UNIT 5

SOLIDS, LIQUIDS & GASES

DENSITY
• Definition of density is the relationship between the mass of the substance and how much
space it takes up (volume).
• The density (p) of a material can be calculated if you know the mass (m) of a certain volume
(V) of the material, using this equation:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑣
• Solids are very dense than liquids, and gases are less dense than the other two.
• 1𝑚! = 1000,000𝑐𝑚! , 1𝑚" = 10,000𝑐𝑚"
• Mage means 1000,000 or 10# , like 1 mage newtons (1MN) =1000,000 N
• Kilo means 1000 or 10! ,like 1 kilo newtons (1KN) = 1000N
$ '$
• Density of water = 1 %&! = 1000 &!

See page 174,175 example 1, example 2

PRESSURE UNDER THE SOLID

• Pressure is defined as the force per unit area.
• Force is measured in newtons (N) and area is measured in square meters (m2). The units
for pressure are pascals (Pa), where 1 Pa is equivalent to 1 N/m2.

𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹(𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑠)𝑁
Pressure p (Pascale)
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 (𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠)𝑚"
• Uses of pressure in our lives in some machines use high pressure like bolt cutters or scissors
to cut steel wires, also using low pressure to distribute pressure in heavy tractors and other
machines to move and not sink.

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PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS AND GASES
• Pressure in liquids acts equally in all directions, if the liquid is not moving.
• Gases also exert pressure on things around them. The pressure exerted by the atmosphere
on your body is about 100 000 Pa (although the pressure varies slightly from day to day).
However, the pressure inside our bodies is similar, so we do not notice the pressure of the
air.
See page 177 example 4 & figure 18.6 ,18.7, 18.8
Also check the van Guericke experiment

PRESSURE AND DEPTH

• Pressure difference, p (Pa) = height, h (m) x density, r (kg/m3) × gravitational field
strength, g (N/kg).
• Be careful not to mix up the symbol for pressure, p, with the symbol for This equation can
be used for calculating pressure differences in other liquids or gases, if you know their
densities.
See page 178 example 5 and all the page 179.

STATES OF MATTER (SOLIDS, LIQUIDS, AND GASES)

• Matter exists in three main states: solid, liquid, and gas.
• Substances can change states through melting, evaporation/boiling, freezing, and
condensation.

PROPERTIES OF THE DIFFERENT STATES OF MATTER

• SOLIDS
• Have a definite shape and are often dense.
• Particles are tightly packed in fixed positions but vibrate.

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 • Strong forces hold particles together.
• Heating a solid increases particle vibration and temperature.

• LIQUIDS
• Have no definite shape but occupy the lowest part of containers.
• Particles are still closely packed but can move freely.
• Liquids flow and take the shape of their container.

• GASES
• Have no definite shape or volume; they expand to fill containers.
• Particles are widely spaced and move rapidly in random directions.
• Gases are easily compressed due to large gaps between particles.

SUMMARY OF PROPERTIES

Property Solids Liquids Gases

Definite shape Yes No No
Easily compressed No No Yes
Relative density High High Low
Ability to flow
No Yes Yes
(fluid)
Expand to fill
No No Yes
available space

PARTICLE BEHAVIOR
• Solids: Tightly packed, fixed positions, vibrate.
• Liquids: Tightly packed but move freely.
• Gases: Spread out, random, rapid motion.

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MEASURING HEAT ENERGY
• Thermal Energy Equation:
∆𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝑐 × ∆𝜃
• ∆𝑄 Change in thermal energy (Joules)
• m Mass (kg)
• 𝑐 Specific heat capacity (J/kg °C)
• ∆𝜃 Change in temperature (°C)

EXAMPLE CALCULATION:
• To heat 300 g of water (0.3 kg) from 15°C to 100°C

∆𝑄 = 0.3 × 4200 × 85 = 107,100 J

PRACTICAL: INVESTIGATING SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

• To measure specific heat capacity 𝑐:
1. Measure the mass of the substance.
2. Record the initial and final temperature.
3. Measure the thermal energy supplied using electrical equipment.
4. Rearrange the equation to find 𝑐:
∆𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚 × ∆𝜃
• Apparatus includes an immersion heater, thermometer, and power supply to heat the
substance.

SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY (S.H.C.)

• What is s.h.c.?
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1
kg of the substance by 1°C.

