PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

MODULE 12: WAVE

(Dr. Rubaiyet I. Haque)

LECTURE 18
OUTLINE:
▪ Travelling waves
▪ Expression of the wave function
▪ Speed of waves.

BACKGROUND:
Oscillation: Oscillation is the periodic to and fro motion of a particle about a mean position.

Wave: Wave is a disturbance that travels forward in space or through any medium via the disturbance
of the particles (for longitudinal and transverse waves) of those medium.
- Each particle that carries this disturbance forward performs simple harmonic motion about its
mean position.

TRAVELLING WAVES
Travelling waves, also known as progressive waves, describe a type of wave motion where energy is
transferred through a medium by a periodic disturbance that propagates through a medium, causing
particles or fields to oscillate in a wave-like manner.
- Travelling waves are characterized by various properties, including amplitude, wavelength,
frequency, and wave speed.
▪ Amplitude refers to the maximum displacement of particles from their equilibrium position.
▪ The wavelength represents the distance between two consecutive points in the wave that are in
phase (e.g., two crests or two troughs).
▪ The frequency is the number of complete oscillations or cycles of the wave that occur per unit
of time, typically measured in hertz (Hz).
▪ The wave speed is the rate at which the wave propagates through the medium and is determined
by the product of the wavelength and frequency (𝑣 = 𝑓𝜆).
▪ There are two main types of travelling waves: Mechanical waves and Electromagnetic waves.

TYPES OF WAVES
Mechanical waves: Mechanical waves are a type of wave that requires a physical medium
(substance) to propagate.
- These waves transfer energy, through the vibration or oscillation of particles within the medium,
from one point to another without the overall displacement of the medium itself.

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

- Mechanical waves cannot propagate through a vacuum, as they rely on the interaction of particles
in a substance to transmit energy.
- All mechanical waves are governed by Newton’s laws. Mechanical waves can travel through
solids, liquids, and gases.
- Common examples include water waves, sound waves, and seismic waves.

Electromagnetic waves: Electromagnetic waves are a form of energy that propagates through space,
both vacuum as well as various materials, in the form of oscillating electric and magnetic fields.
- They consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each other and
to the direction of wave propagation.
- These waves are created by the acceleration of electric charges and exhibit wave-like behavior.
- These waves require no material medium to exist.
- All electromagnetic waves travel through a vacuum at the same speed 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠.
- Examples of electromagnetic waves include radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible
light, ultraviolet waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.

Matter waves: Matter waves, also known as de Broglie waves, are a concept in quantum mechanics
that describes the wave-like behavior of particles, such as electrons, protons, and atoms. This idea
was proposed by Louis de Broglie in 1924 and is based on the wave-particle duality principle.
- As per wave-particle duality, particles can exhibit both particle-like and wave-like properties.
- In the case of matter waves, particles such as electrons are associated with a wave that describes
their behavior.
- The wavelength of these matter waves is inversely proportional to the momentum of the particle.
▪ The de Broglie wavelength (λ) of a particle is given by the equation, 𝜆 = ℎ/𝑝. Where, 𝜆 is the
de Broglie wavelength, ℎ is the Planck's constant (approximately 6.626 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠), 𝑝 is the
momentum of the particle.

This module focuses on the mechanical waves

Mechanical Wave:
Mechanical waves require a medium to propagate, such as a solid, liquid, or gas. These waves involve
the transfer of energy through the motion of particles in the medium. In a mechanical wave, particles
of the medium oscillate back and forth, passing energy from one particle to the next. Examples of
mechanical waves include water waves, sound waves, and seismic waves.
Mechanical waves can be divided into two types. Namely,
I. Longitudinal wave.
II. Transverse wave

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

Longitudinal Waves:
Longitudinal waves are a type of mechanical wave in which the oscillations or vibrations of the
particles of the medium through which the wave travels occur parallel to the direction of wave
propagation.
- The oscillations of particles in the medium are parallel
to the direction of wave propagation.
- Thus, the displacement of particles occurs in the same
direction as the wave's movement.
- Examples: sound waves and Certain types of seismic
waves.

