web series, and listen to podcasts,
youtube itself is a hub of knowledge as well as entertainment.

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 New Job Roles: The Internet has given us access to social media, and digital
products so we are having numerous new job opportunities like digital marketing
and social media marketing online businesses are earning huge amounts of money
just because the Internet is the medium to help us to do so.
 Best Communication Medium: The communication barrier has been removed from
the Internet. You can send messages via email, Whatsapp, and Facebook. Voice
chatting and video conferencing are also available to help you to do important
meetings online.
 Comfort to humans: Without putting any physical effort you can do so many things
like shopping online it can be anything from stationeries to clothes, books to
personal items, etc. You can books train and plane tickets online.
 GPS Tracking and google maps: Yet another advantage of the internet is that you
are able to find any road in any direction, and areas with less traffic with the help of
GPS on your mobile.
Disadvantages of the Internet
 Time Wastage: Wasting too much time on the internet surfing social media apps
and doing nothing decreases your productivity rather than wasting time on scrolling
social media apps one should utilize that time in doing something skillful and even
more productive.
 Bad Impacts on Health: Spending too much time on the internet causes bad impacts
on your health physical body needs some outdoor games exercise and many more
things. Looking at the screen for a longer duration causes serious impacts on the
eyes.
 Cyber Crimes: Cyberbullying, spam, viruses, hacking, and stealing data are some
of the crimes which are on the verge these days. Your system which contains all the
confidential data can be easily hacked by cybercriminals.

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 Effects on Children: Small children are heavily addicted to the Internet watching
movies, and games all the time is not good for their overall personality as well as
social development.
 Bullying and Spreading Negativity: The Internet has given a free tool in the form
of social media apps to all those people who always try to spread negativity with
very revolting and shameful messages and try to bully each other which is wrong.

7.2 The processes involved in browsing, searching the internet for information

Starting Your Web Search

1 Go to a search engine. A search engine is a website that collects and organizes
information on the internet and makes it available for searching. Search engines use
algorithms to display the most relevant search results based on trends, your location, and
sometimes even your web activity. Many search engines have their own mobile apps that
make searching easier on your phone or tablet. Check out some of the most popular
search engines:

 Google is the most popular search engine in the world. It's so popular that the
word "Googling" is often used in place of "searching the web." Google also has
special image and video search features that make it easy to find all sorts of
media.
 Bing is Microsoft's answer to Google, and the second most popular search engine.
Many of Google's functions, like image and video searching, are also available on
Bing.
 Yahoo used to be the largest search engine in the world. These days, it's powered
by Bing and delivers similar results.

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 DuckDuckGo is a privacy-focused search engine that doesn't collect or store your

personal information. In fact, this search engine is so privacy-focused that it
doesn't even look at your location or IP address.
 Startpage.com is another search engine focused on privacy, but it uses Google's
search engine in the background instead of its own program. The benefit is that
you'll get Google's excellent quality results without sacrificing your personal data.
 Swisscows is another privacy-focused search engine, but it uses its own software
that gives relevant results influence by semantics.
 Yandex is one of the most popular search engines in Russia, but the English
version has gained traction in other countries, including the United States.

2. Type what you're looking for into the search bar. You'll find the search bar at the
top of most search engines. You can enter a single word, a sentence, a phrase, some
numbers, or anything else you wish.

 If you're searching for a multi-word phrase, surround it in quotation marks so the

search engine knows to keep those words together. For example, "natural
perfumers", "Trader Joe's dried mangos" .
 Sometimes it's helpful to phrase your search like a question, such as What is
Cardi B's real name? , What was James Baldwin's last book? , or Is
there a vegan Chinese restaurant in Portland?

2. Press the ↵ Enter or ⏎ Return key to run your search. This displays your

search results in a list. If you're using a smartphone or tablet, you may have to
tap Search or Go instead. If you have a KaiOS-based phone, press the center
button to run your search.

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4 Click or tap a result to view it. If you've found a website that looks like what you
want, click or tap it to open in your browser. To go back to the search results, click or tap
your browser's back button.

