PHY-107 Module 13: Thermodynamics

MODULE 13: THERMODYNAMICS

(Dr. Rubaiyet I. Haque)

LECTURE 21
OUTLINE:
▪ 1st law of thermodynamics
▪ Energy conservation law

HEAT AND WORK

Heat and work play essential roles in comprehending how energy is transferred into or out of a system.
Understanding heat and work is crucial for analyzing and predicting the behavior of various systems.

Work done in thermodynamics process:

A thermodynamic process is a sequence of states through which a thermodynamic system evolves.
Let us consider, a gas confined to a cylinder with a movable piston,
as in Figure.
- Upward force on the piston due to the pressure of the confined
gas is equal to the weight of lead shot loaded onto the top of the
piston.
- Walls of the cylinder are made of insulating material that does
not allow any transfer of energy as heat.
- Bottom of the cylinder rests on a reservoir for thermal energy, a
thermal reservoir (a hot plate) whose temperature 𝑇 can be
controlled by turning a knob.

The system (the gas) starts from an initial state 𝒊, described by a pressure 𝑝𝑖 , a volume 𝑉𝑖 , and a
temperature 𝑇𝑖 . At a final state 𝒇, the system described by a pressure 𝑝𝑓 , a volume 𝑉𝑓 , and a
temperature 𝑇𝑓 . The procedure by which the system is changed from its initial state to its final state
is called a thermodynamic process.
- During such a process, energy may be transferred into the system from the thermal reservoir known
and positive heat, or vice versa (negative heat).
- Work can be done by the system to raise the loaded piston (positive work) or work can be done on
the system to lower the piston (negative work).
- It is assumed that all such changes occur slowly, so that the system is always in (approximate)
thermal equilibrium (every part is always in thermal equilibrium).

Removal of a few lead shots from the top of the piston (Fig.), allowing the gas to push the piston and
remaining shot upward through a differential displacement 𝑑𝑠⃗ with an upward force 𝐹⃗ .
- Since the displacement is tiny, assumption is that the force 𝐹⃗ is constant during the displacement,
and thus 𝐹⃗ has a magnitude equals to |𝐹⃗ | = 𝑝𝐴, where 𝑝 is the pressure of the gas and 𝐴 is the face
area of the piston.

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The differential work 𝑑𝑊 done by the gas during the displacement is given by,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹⃗ . 𝑑𝑠⃗ = (𝑝𝐴)(𝑑𝑠) = 𝑝(𝐴 𝑑𝑠) = 𝑝 𝑑𝑉
Where 𝑑𝑉 is the differential change in the volume of the gas due to the movement of the piston.

When enough shot is removed to allow gas to change its volume from 𝑉𝑖 to 𝑉𝑓 , the total work done
by the gas is,
𝑉𝑓
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉
𝑉𝑖

Therefore, the work mainly depends on the change of volume. No change of volume means no work.
During the volume changes, the pressure and temperature may also change.

There are many ways to take the gas from state 𝒊 to state 𝒇.
First way: One way is presented in Fig. a. This is a plot of the pressure of the gas versus its volume
and known as a 𝑝 − 𝑉 diagram.
- The curve indicates that the pressure decreases as the volume increases. The integral in Equation
(and thus the work 𝑊 done by the gas) is represented by the shaded area under the curve between
points 𝑖 and 𝑓.
- Here the work is positive since the work is done by the gas on the piston. The gas increases its
volume by forcing the piston upward.