Transverse Waves:
Transverse waves are a type of mechanical wave in which the oscillations or vibrations of the particles
of the medium through which the wave travels are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
- Oscillations of particles in the medium are perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
- Thus, the displacement of particles occurs in a direction perpendicular to the wave's movement.
- Examples: Water ripples, Electromagnetic waves, and Certain types of seismic waves.

EXPRESSION OF THE WAVE FUNCTION

Transverse wave equation
The equation for a transverse wave can be expressed in various forms depending on the specific
characteristics of the wave and the context in which it is being described. However, a general form
of the equation for a transverse wave can be given by the following sinusoidal equation,
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
This equation describes the oscillatory behavior of particles in the medium (oscillating back and
forth around the equilibrium position) as a function of both position (𝒙) and time (𝒕). As time
progresses, the wave pattern propagates through space, and the particles at each position 𝑥 oscillate
sinusoidally with the wave, reaching their maximum and minimum displacements at different times.

- In this equation, 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) represents the displacement of the wave at a given position 𝑥 and time 𝑡.
- 𝐴 = 𝑦𝑚 represents the amplitude of the wave, which is the maximum displacement of the particles
from their equilibrium position.

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

- 𝑘 is the wave number, which is related to the wavelength (𝜆) through the equation 𝑘 = 2𝜋/𝜆.
- The 𝜔 is the angular frequency, which is related to the frequency (𝑓) by the equation 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓.
- Finally, 𝜙 represents the phase constant, which determines the initial phase of the wave.
- The term 𝑘𝑥 represents the spatial component of the wave, indicating how the wave propagates in
space. The term 𝜔𝑡 represents the temporal component of the wave, indicating how the wave
evolves with time.

Amplitude: The amplitude of a transverse wave refers to the maximum displacement or maximum
value of the oscillation from the equilibrium position. It represents the magnitude or strength of the
wave.
- In the equation for a transverse wave, 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡), the term 𝐴 = 𝑦𝑚 represents the
amplitude of the wave. It determines the extent to which the particles of the medium are displaced
from their equilibrium position as the wave passes through them.
- The amplitude is a scalar quantity.
▪ It is typically measured in units of length. For example, in the case of a water wave, the
amplitude represents the maximum height of the wave crest or the maximum depth of the wave
trough relative to the undisturbed water surface.
- Energy carried by the wave is directly influenced by the amplitude of a transverse wave.
▪ A larger amplitude corresponds to a greater energy transfer and a more pronounced
disturbance of the medium.
- The amplitude remains constant as the wave propagates through a uniform medium.
- The change in amplitude of the wave occurs when the wave encounters obstacles or interacts with
boundaries.
▪ These changes may include reflection, refraction, or diffraction, which can alter the amplitude
of the wave as it interacts with different mediums or obstacles.

Wavelength: The wavelength of a transverse wave is defined as the distance between two
consecutive points that are in phase with each other along the direction of wave propagation.
- In other words, it is the distance between two identical parts of the wave, such as two crests or two
troughs.
▪ This distance represents one complete cycle of the wave.
- The wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter lambda (𝜆).
- It is measured in units of length, such as meters (𝑚).
- A transverse wave can vary depending on the medium through which the wave is propagating.
▪ For example, the wavelength of light waves can differ when they pass from one medium, such
as air, to another medium, such as water or glass, due to the change in the wave speed.
- The wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency. In other words, as the frequency
increases, the wavelength decreases, and vice versa, while the wave speed remains constant. The
relationship between wavelength (𝜆), wave speed (𝑣), and frequency (𝑓) is given by the equation,
𝑣
𝜆=
𝑓