 The results display differently depending on what you're looking for. For
example, if you searched for the word "weather" in Google or Bing, you'll see a
weather chart with the local conditions at the top of your results. If you scroll
down a little, you'll probably see some news articles about the weather, as well as
links to popular weather websites. If you search for an address or location, you'll
usually see a map and/or information about the business or landmark.
 If you scroll down through the first page and don't find what you're looking for,
click or tap the next page number or Next at the bottom to view the next set of
results.
 The best results are often on the first page, but sometimes you'll need to dig a little
deeper to find that magic result.
7.3 The concepts of Electronic Mail (email), World Wide Web (www), Uniform
Resource Locator (URL) etc.

Electronic Mail (e-mail): This is the most popular and most utilized Internet service
especially in the developing countries of the world. A conservative estimate puts the
number of people using the e-mail worldwide at more than 90 million people. E-mail is
message sent from one person to another via a computer network. The same e-mail can
be sent easily to one address or many addresses. Commercial electronic mail is used for
the same purposes as the organization wide mail system. But instead of being limited to
members of one organization, the service is made available to the public on subscription
bases.

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E-mail messages are exchanged between customers, suppliers, friends and business
partners. E-mail service has cut down on the cost of mailing or sending information thus
saving time and money. E-mail is used as a marketing tool, for example, a company,
Dealaday.com uses e-mail to prospect for customers and sends group e-mail to 10,000
user names all customers who have indicated they would like to receive e-mails. With e-
mail they receive a 7%, 8% and sometimes 10% response, unlike 1% or 2% response in
normal direct marketing.

The World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web or the web is one of the
Internet?s most popular applications and it was launched in 1991. It is a graphical, easy–
to-use way to organize and present information, including texts, images, movies, sounds
and more. The World Wide Web has generated tremendous popular interest in the
Internet. The www is unique for two reasons. Firstly it is highly interactive media
bringing documents in graphics, audio and video. Secondly, it uses hyperlink, which
provides connections between different resources. It allows users to jump from one page
to another. A file in www is called the home page and usually contains a multimedia clip.
A page can link you to other web pages and Internet resources with clicks of a mouse.
You can view and download any information you need on any home page with the aid of
software known as the web browser.

URL: stands for Uniform Resource Locator. A URL is nothing more than the address of
a given unique resource on the Web. In theory, each valid URL points to a unique
resource. Such resources can be an HTML page, a CSS document, an image, etc.

File Transfer Protocol (ftp): File transfer protocol (ftp) is an Internet tool used to
transfer files between computers and it is the most common method of transferring files
on the Internet. Without viewing them as they are transferred the ftp enables you to
access file on a remote location on the Internet once you log on to an ftp site, and you are
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able to access all files on sites and download them if you so desire. It is fairly easy to
publish information on the Internet. Many institutions maintain publicly accessible
archive of information that they want to share with others.

Assignment

7.4 Explain the concept of e-mail and acquiring email address

7.5 Explain the process of sending and receiving an e-mail.

7.6 Internet Service Provider (ISP) and their functions

For a modem to bring information, it must have a number to dial. This is where an
Internet service provider (ISP) comes in. The ISP is the organization that gives a
subscriber access to the information super highway. So to be connected to the Internet
you need to subscribe to an ISP. There are several ISPs scattered all over the world; some
of the popular ones are American Online (AOL), UK Line and CompuServe. Here in
Nigeria, some of the common ones are Hyperia, Infoweb, Cyberspace, Linkserv, Nigeria
Online, MTN, GLO, 9moble, Smile, Spectranet, Nigeria Net, Nitel, Nova, Prodigy, etc.
The choice of an ISP depends mostly on the effectiveness in the transmission of
information, that is, speed of service is an important criterion for selecting an ISP. The
efficiency of an ISP, in terms of speed of transmission of information, can be determined
by the bandwidth it can support. A bandwidth is a measure of the amount of data line,
satellite link etc. The bandwidth available determines the total capacity of an ISP to move
data anywhere in the world

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Week 12 – 13: Understand mobile & wireless and pervasive computing

8.1 Mobile computing and its applications

Mobile computing is a technology that frees people from being bound to a certain physical
location so they can access and communicate data and information from a portable device

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like a smartphone, tablet, or laptop. By enabling us to access information and complete

tasks while on the go, technology has completely changed the way we live and work.

Mobile computing is the use of compact, lightweight, and portable computer devices that
can connect to wireless networks and access information and services from different
locations. These devices are adaptable tools for a variety of applications since they come
with CPUs, memory, storage, and communication capabilities.