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Second way: Another way to get from state 𝑖 to state 𝑓 is shown in Fig. b. In this case. the change
takes place in two steps the first from state 𝑖 to state 𝑎, and the second from state 𝑎 to state 𝑓.
- Step 𝑖𝑎 of this process is carried out at constant pressure (isobaric process, ∆𝑃 = 0), which means
the lead shot that ride on top of the piston were left undisturbed.
▪ The increase of volume (from 𝑉𝑖 to 𝑉𝑓 ) is caused by slowly turning up the temperature control
knob, raising the temperature of the gas to some higher value 𝑇𝑎 .
o Increasing the temperature increases the force from the gas on the piston, moving it upward.
o During this step, positive work is done by the expanding gas (to lift the loaded piston) and
heat is absorbed by the system from the thermal reservoir (in response to the arbitrarily mall
temperature differences that you create as you turn up the temperature).
o This heat is positive because it is added to the system.
- Step 𝑎𝑓 of the process of Fig. b is carried out at constant volume (isochoric process, ∆𝑉 = 0).
▪ The piston is wedged, preventing it from moving.
▪ Then control knob is used to decrease the temperature.
o As a result, the pressure drops from 𝑝𝑎 to its final value 𝑝𝑓 .
▪ During this step, heat is lost by the system to the thermal reservoir.
▪ For the overall process 𝑖𝑎𝑓, the work W, which is positive and is carried out only during step
𝑖𝑎, is represented by the shaded area under the curve. Energy is transferred as heat during both
steps 𝑖𝑎 and 𝑎𝑓, with a net energy transfer Q.

Third way: This is also called reversed steps. Figure c shows a process in which the previous two
steps are carried out in reverse order. The work 𝑊 in this case is smaller than that for 𝐹𝑖𝑔. 𝑏, as is the
net heat absorbed.
- First step of the process of Fig. c is carried out at constant volume (isochoric process, ∆𝑉 = 0).
The piston must be wedged, preventing it from moving.
▪ The temperature is decreased using a control knob.
o As a result, the pressure drops from initial value.
o During this step, heat is lost by the system to the thermal reservoir.
- Second step of this process is carried out at constant pressure (isobaric process, ∆𝑃 = 0). The lead
shots on top of the piston were left undisturbed. The piston is unwedged.
▪ The increase of volume (from 𝑉𝑖 to 𝑉𝑓 ) is caused by slowly turning up the temperature control
knob, raising the temperature of the gas to some higher value 𝑇𝑎 .
▪ Increasing the temperature increases the force from the gas on the piston, moving it upward.
o During this step, positive work is done by the expanding gas (to lift the loaded piston) and
heat is absorbed by the system from the thermal reservoir (in response to the arbitrarily mall
temperature differences that you create as you turn up the temperature).
o This heat is positive because it is added to the system.
- Figure d suggests that the work done by the gas can be performed as small as you want (by
following a path like 𝑖𝑐𝑑𝑓) or as large as you want (by following a path like 𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑓).

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Negative Work: In thermodynamics, negative work typically refers to the work done on a system,
as opposed to the work done by a system. Figure e shows an example in which negative work is done
by a system as some external force compresses the system, reducing its volume.
- Work can be considered negative when an external force or agent is performing work on the
system, causing a decrease in the system's internal energy.
- The absolute value of the work done is still equal to the area beneath the curve, but because the
gas is compressed, the work done by the gas is negative.

Thermodynamic Cycle: A thermodynamic cycle is a series of processes that a system undergoes

and eventually returns to its initial state. Figure f shows a thermodynamic cycle in which the system
is taken from some initial state 𝑖 to some other state 𝑓 and then back to 𝑖.
- The net work done by the system during the cycle is the sum of the positive work done during the
expansion and the negative work done during the compression.
- In Fig. f, the net work is positive because the area under the expansion curve (𝑖 to 𝑓) is greater than
the area under the compression curve ( 𝑓 to 𝑖).

CHECKPOINT: The p-V diagram here shows six curved paths

(connected by vertical paths) that can be followed by a gas. Which two
of the curved paths should be part of a closed cycle (those curved paths
plus connecting vertical paths) if the net work done by the gas during
the cycle is to be at its maximum positive value?

ANSWER: c and e (maximize area enclosed by a clockwise cycle).