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

Period: The period of a transverse wave is the time it takes for one complete cycle of the wave to
pass a given point.
- It is denoted by the symbol 𝑇 and is the reciprocal of the frequency (𝑓) of the wave.
- It is measured in hertz (𝐻𝑧), which represents the number of complete cycles per second.
- Mathematically, the relationship between the period (𝑇) and the frequency (𝑓) of a wave is given
by,
1 2𝜋
𝑇= =
𝑓 𝜔
- For example, if a transverse wave has a frequency of 10 𝐻𝑧, it means that 10 complete cycles of
the wave occur in one second. In this case, the period of the wave would be,
1
𝑇= = 0.1 𝑠
10 𝐻𝑧

Frequency: The frequency of a transverse wave is defined as the number of complete cycles or
oscillations of the wave that occur per unit of time.
- It is usually represented by the symbol 𝑓.
- It is measured in units of ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (𝐻𝑧). 1 𝐻𝑧 = 1 𝑠 −1 .
- The frequency (𝑓) is related to period (𝑇) of the wave and the angular frequency (𝜔), which can
be expressed as,
1 𝜔
𝑓= =
𝑇 2𝜋
- In addition, the relationship between frequency (𝑓), wavelength (𝜆), and wave speed (𝑣) is given
by the equation,
𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓
- The equation states that as the frequency increases, the wave speed also increases if the wavelength
remains constant. Similarly, if the frequency decreases, the wave speed decreases as long as the
wavelength remains constant.

Angular frequency: The angular frequency of a transverse wave represents the rate of change of the
wave's phase with respect to time. It is denoted by 𝜔 (omega). It is related to the frequency (𝑓) and
period (𝑇) of the wave by the equation,
2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇
- The angular frequency is useful in wave equations and calculations involving periodic motion.
- It describes how quickly the wave oscillates and completes one full cycle of its periodic motion.
- For example, if a transverse wave has a frequency of 10 𝐻𝑧, the angular frequency can be
calculated as follows,
𝜔 = 2𝜋10 = 20𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

Phase: The phase of a transverse wave refers to the position of a specific point or particle within the
wave cycle at a given time. It describes the relative position of the wave with respect to its complete
oscillation.

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- In the equation for a transverse wave, 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡), the term (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) represents
the phase of the wave.
- The phase of a transverse wave is expressed in 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 or 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠.
▪ A complete cycle of a wave corresponds to a phase change of 2π radians or 360 degrees.
- The phase of the wave changes linearly with time, indicating the progression of the wave cycle.
- The phase of a transverse wave can be affected by factors, such as, reflections, refractions, and
interactions with boundaries or obstacles.
▪ These interactions can cause changes in the phase of the wave as it propagates through different
mediums or encounters varying conditions.

Angular Wave Number: The angular wave number of a transverse wave refers to the number of
wave cycles that occur in a unit distance along the direction of wave propagation.
- It is represented by the symbol 𝑘.
- It is defined as the rate of change of the phase of the wave with respect to the position.
- In the equation for a transverse wave, 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡), the term 𝑘 represents the angular
wave number. The relationship between the angular wave number (𝑘), the wavelength (𝜆), the
angular frequency of the wave (𝜔) and the wave speed (𝑣) can be expressed as,
2𝜋 𝜔
𝑘= =
𝜆 𝑣
- The angular wave number quantifies the rate at which the phase of the wave changes with respect
to the position in space.
- A higher angular wave number corresponds to a more rapid change in phase over a given distance.
▪ Therefore, a smaller wavelength corresponds to a larger angular wave number.

Phase constant: The phase constant of the wave is a parameter that determines the initial phase of
the wave at the reference time 𝑡 = 0. It is denoted by the term 𝜙. The sinusoidal transverse wave
equation can be generalized by inserting a phase constant 𝜙 in the wave function,
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
- The phase constant is an angle measured in radians or degrees.
- It represents the phase shift or offset of the wave at the starting point.
- The phase constant indicates where the wave is positioned in its cycle at the reference time.
- The value of the phase constant can range from 0 to 2π radians (or 0 to 360 degrees), representing
a complete cycle of the wave.
▪ A phase constant of 0 means the wave starts at its equilibrium position, while a phase constant
of π/2 radians (or 90 degrees) means the wave starts at its maximum positive displacement or
crest.
▪ Similarly, a phase constant of π radians (or 180 degrees) represents a wave starting at its
equilibrium position but with a negative displacement or trough.