Mobile computing applications

Real-time communication is made possible by mobile computing through apps for instant
messaging, emails, texts, and phone conversations. It has made it simpler and easier to
keep in touch with loved ones, friends, and coworkers.

Online shopping, website browsing, and keeping up with social media are all possible for
those who have mobile device access to the internet.

Mobile devices frequently have GPS capabilities, making them crucial tools for
navigation and location-based services. GPS and navigation. They include location-
sharing tools, turn-by-turn instructions, and data on nearby businesses.

Entertainment: A wide range of entertainment possibilities are available with mobile

computing, including playing games, streaming music and video, and reading e-books.
Wherever they go, users may take their entertainment with them.

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Productivity: Mobile apps are created to increase productivity. On their mobile devices,
users may create, edit, and share documents, spreadsheets, and presentations. Users can
keep organized by using calendars and task management tools.

Paying bills, transferring money, and checking account balances are all possible using
mobile banking apps. Online and in-store transactions are easy and secure with the help of
mobile payment services like Apple Pay and Google Pay.

Healthcare: Telemedicine apps that allow for remote consultations, health tracking apps,
and electronic health records that are available to both patients and healthcare practitioners
have all been made possible by mobile computing.

8.2 Wireless LAN, Wi-Fi, and voice portal

Wireless LAN: A wireless local-area network (WLAN) is a group of colocated

computers or other devices that form a network based on radio transmissions rather than
wired connections. A Wi-Fi network is a type of WLAN; anyone connected to Wi-Fi
while reading this webpage is using a WLAN.

A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless computer network that links two or more devices
using wireless communication to form a local area network (LAN) within a limited area
such as a home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office building. This gives users
the ability to move around within the area and remain connected to the network. Through
a gateway, a WLAN can also provide a connection to the wider Internet.

Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is a wireless networking technology that allows devices such as computers
(laptops and desktops), mobile devices (smart phones and wearables), and other

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equipment (printers and video cameras) to interface with the Internet. It allows these
devices--and many more--to exchange information with one another, creating a network.

Internet connectivity occurs through a wireless router. When you access Wi-Fi, you are
connecting to a wireless router that allows your Wi-Fi-compatible devices to interface
with the Internet.

Voice portal: Voice portals are the voice equivalent of web portals, giving access to
information through spoken commands and voice responses. Ideally a voice portal could
be an access point for any type of information, services, or transactions found on the
Internet. Common uses include movie time listings and stock trading. In
telecommunications circles, voice portals may be referred to as interactive voice response
(IVR) systems, but this term also includes DTMF services. With the emergence of
conversational assistants such as Apple's Siri, Amazon Alexa, Google Assistant,
Microsoft Cortana, and Samsung's Bixby, Voice Portals can now be accessed through
mobile devices and Far Field voice smart speakers such as the Amazon Echo and Google
Home.

8.3 The fundamentals of wireless communications

Wireless communication technology is a broad field that encompasses various

technologies and protocols for transmitting information without the need for physical
cables or wires. The fundamentals of wireless communication technology involve several
key concepts and components, including modulation, multiplexing, antennas,
propagation, and protocols. Let's delve into each of these aspects in detail:

1. Modulation:
o Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal's properties (such as
amplitude, frequency, or phase) to encode information.
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o Types of modulation include Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency

Modulation (FM), and Phase Modulation (PM).
o Digital modulation schemes, such as Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM), are commonly used for transmitting digital data.
2. Multiplexing:
o Multiplexing allows multiple signals to share the same communication
medium.
o Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) assigns different frequency bands
to different signals.
o Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) allocates specific time slots to different
signals.
o Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) assigns a unique code to each signal,
allowing them to coexist in the same frequency band.
3. Antennas:
o Antennas are devices that transmit and receive radio waves.
o Different types of antennas, such as dipole, patch, and parabolic antennas,
are used based on the application and frequency range.
o Antenna design is crucial for optimizing signal strength, directionality, and
coverage.
4. Propagation:
o Radio waves propagate through different mediums, such as air or space, and
are subject to various propagation effects.
o Free-space path loss is the reduction in signal strength as distance increases.
o Multipath propagation occurs when signals take multiple paths to reach the
receiver, causing interference and fading.