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics states that for a closed thermodynamic system, the change in internal
energy of a system is equal to the work done by the system due to the heat flows into the system.
In a closed system (i.e., there is no transfer of matter into or out of the system), the first law states
that the change in internal energy of the system (𝛥𝑈𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ) is equal to the difference between the heat
supplied to the system (𝑄) and the work (𝑊) done by the system on its surroundings.
∆𝑈𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
Important facts:
- The heat (𝑄) is positive when heat is transferred into the system. When the heat (𝑄) is transferred
out of the system, then 𝑄 is negative (e.g., −𝑄).
- When the work is done by the system, 𝑊 is positive. If the work is done on the system, 𝑊 is
negative (e.g., −𝑊).
- Change of internal energy (∆𝑈 or ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 ) is path independent. It only depends on the initial (𝑈𝑖 )
and final (𝑈𝑓 ) states of the internal energy.

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Total Internal Energy: When two initially isolated systems (i.e., there is no transfer of matter and
energy into or out of the system) are combined into a new system, then the total internal energy of
the new system, 𝑈𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 , will be equal to the sum of the internal energies of the two initial systems,
𝑈1 and 𝑈2 ,
𝑈𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑈1 + 𝑈2
This equation states that any change in the internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to
the system minus the work done by the system.

Key Points About the First Law of Thermodynamics:

- Conservation of Energy: The law asserts that energy is conserved in a closed system, and the total
energy remains constant.
- Energy Transfer: Energy can be transferred into or out of the system in the form of heat (thermal
energy) or work (mechanical energy).
- Internal Energy: The internal energy of a system is a measure of its total energy content, including
both kinetic and potential energy.
- Sign Convention: The convention for the signs of heat and work is that heat transferred into the
system and work done by the system are positive, while heat transferred out of the system and
work done on the system are negative.

CHECKPOINT: The figure here shows four paths on a 𝑝 − 𝑉

diagram along which a gas can be taken from state 𝑖 to state 𝑓. Rank
the paths according to (a) the change ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 in the internal energy of
the gas, (b) the work 𝑊 done by the gas, and (c) the magnitude of the
energy transferred as heat 𝑄 between the gas and its environment,
greatest first.
ANSWER: (a) all tie ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 depends on 𝑖 and 𝑓, not on path);
(b) 4, 3, 2, 1 (Compare areas under curves);
(c) 4, 3, 2, 1 (Eq. ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑓 − 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑖 = 𝑄 − 𝑊)

PROBLEM (EXTRA): A gas within a closed chamber

undergoes the cycle from 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴 to 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵 to 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶, and
then back to 𝐴, as shown in the 𝑝 − 𝑉 diagram of Figure. The
vertical scale is set by 𝑝𝑠 = 40 𝑃𝑎, and the horizontal scale is
set by 𝑉𝑠 = 4.0 𝑚3 . Calculate the net energy added to the
system as heat during one complete cycle.

ANSWER: Over a complete cycle, the internal energy is the

same at the beginning and end, so the heat 𝑄 absorbed equals
the work done: 𝑄 = 𝑊.
The 𝐴𝐵 portion of the cycle is at constant pressure and the work done by the gas is,
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝𝐴 ∆𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝𝐴 (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 )

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Since, 𝑝𝐴 = 𝑝𝐵 = 20 𝑃𝑎, 𝑉𝐴 = 1.0 𝑚3 and 𝑉𝐵 = 3.0 𝑚3 we have

𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝𝐴 (𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 ) = (20 𝑃𝑎)(3.0 𝑚3 − 1.0 𝑚3 ) = 40 𝐽