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PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

CHECKPOINT: The figure is a composite

of three snapshots, each of a wave traveling
along a particular string. The phases for the
waves are given by (a) 2𝑥 − 4𝑡, (b) 4𝑥 − 8𝑡,
and (c) 8𝑥 − 16𝑡. Which phase corresponds
to which wave in the figure?
ANSWER: (𝒂)2; (𝒃)3; (𝒄)1
2𝜋 2𝜋
(using 𝑘 = OR 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = )
𝜆 𝑇

PROBLEM 16-02: A human wave. During sporting events

within large, densely packed stadiums, spectators will send a
wave (or pulse) around the stadium (Fig.). As the wave
reaches a group of spectators, they stand with a cheer and then
sit. At any instant, the width w of the wave is the distance from
the leading edge (people are just about to stand) to the trailing
edge (people have just sat down).
Suppose a human wave travels a distance of 853 seats around a stadium in 39 𝑠, with spectators
requiring about 1.8 𝑠 to respond to the wave’s passage by standing and then sitting. What are (a)
the wave speed 𝑣 (in seats per second) and (b) width 𝑤 (in number of seats)?

PROBLEM 16-03: A wave has an angular frequency of 110 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 and a wavelength of 1.80 𝑚.
Calculate (a) the angular wave number and (b) the speed of the wave.

PROBLEM 16-05: A sinusoidal wave travels along a string. The time for a particular point to
move from maximum displacement to zero is 0.170 𝑠. What are the (a) period and (b) frequency?
(c) The wavelength is 1.40 𝑚; what is the wave speed?

PROBLEM 16-07: A transverse sinusoidal wave is moving along a string in the positive direction
of an x axis with a speed of 80 𝑚/𝑠. At 𝑡 = 0, the string particle at 𝑥 = 0 has a transverse
displacement of 4.0 𝑐𝑚 from its equilibrium position and is not moving. The maximum transverse
speed of the string particle at 𝑥 = 0 is 16 𝑚/𝑠. (a) What is the frequency of the wave? (b) What is
the wavelength of the wave? If 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) is the form of the wave equation,
what are (c) 𝑦𝑚 , (d) 𝑘, (e) 𝜔, (f) 𝜙, and (g) the correct choice of sign in front of 𝜔?

PROBLEM 16-13: A sinusoidal wave of frequency 500 𝐻𝑧 has a speed of 350 𝑚/𝑠. (a) How far
𝜋
apart are two points that differ in phase by 𝑟𝑎𝑑? (b) What is the phase difference between two
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displacements at a certain point at times 1.00 𝑚𝑠 apart?

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

SPEED OF WAVES
Speed of a Traveling Wave
The speed of a traveling wave describes how fast a wave propagates through a medium. The speed of
a wave depends on the properties of the medium through which it is traveling.
The sinusoidal equation for a transverse wave can be expressed as:
𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 𝑦𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) … … … (1)
The speed of a traveling wave is denoted by 𝑣, refers to the rate at which the disturbance or energy
of the wave propagates through a medium. In a uniform medium, the speed of the wave can be
determined by the equation,
𝑣 = 𝜆𝑓
where 𝑣 is the wave speed, 𝜆 is the wavelength of the wave, and 𝑓 is the frequency of the wave.