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o Signal absorption and reflection are also important factors in signal

propagation.
5. Protocols and Standards:
o Wireless communication follows various protocols and standards to ensure
compatibility and efficient data exchange.
o Examples include Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), Bluetooth, Cellular networks (3G,
4G, 5G), and satellite communication standards.
o These protocols define how devices communicate, handle interference, and
manage data transfer.
6. Wireless Network Architecture:
o Wireless networks have different architectures, including point-to-point,
point-to-multipoint, and mesh networks.
o Cellular networks divide coverage areas into cells served by base stations,
coordinating seamless handovers as users move between cells.
o Ad-hoc networks allow devices to communicate directly with each other
without a centralized infrastructure.
7. Security:
o Wireless communication must address security challenges, including
eavesdropping, data interception, and unauthorized access.
o Encryption protocols (e.g., WPA2, WPA3 for Wi-Fi) help secure wireless
transmissions.
o Authentication mechanisms and secure key exchange protocols are crucial
for protecting wireless networks.

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Understanding these fundamental concepts is essential for designing, implementing, and

optimizing wireless communication systems for various applications, ranging from
simple point-to-point links to complex cellular networks and the Internet of Things (IoT).

8.4 Bluetooth or personal area networks

The computer network is a set of interconnected computers/devices where the

interconnection is established with the aim of communication between the
computers/devices to share resources, data, and applications. There exist different types
of computer networks designed to operate over the area they cover and as per network
requirements, service type, and network coverage area they are classified.

Personal Area Network (PAN) is the computer network that connects

computers/devices within the range of an individual person. As PAN provides a
network range within a person’s range typically within a range of 10 meters(33 feet) it
is called a Personal Area Network. A Personal Area Network typically involves a
computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal Digital Assistant) and other and other
entertainment devices like speakers, video game consoles, etc.

Thomas Zimmerman and other researchers at M.I.T.’s Media Lab first developed the
concept of PAN. It is very useful in the home, offices, and small network areas due to
its high performance in terms of flexibility and efficiency.

Types of Personal Area Network (PAN) : Personal Area Network can be of 2 types
depending upon its connection i.e., Wireless PAN, and Wired PAN.

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These are explained as following below.

1. Wireless PAN – Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is connected through

signals such as infrared, ZigBee, Bluetooth and ultrawideband, etc.

2. Wired PAN – Wired PAN is connected through cables/wires such as Firewire

or USB (Universal Serial Bus).

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Examples of PAN :

 Body Area Network – It is a mobile network that moves with a persona range for
example when a person connects his smartphone to the Bluetooth headphone and
moves in the market that refers to a body area network.
 Offline Network – In this multiple devices are connected through Bluetooth or Wi-
Fi. The devices attached to your computer including printers, mouse, speakers, and
other appliances are integrated using a Personal Area Network (PAN) and do not use
the internet. So a communication network is formed between the devices used in a
small single space for example home.
 Home Office – In Home Office set up a separate smaller network is set up for work
purposes which is separate from the network used by other home appliances. This
network works as a separate body with multiple other devices connected for office
work purposes.

Advantages and disadvantages of PAN –

These are some of the Advantages of PAN :
 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network ranges.
 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
 It is easy and portable.
 Needs fewer technical skills to use.

These are some of the disadvantages of PAN :

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 Low network coverage area/range.

 Limited to relatively low data rates.
 Devices are not compatible with each other.
 Inbuilt WPAN devices are a little bit costly.

Applications of PAN –
 Home and Offices
 Organizations and the Business sector
 Medical and Hospital
 School and College Education
 Military and Defense

Assignment

8.5 Explain Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) and next generations
of mobile phone network.

8.7 Define the term “pervasive/ubiquitous computing”

8.8 State the applications of pervasive computing: - Smart Homes - Smart

Appliances - Smart Cars - Smart Things

8.9 Explain mapping technologies and tracking tools in the digital age.

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Week 14 – 15: Know IT Ethics and impacts of IT on the society