For the 𝐵𝐶 portion of the cycle, volume remain constant, so no work is done. Thus,
𝑊𝐵𝐶 = 0
Over the portion of the cycle from 𝐶 to 𝐴 the pressure 𝑝 is a linear function of the volume 𝑉 and
we may write 𝑝 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑉 . The work done over this portion of the cycle is,
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐴
𝑉 1 𝑉 1
𝑊𝐶𝐴 = ∫ 𝑝 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑉)𝑑𝑉 = 𝑎𝑉|𝑉𝐴𝐶 + 𝑏𝑉 2 |𝑉𝐴𝐶 = 𝑎(𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 ) + 𝑏(𝑉𝐴2 − 𝑉𝐶2 )
𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐶 2 2
From graph we get, 𝑝 = 40 𝑃𝑎 when 𝑉 = 3.0 𝑚3 . Therefore, 40 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑎 + 3𝑏 𝑚3 .
Similarly, 𝑝 = 20 𝑃𝑎 when 𝑉 = 1.0 𝑚3 . Thus, 20 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 𝑚3 .
Solving these two equations, we get, 𝑎 = 10 𝑃𝑎 and 𝑏 = 10 𝑃𝑎/𝑚3 .
Thus, the pressure function can be written as,
𝑃𝑎
𝑝 = 10 𝑃𝑎 + (10 ) 𝑉 = 10 𝑃𝑎 + (10 𝑃𝑎/𝑚3 )𝑉
𝑚3

Therefore, the work done going from 𝐶 to 𝐴 is, Since, 𝑉𝐴 = 1.0 𝑚3 and 𝑉𝐶 = 3.0 𝑚3 , we get,
1
𝑊𝐶𝐴 = 𝑎(𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐶 ) − 𝑏(𝑉𝐴2 − 𝑉𝐶2 )
2
1 𝑃𝑎
𝑊𝐶𝐴 = (10 𝑃𝑎)(1.0 𝑚3 − 3.0 𝑚3 ) − (−10 3 ) [(1.0 𝑚3 )2 − (3.0 𝑚3 )2 ]
2 𝑚
𝑊𝐶𝐴 = −20 𝐽 − 40𝐽 = −60 𝐽

The total work done by the gas is, 𝑊 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵𝐶 + 𝑊𝐶𝐴
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑊 = 40 𝐽 + 0 − 60𝐽 = −20 𝐽
Thus, the total heat absorbed is 𝑄 = 𝑊 =– 20 𝐽. This means the gas loses 20 𝐽 of energy in the
form of heat.

ALTERNATIVE METHOD: BY CALCULATING AREA UNDER THE CURVES:

The 𝐴𝐵 portion of the cycle is at constant pressure and the work done by the gas is,
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝐵 = (20 𝑃𝑎)(2 𝑚3 ) = 40𝐽
The volume increases during this portion of the cycle, so the work done WAB is positive. Thus,
𝑊𝐴𝐵 = +40𝐽.

For the 𝐵𝐶 portion of the cycle, volume remain constant, and the work done by the gas is,
𝑊𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐵𝐶 = (20 𝑃𝑎)(0 𝑚3 ) = 0𝐽
Over the portion of the cycle from 𝐶 to 𝐴 the pressure 𝑝 is a linear function of the volume 𝑉 and
the work done by the gas is,

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PHY-107 Module 13: Thermodynamics

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𝑊𝐶𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝐶𝐴 = (20 𝑃𝑎)(2 𝑚3 ) + (20 𝑃𝑎)(2 𝑚3 ) = 40𝐽 + 20𝐽 = 60𝐽
2
Since, the volume decreases during this portion of the cycle, so the work done WCA is negative.
Thus, 𝑊𝐶𝐴 = −60𝐽.

Now, the total work done by the gas is, 𝑊 = 𝑊𝐴𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵𝐶 + 𝑊𝐶𝐴
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒, 𝑊 = 40 𝐽 + 0 − 60𝐽 = −20 𝐽
Thus, the total heat absorbed is 𝑄 = 𝑊 =– 20 𝐽. This means the gas loses 20 𝐽 of energy in the
form of heat.