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 • Formula:
∆𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚 × ∆𝜃
Where:
(
• c: Specific heat capacity ()$ + " ),

• Q: Energy supplied (J),

• m: Mass of the object (Kg),
• ∆𝜃: Temperature change (𝐶 , ).
• How to measure it?
1. Heat a substance using an electric heater.
2. Measure the energy supplied (𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 × 𝑡).
3. Measure the temperature change and mass.
4. Use the formula above to calculate c.
• Key Example:
For a 0.5 kg aluminum cylinder heated from 20°C to 50°C with 16,500 J o energy:
∆𝜃 = 30𝐶°
(
𝑐 = 1100 )$℃

Note: Heat losses make the value larger than expected.

PRACTICAL EXAMPLE: MEASURING S.H.C. OF WATER

• Heat water (1 kg) in a kettle with a 2.4 kW heater for 2.5 minutes.
• Energy supplied:
𝑄 = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 2400𝑊 × 150𝑠 = 360,000𝐽
• Temperature rise: 80 C0.
• Use the formula to calculate:
360,000
𝑐= = 4500 𝐽/𝑘𝑔℃
1 × 80
• Result is higher due to energy lost to surroundings and the kettle itself.

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CHANGES OF STATE
• When a substance changes state (e.g., melting or boiling), its temperature remains constant,
even though energy is being added.
Examples:
Water: Boils at 100 C0 energy is used to separate water molecules, not to increase
temperature.
• Naphthalene: Melts at 80 C0 energy breaks bonds between solid particles.
• Key Idea: Energy during a change of state is used to overcome intermolecular forces, not
to raise the temperature.

BOYLE’S LAW (GASES)

• What is Boyle’s Law?
o At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to its
volume.
Formula:
𝑃. 𝑉. = 𝑃" 𝑉"
Where:
• P: Pressure (Kpa or Pa),
• V: Volume (m3).
• If the volume decreases, the pressure increases, and vice versa.
Example:
• Initial pressure 𝑃. = 100𝐾𝑃𝑎.
• Initial volume 𝑉. = 2 𝑚! .
• Final volume 𝑉" = 0.2 𝑚!

• Calculate 𝑃" :
𝑃. × 𝑉. 100 × 2
𝑃" = = 1000𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑉" 0.2

KEY POINTS FOR STUDENTS

1. Specific Heat Capacity:

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 o Know the formula and how to measure it using electrical heating.
o Understand heat losses can affect results.
2. Changes of State:
o During melting/boiling, temperature stays constant because energy is used to
overcome forces between particles.
3. Boyle’s Law:
o When pressure increases, volume decreases (and vice versa), if temperature is
constant.

GAS LAWS AND PARTICLE BEHAVIOR

• Compression of Gases:
o Gas molecules are far apart, allowing them to be compressed.
o Compressing gas into a smaller volume increases its pressure, as particles hit the
walls of the container more frequently.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE:

• At constant volume, gas pressure increases with temperature because particles move
faster and collide with container walls harder and more often.
• Graphs show this relationship as a straight line when pressure is plotted against Kelvin
temperature.

ABSOLUTE ZERO
• Definition: Absolute zero is the temperature where gas particles have no kinetic energy
and exert no pressure.
• Absolute zero is -273C or 0K.
• Kelvin Temperature Scale:
o Conversion formulas:
T(K) = θ(C°) + 273 , θ(C°) = T(K) − 273
Example Calculations:
1. Water freezes at θ(C°):
𝑇) = 0 + 273 = 273K.

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 2. Room temperature (20C°) in Kelvin:
• 𝑇) = 20 + 273 = 293K
3. Convert 400Kto Celsius:
• TC= 400 + 273 = 127C°

GRAPH OF PRESSURE VS. TEMPERATURE IN KELVIN

• A graph of pressure vs. Kelvin temperature produces a straight line.
• For a fixed mass of gas:
𝑃. 𝑃"
=
𝑇. 𝑇"
• Pressure is directly proportional to absolute temperature.

EXAMPLE: HEATING GAS IN A SEALED CONTAINER

• Scenario: Heat a gas in an empty tin from room temperature (20C°) to (50C°).
o Convert temperatures to Kelvin:
𝑇. = 20 + 273 = 293𝐾, 𝑇" = 50 + 273 = 323𝐾.
o Initial pressure: 𝑃. =1000KPa.
o Using the gas law:
𝑃. 𝑃" 𝑃. × 𝑇"
= , 𝑃"
𝑇. 𝑇" 𝑇.
Substituting:
100 × 323
𝑃" = = 110𝐾𝑃𝑎.
293

KEY POINTS FOR STUDENTS

1. Always use Kelvin (K) when dealing with temperature in gas law calculations.
2. Absolute zero (-273C0) is the theoretical point where particles stop moving.
3. Pressure increases with temperature if volume is constant.
See all the examples and figures from page 184 to 191
4.