9.1 Ethical Issues in IT

Information Technology specifies to the components that are used to store, fetch and
manipulate the information at the minimum level with the server having an operating
system. Information Technology have a wide area of applications in education,
business, health, industries, banking sector and scientific research at a large level. With
the leading advancement in information technology, it is necessary to have the
knowledge of security issues, privacy issues and main negative impacts of IT. To deal
with these issues in IT society it is important to find out the ethical issues. Some of the
major ethical issues faced by Information Technology (IT) are:
1. Personal Privacy
2. Access Right
3. Harmful Actions
4. Patents
5. Copyright
6. Trade Secrets
7. Liability
8. Piracy
These are explained with their affects as following below:
1. Personal Privacy: It is an important aspect of ethical issues in information
technology. IT facilitates the users having their own hardware, operating system and
software tools to access the servers that are connected to each other and to the users
by a network. Due to the distribution of the network on a large scale, data or
information transfer in a big amount takes place which leads to the hidden chances
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of disclosing information and violating the privacy of any individuals or a group. It

is a major challenge for IT society and organizations to maintain the privacy and
integrity of data. Accidental disclosure to inappropriate individuals and provisions to
protect the accuracy of data also comes in the privacy issue.

2. Access Right: The second aspect of ethical issues in information technology is

access right. Access right becomes a high priority issue for the IT and cyberspace
with the great advancement in technology. E-commerce and Electronic payment
systems evolution on the internet heightened this issue for various corporate
organizations and government agencies. Network on the internet cannot be made
secure from unauthorized access. Generally, the intrusion detection system are used
to determine whether the user is an intruder or an appropriate user.

3. Harmful Actions: Harmful actions in the computer ethics refers to the damage or
negative consequences to the IT such as loss of important information, loss of
property, loss of ownership, destruction of property and undesirable substantial
impacts. This principle of ethical conduct restricts any outsiders from the use of
information technology in manner which leads to any loss to any of the users,
employees, employers and the general public. Typically, these actions comprises of
the intentional destruction or alteration of files and program which drives a serious
loss of resources. To recover from the harmful actions extra time and efforts are
required to remove the viruses from the computer systems.

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4. Patents: It is more difficult to deal with these types of ethical issues. A patent can
preserve the unique and secret aspect of an idea. Obtaining a patent is very difficult
as compared with obtaining a copyright. A thorough disclosure is required with the
software. The patent holder has to reveal the full details of a program to a proficient
programmer for building a program.

5. Copyright: The information security specialists are to be familiar with necessary

concept of the copyright law. Copyright law works as a very powerful legal tool in
protecting computer software, both before a security breach and surely after a
security breach. This type of breach could be the mishandling and misuse of data,
computer programs, documentation and similar material. In many countries,
copyright legislation is amended or revised to provide explicit laws to protect
computer programs.

6. Trade Secrets: Trade secrets is also a significant ethical issue in information

technology. A trade secret secures something of value and usefulness. This law
protects the private aspects of ideas which is known only to the discover or his
confidants. Once disclosed, trade secret is lost as such and is only protected by the
law for trade secrets. The application of trade secret law is very broad in the
computer range, where even a slight head start in the advancement of software or
hardware can provide a significant competitive influence.

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7. Liability: One should be aware of the liability issue in making ethical decisions.
Software developer makes promises and assertions to the user about the nature and
quality of the product that can be restricted as an express warranty. Programmers or
retailers possess the legitimate to determine the express warranties. Thus they have
to be practical when they define any claims and predictions about the capacities,
quality and nature of their software or hardware. Every word they say about their
product may be as legally valid as stated in written. All agreements should be in
writing to protect against liability. A disclaimer of express warranties can free a
supplier from being held responsible of informal, speculative statements or
forecasting made during the agreement stages.

8. Piracy: Piracy is an activity in which the creation of illegal copy of the software is
made. It is entirely up to the owner of the software as to whether or not users can
make backup copies of their software. As laws made for copyright protection are
evolving, also legislation that would stop unauthorized duplication of software is in
consideration. The software industry is prepared to do encounter against software
piracy. The courts are dealing with an increasing number of actions concerning the
protection of software.
Assignment

9.2 Explain cyber-privacy and security

9.3 Explain how to protect intellectual property

9.4 Identify impact of IT adoption on individuals, organizations and jobs.

9.5 State the impacts of IT on Health and Safety and Environment

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9.6 Enumerate the importance of green computing or IT.

9.7 Describe Quality-of Life Improvements through IT.

9.8 Explain online networking tools, their potential and their limitations

9.9 Describe digital economy and its associated business opportunities.

9.10 Explain the following terms: - Virtual Communities - Virtual Work and
Telecommuting - Virtual learning - Virtual Reality

9.11 Explain virtualization and cloud computing.

9.12Explain types, services and applications of cloud computing.

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