PROBLEM 18-43: In Fig., a gas sample expands from 𝑉0 to

𝑝
4.0 𝑉0 while its pressure decreases from 𝑝0 to 0 . If 𝑉0 =
4.0
1.0 𝑚3 and 𝑝0 = 40 𝑃𝑎, how much work is done by the gas if
its pressure changes with volume via (a) path A, (b) path B,
and (c) path C?

PROBLEM 18-44: A thermodynamic

system is taken from 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐴 to 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐵 to
𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐶, and then back to 𝐴, as shown in the
𝑝 − 𝑉 diagram of Fig. a. The vertical scale is
set by 𝑝𝑠 = 40 𝑃𝑎, and the horizontal scale is
set by 𝑉𝑠 = 4.0 𝑚3 . (a)–(g) Complete the
table in Fig. b by inserting a plus sign, a minus
sign, or a zero in each indicated cell. (h) What
is the net work done by the system as it moves
once through the cycle 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐴?

PROBLEM 18-45: A gas within a closed chamber undergoes

the cycle shown in the 𝑝 − 𝑉 diagram of Figure. The
horizontal scale is set by 𝑉𝑠 = 4.0 𝑚3 . Calculate the net
energy added to the system as heat during one complete cycle.

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PROBLEM 18-46: Suppose 200 𝐽 of work is done on a system and 70.0 𝑐𝑎𝑙 is extracted from the
system as heat. In the sense of the first law of thermodynamics, what are the values (including
algebraic signs) of (a) 𝑊, (b) 𝑄, and (c) ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 ?

PROBLEM 18-47: When a system is taken from state

𝑖 to state 𝑓 along path 𝑖𝑎𝑓 in Figure, 𝑄 = 50 𝑐𝑎𝑙 and
𝑊 = 20 𝑐𝑎𝑙. Along path 𝑖𝑏𝑓, 𝑄 = 36 𝑐𝑎𝑙. (a) What is
𝑊 along path 𝑖𝑏𝑓? (b) If 𝑊 = −13 𝑐𝑎𝑙 for the return
path 𝑓𝑖, what is 𝑄 for this path? (c) If 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑖 = 10 𝑐𝑎𝑙,
what is 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑓 ? If 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡,𝑏 = 22 𝑐𝑎𝑙, what is 𝑄 for (d) path
𝑖𝑏 and (e) path 𝑏𝑓?

PROBLEM 18-48: As a gas is held within a closed chamber,

it passes through the cycle shown in Figure. Determine the
energy transferred by the system as heat during constant-
pressure process 𝐶𝐴 if the energy added as heat 𝑄𝐴𝐵 during
constant-volume process 𝐴𝐵 is 20.0 𝐽, no energy is
transferred as heat during adiabatic process 𝐵𝐶, and the net
work done during the cycle is 15.0 𝐽.

SOME SPECIAL CASES OF THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Here are four thermodynamic processes, namely, Adiabatic processes, Constant-volume processes,
Cyclical processes, and Free expansions.

Adiabatic Processes: An adiabatic process is a thermodynamic process in which there is no heat

transfer take place into or out of a system. While no heat is transferred, work can still be done on or
by the system.
An adiabatic process is one that occurs so rapidly or occurs in a system that is so well insulated that
no transfer of energy as heat occurs between the system and its environment. Putting 𝑄 = 0 we get,
∆𝑈 = −𝑊 (𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠)
Therefore, if work is done by the system (𝑊 > 0), the internal energy of the system decreases by the
amount of work. Conversely, if work is done on the system (𝑊 < 0), the internal energy of the system
increases by that amount.

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Figure shows an ideal adiabatic process. Heat cannot enter

or leave the system because of the insulation. Thus, the
only way energy can be transferred between the system and
its environment is by work.
- If we remove shot from the piston and allow the gas to
expand, the work done by the system (the gas) is
positive and the internal energy of the gas decreases.
- If, instead, we add shot and compress the gas, the work
done by the system is negative and the internal energy
of the gas increases.