Figure shows two snapshots of the wave, taken

at a small-time interval Δ𝑡 apart.
- Considering the wave is traveling in the
positive direction of 𝑥; the entire wave
pattern moving a distance Δ𝑥 in that direction
during the interval Δ𝑡.
Δ𝑥 𝑑𝑥
- The ratio (or, in the differential limit, )
Δ𝑡 𝑑𝑡
is the wave speed 𝑣.
Fig. Two snapshots of the wave at time 𝑡 = 0 and then at
time 𝑡 = 𝛥𝑡. As the wave moves to the right at velocity 𝑣⃗,
As the wave in the figure moves, each point of the entire curve shifts a distance 𝛥𝑥 during 𝛥𝑡. Point A
the moving waveform, like, point 𝐴 marked on “rides” with the wave form, but the string elements move
a peak, retains its displacement y. only up and down.

Therefore, the phase in displacement equation must remain constant.

𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 … … … (2)
Although this argument is constant, both x and t are changing. In fact, as t increases, x must also
increase, to keep the argument constant. This confirms that the wave pattern is moving in the positive
direction of x.
Differentiating, equation (2) we get,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝜔
𝑘 −𝜔 =0 ⇒ =𝑣=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑘
2𝜋 2𝜋
Using equation (𝑘 = ) and equation (𝜔 = ), we can rewrite the wave speed as,
𝜆 𝑇
𝜔 2𝜋𝑓 (2𝜋/𝑘) 𝜆
𝑣= = = = = 𝜆𝑓
𝑘 𝑘 𝑇 𝑇
𝜆
The equation 𝑣 = tells us that the wave speed can be expressed as one wavelength per period; the
𝑇
wave moves a distance of one wavelength in one period of oscillation.
- The wave speed is directly proportional to the wavelength and the frequency of the wave.
- The wave speed increases with increasing wavelength, considering frequency remains constant.
- For increasing frequency where wavelength remains constant, the wave speed increases as well.

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

The wave speed is a property of the medium and not of the wave itself.
- Different types of waves, such as mechanical waves (e.g., sound waves, water waves) and
electromagnetic waves (e.g., light waves, radio waves), have different wave speeds depending on
the characteristics of the medium through which they propagate.

In some cases, the wave speed is affected by temperature, pressure, or other properties of the medium.
- For example, the speed of sound waves in air depends on the temperature and humidity of the air.

CHECKPOINT: Here are the equations of three waves:

(1) 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2 sin(4𝑥 − 2𝑡), (2) 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = sin(3𝑥 − 4𝑡), (3) 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = 2 sin(3𝑥 − 3𝑡).
Rank the waves according to their (a) wave speed and (b) maximum speed perpendicular to the
wave’s direction of travel (the transverse speed), greatest first.
ANSWER:
𝑑𝑥 𝜔
(a) 2, 3, 1 (using equation, = 𝑣 = );
𝑑𝑡 𝑘

(b) 3, then 1 and 2 tie (find amplitude of 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡)

PROBLEM: A transverse wave traveling along an x axis has the form given by,
𝑦 = 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 ± 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
Figure a gives the displacements of string elements as a function of x, all at time t # 0. Figure 16-
8b gives the displacements of the element at x # 0 as a function of t. Find the values of the quantities
shown in Eq. 16-18, including the correct choice of sign.

ANSWER: From Fig. a or b we see that the maximum displacement is 3.0 𝑚𝑚. Thus, the wave’s
amplitude 𝑥𝑚 = 3.0 𝑚𝑚.
2𝜋 2𝜋
Here, wavelength 𝜆 = 10 𝑚𝑚. So, angular wave number, 𝑘 = = 𝑚 = 200𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚.
𝜆 0.010
2𝜋 2𝜋
From figure b, we get, period 𝑇 = 20 𝑠. Thus, angular frequency, 𝜔 = = = 100𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑇 0.020 𝑠

From the graph in Fig. b, we get after 𝑡 = 0, the depth increases. Thus, the wave is moving
rightward, in the positive direction of 𝑥.