Constant-volume Processes: A constant-volume process, also known as an isochoric process, is a

thermodynamic process in which the volume of a system remains constant while other
thermodynamic properties may change. This means that the system does not undergo any change in
its volume during the process.
If the volume of a system (such as a gas) is held constant, that system can do no work. Putting 𝑊 = 0
in the first law yields,
∆𝑈 = 𝑄 (𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 − 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠).
- Thus, if heat is absorbed by a system (that is, if 𝑄 is positive), the internal energy of the system
increases.
- Conversely, if heat is lost during the process (that is, if Q is negative), the internal energy of the
system must decrease.

Cyclical Processes: Cyclical processes, also known as thermodynamic cycles, are sequences of
thermodynamic processes that return a system to its initial state after a series of operations.
There are processes in which, after certain interchanges of heat and work, the system is restored to its
initial state. In that case, no intrinsic property of the system including its internal energy can possibly
change. Putting ∆𝑈 = ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0 we get,
𝑄 = 𝑊 (𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠).
Thus, the net work done during the process must exactly equal the net amount of energy transferred
as heat; the store of internal energy of the system remains unchanged. Cyclical processes form a
closed loop on a 𝑝 − 𝑉 plot.

Free Expansions: Free expansion, also known as free adiabatic expansion, is a thermodynamic
process in which no transfer of heat occurs between the system and its environment, and no work is
done on or by the system. Thus, 𝑄 = 𝑊 = 0, and the first law requires that,
∆𝑈 = 0 (𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛)

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Figure shows how such an expansion can be

carried out. A gas, which is in thermal
equilibrium within itself, is initially confined
by a closed stopcock to one half of an
insulated double chamber; the other half is
evacuated. The stopcock is opened, and the
gas expands freely to fill both halves of the
chamber. No heat is transferred to or from the
gas because of the insulation. No work is done
by the gas because it rushes into a vacuum and
thus does not meet any pressure.

- Free expansion differs from all other processes we have considered because it cannot be done
slowly and in a controlled way.
- As a result, at any given instant during the sudden expansion, the gas is not in thermal equilibrium
and its pressure is not uniform.
- Thus, although we can plot the initial and final states on a 𝑝 − 𝑉 diagram, we cannot plot the
expansion itself.

Table: The First Law of Thermodynamics: Four Special Cases

The first law, ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
Process Restriction Consequence
Adiabatic 𝑄=0 ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = −𝑊
Constant volume 𝑊=0 ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 𝑄
Closed cycle ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0 𝑄=𝑊
Free expansion 𝑄=𝑊=0 ∆𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0

ENERGY CONSERVATION LAW

The energy conservation law, also known as the principle of conservation of energy or the first law
of thermodynamics, is a fundamental principle in physics.
- It states that the total amount of energy in an isolated system remains constant over time. Energy
can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transferred or transformed from one form to
another.

The principle of energy conservation is based on the observation that, in all known physical processes,
the total energy of a closed system remains constant. This principle is derived from extensive
experimental evidence and is one of the most fundamental and well-established principles in physics.
Mathematically, the energy conservation law can be expressed as follows:

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 PHY-107 Module 13: Thermodynamics

𝛥𝑈 = 𝑈𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
where 𝛥𝐸 is the change in the total energy of the system, 𝐸𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 is the final energy, 𝐸𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 is the
initial energy, 𝑄 represents the heat transferred into the system, and 𝑊 represents the work done on
the system.
- This equation states that any change in the total energy of a system is equal to the sum of the heat
added to the system and the work done on the system. If no heat transfer or work is involved, and
the system is isolated, then the total energy remains constant.
- It is important to note that while the total energy of an isolated system is conserved, energy can be
converted from one form to another within the system.
- For example, mechanical energy can be converted into thermal energy, or electrical energy can be
converted into kinetic energy. The conservation of energy provides a fundamental framework for
understanding and analyzing various physical processes in nature.

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