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

The value of 𝜙 is set by the conditions at 𝑥 = 0 at the instant 𝑡 = 0. From either figure we find that
the location and time, 𝑦 = −2.0 𝑚𝑚. Substituting these three values and also 𝑦𝑚 = 3.0 𝑚𝑚, gives
us,
−2.0 𝑚𝑚 = (3.0 𝑚𝑚) sin(0 + 0 + 𝜙)
2
𝜙 = sin−1 (− ) = − 0.73 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
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Now, 𝑦 = (3.0 𝑚𝑚) sin(200𝜋𝑥 − 𝑙00𝜋𝑡 − 0.73 𝑟𝑎𝑑) with x in meters and t in seconds.

PROBLEM: A wave traveling along a string is described by,

𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) = (0.00327 𝑚) sin(72.1𝑥 − 2.72𝑡)
in which the numerical constants are in SI units (72.1 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑚 and 2.72 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠).
(a) What is the transverse velocity 𝑢 of the string element at 𝑥 = 22.5 𝑐𝑚 at time 𝑡 = 18.9 𝑠? (This
velocity, which is associated with the transverse oscillation of a string element, is parallel to the y
axis. Don’t confuse it with 𝑣, the constant velocity at which the wave form moves along the x axis.)
(b) What is the transverse acceleration 𝑎𝑦 of our string element at 𝑡 = 18.9 𝑠?
𝑑𝑦
ANSWER: (a) We know, 𝑢 = = −𝜔𝑦𝑚 cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑚
𝑢 = (−2.72)(0.00327) cos[(72.1)(0.225) − (2.72)(18.9)] = 0.00720 = 7.20 𝑚𝑚/𝑠
𝑠
Thus, at 𝑡 = 18.9 𝑠 our string element is moving in the positive direction of y with a speed of
7.20 𝑚𝑚/𝑠.
(b) Treating x as a constant but allowing t to vary, we find
𝑑𝑢
𝑎𝑦 = = −𝜔2 𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Substituting numerical values but suppressing the units, which are SI, we have
𝑎𝑦 = −(2.72)2 (0.00327) sin[(72.1)(0.225) − (2.72)(18.9)]
𝑚
𝑎𝑦 = −0.0142 2 = −14.2 𝑚𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑠

WAVE SPEED ON A STRETCHED STRING

The speed of a wave is related to the wavelength and frequency of the wave, but it is set by the
properties of the medium.
- If a wave is to travel through a medium, such as water, air, steel, or a stretched string, it must cause
the particles of that medium to oscillate as it passes, which requires both mass (for kinetic energy)
and elasticity (for potential energy).
- Thus, mass and elasticity of the medium determine how fast the wave can travel.

The wave speed on a stretched string under tension, such as a guitar string or a rope, can be determined
by the tension in the string and the linear mass density of the string. The wave speed on a stretched
string is given by the equation,

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

𝑣 = 𝐶√𝜏/𝜇
where 𝑣 is the wave speed, 𝜏 is the tension in the string, 𝜇 is the linear mass density of the string, and
𝐶 is a dimensionless constant that cannot be determined with dimensional analysis, and that 𝐶 = 1.

Tension: The tension (𝜏) in the string is the force with which the string is stretched.
- It is directly related to the energy and intensity of the wave.
- The greater the tension, the faster the wave will propagate along the string.

Linear mass density: The linear mass density (𝜇) of the string is the mass per unit length of the string.
- It represents how much mass is distributed along a given length of the string.
- The linear mass density is inversely related to the wave speed. Thus, the greater the linear mass
density, the slower the wave will propagate along the string.

Let us consider a single symmetrical pulse (Fig.), moving along a string with speed 𝑣. For
convenience, a reference frame is chosen in which the pulse remains stationary, and the string appears
to move from right to left with speed 𝑣 (Figure).
- Consider a small string element of length Δ𝑙 within the pulse, an element that forms an arc of a
circle of radius 𝑅 and subtending an angle 2𝜃 at the center of that circle.
- A force 𝜏⃗ with a magnitude equal to the tension in the string pulls tangentially on this element at
each end.
- The horizontal components of these forces cancel, but the vertical components add to form a radial
restoring force.

Thus, the magnitude of the net force,

Δ𝑙
𝐹 = 2(𝜏 sin 𝜃) ≈ 𝜏 (2𝜃) = 𝜏
𝑅

Approximation is for small angle, sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃.

From figure, we have,
∆𝑙
∆𝑙 = 𝑅(2𝜃) ⇒ 2𝜃 =
𝑅

Using Newton’s 2nd law, we get, 𝐹 = ∆𝑚𝑎

The mass of the element is given by, ∆𝑚 = 𝜇 ∆𝑙
where 𝜇 is the string’s linear density.

As the moment shown in Fig., the string element ∆𝑙 is moving in an arc of a circle. Thus, it has a
centripetal acceleration toward the center of that circle, given by,
𝑣2
𝑎=
𝑅

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 PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

Therefore, we get,
Δ𝑙 𝑣2 𝑣2
𝐹 = 𝜏 = (𝜇 ∆𝑙) ( ) [∵ 𝐹 = ∆𝑚𝑎 = (𝜇 ∆𝑙) ( )]
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Therefore, 𝑣 = √𝜏/𝜇

CHECKPOINT: You send a traveling wave along a particular string by oscillating one end. If you
increase the frequency of the oscillations, do (a) speed of the wave and (b) the wavelength of the
wave increase, decrease, or remain the same? If, instead, you increase the tension in the string, do
(c) the speed of the wave and (d) wavelength of the wave increase, decrease, or remain the same?
𝑣
ANSWER: (a) same (we know, 𝑣 = √𝜏/𝜇 and independent of 𝑓); (b) decrease (𝜆 = );
𝑓

(c) increase; (d) increase

PROBLEM 16-14: The equation of a transverse wave on a string is

𝑦 = (2.0 𝑚𝑚) sin[(20 𝑚−1 )𝑥 − (600 𝑠 −1 )𝑡]
The tension in the string is 15 𝑁. (a) What is the wave speed? (b) Find the linear density of this
string in grams per meter.

PROBLEM 16-16: The speed of a transverse wave on a string is 170 𝑚/𝑠 when the string tension
is 120 𝑁. To what value must the tension be changed to raise the wave speed to 180 𝑚/𝑠?

PROBLEM 16-18: The heaviest and lightest strings on a certain violin have linear densities of 3.0
and 0.29 𝑔/𝑚. What is the ratio of the diameter of the heaviest string to that of the lightest string,
assuming that the strings are of the same material?

PROBLEM 16-20: The tension in a wire clamped at both ends is doubled without appreciably
changing the wire’s length between the clamps. What is the ratio of the new to the old wave speed
for transverse waves traveling along this wire?

PROBLEM 16-22: A sinusoidal wave is traveling on a string with speed 40 𝑐𝑚/𝑠. The
displacement of the particles of the string at 𝑥 = 10 𝑐𝑚 varies with time according to 𝑦 =
(5.0 𝑐𝑚) sin[1.0 − (4.0 𝑠 −1 )𝑡]. The linear density of the string is 4.0 𝑔/𝑐𝑚. What are (a) the
frequency and (b) the wavelength of the wave? If the wave equation is of the form 𝑦(𝑥, 𝑡) =
𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 ± 𝑣𝑡), what are (c) 𝑦𝑚 , (d) 𝑘, (e) 𝜔, and (f) the correct choice of sign in front of 𝜔? (g)
What is the tension in the string?

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PHY-107 Module 12: Wave

PROBLEM 16-24: In Fig. a, string 1

has a linear density of 3.00 𝑔/𝑚, and
string 2 has a linear density of
5.00 𝑔/𝑚. They are under tension due
to the hanging block of mass 𝑀 =
500 𝑔. Calculate the wave speed on
(a) 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 1 and (b) 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 2. Next
the block is divided into two blocks
(with 𝑀1 + 𝑀2 = 𝑀) and the
apparatus is rearranged as shown in
Fig. b. Find (c) 𝑀1 and (d) 𝑀2 such
that the wave speeds in the two strings
are equal.

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