Theory of Architecture Essay

Title: Architectural Design Aspects (Form)

Student Name: Salem Siraj Alyami

Supervisor: Omar Abdul-Mughni Humaidan
Introduction:
In the study of architecture, there's form, space, materiality, and
tectonics. The term form is used by architects really often. And the actual
word form has a lot of different meanings depending on what the
conversation is. Plato defines form in a very theoretical way, but form,
most of the time when architects are talking about it, means shape. The
two words are used synonymously and interchangeably. It’s the shape of
the building. The next is the inverse of that which is the space obviously,
which is created by the form. A room has four walls and they're outlining
space.
Form and Shapes:
Form in architectural design refers to the geometric shapes of a building.
This includes the internal spaces, its exterior, and the outdoor living
spaces. The primary shapes are circle, triangle, and square, and then
their derivatives. Three-dimensional shape and appearance are
considered forms, too.

Shape is an essential element of design that can have a significant impact

on the aesthetic quality and function of a building. It is one of the most
basic and fundamental aspects of visual art, and it can be used in a variety
of ways to create visual interest, balance, and harmony.
One of the primary ways that shape is used in architecture is to convey
meaning and emotion. Different shapes can evoke different feelings and
associations in people, and architects and designers can use this to their
advantage when creating a desired aesthetic.
For example, rounded shapes such as circles and ovals tend to evoke a
sense of warmth and softness, while angular shapes like triangles and
squares can create a more formal or structured feel. Organic shapes,
which are inspired by nature and have irregular or curving forms, can
create a sense of movement and fluidity.
Elements of visual perception
The visual delight of architecture begins with how we perceive it
(Brachmann and Redies), where perception starts by grasping dominant
structural features (Arnheim) and their elements. This study focuses on
outline shapes of architectural forms both on the facades and the floor
plans, among many elements of architectural shapes. It is indisputable
that human perception of shape depends on the degree of visual contrast
in the contour, separating a figure from its background. The contour, also
known as an outline, edge, or silhouette, is formed with sudden changes
in some gradient such as colour, shadow, parallel lines seen in
perspective, or texture when an object is projected through a lens onto
the surface retina.
Neurophysiological studies have found that the area in the cortex of the
primate’s brain is responsible for shape recognition and demonstrated
for many decades that boundary contours allow the most substantial
recognition of objects (Kim, Bair, and Pasupathy ; Pasupathy, El-
Shamayleh, and Popovkina ). Witkin and Tenenbaum () have shown that
the boundary contour readily overrides perceptual interpretation of the
luminance gradient of the three-dimensional objects. Biederman and Ju
() proved that, in reality, a simplified outline drawing was recognized as
quickly and accurately as a photographic image of the same object
described in full detail with its original colour and textures. Rebe,
Schwarz, and Winkielman () confirmed that pictures with matched
contours were recognized faster in psychology. These works justify the
use of silhouette images of the architectural shape for the subject of this
study.
Since the outline depends on its orientation, we assumed that the
polygon extracted from the building’s silhouette for shape measurement
is in the front view, corresponding to the ground towards the x-axis. In
architecture, Stamps () examined geometric variables such as complexity,
compactness, symmetry, simplicity, and elongation to interpret
characteristics of architectural shape in discrete and descriptive ways. A
comprehensive review of contour-based shape descriptors such as area,
perimeter, compactness, eccentricity, and some moment functions from
Zhang and Lu () provides ways of inspecting the geometric properties
mathematically. This study will suggest a series of methods to measure
shapes with geometric regularity and simplicity using TPS.
Three primary shapes in architecture
There has been widespread agreement that the term “form” is identical
regardless of orientation, whereas “shape” differs with every
transformation (Bingham ; Fellow ; Gellermann ). In this regard, the
shape is appropriate for the façade while the form is appropriate for the
floor plan, but these terms will be used interchangeably for convenience.
The quest for the utilization of the TPS in making symbols or forms dates
back to ancient times. Yantra, where TPS were superimposed for
meditation in ancient India (11,000–10,000 BP), and the alchemists’
“Squared Circle”, which was used to describe the interaction of three vital
elements in the universal psyche (Holmyard ; Jung , ) are some of the
examples. Oikonomou () showed that the geometrical constructions
based on circles, triangles and squares had been used in design and
construction throughout history. TPS has been the symbol of divinity,
femininity, masculinity, and their dynamics in their derived shapes. They
could be expanded or rotated to create distinct, regular, and easily
recognizable volumetric shapes or solids. It is easy to find the forms in
everyday life, such as traffic signs and company logos.
There have been biological studies showing that specific geometric
shapes are fundamental to perception. For example, a shape contributes
to human satisfaction and is regarded as good when simple and unified.
Kellogg () found that specific primary forms such as a diagonal cross,
circle, triangle and square appear in children’s scribbling. Piaget and
Inhelder () showed that children’s shape development progresses from
the square vs circle, and then angle and dimension discrimination
(Rosin ). Nineteenth-century art movements expressed the intrinsic
structural properties of objects in primitive geometric forms by reducing
objects to their most simplified forms through omitting details. The
fundamental idea of perceiving an architectural shape is originated from
the Gestalt theory that sought visual satisfaction and pleasure. Gestalt
psychology emphasized that some primary forms of circle, triangle, and
rectangle are “good” because they are simpler or easier to recognize or
describe. Besides other perception theories, this theory has influenced
architects to understand the aesthetic perception of the environment
(Yılmaz, Özgüner, and Mumcu ).
In twentieth-century Germany, Bauhaus’s enthusiastic use of the primary
forms in design principles was inspired by the Gestalt theory that sought
an accurate way of recognizing form (Lupton and Miller ; Smock ).
Pursuing a design prototype has encountered empirical studies in various
experiments: For instance, Zusne () concluded that certain forms were
preferred over others in the process of visual perception; Arnheim ()
found that perception started by grasping outstanding structural
features; Helmholtz, out that the more easily we perceived the order we
characteriz the object observes, the simpler and the more perfect would
they appear..
These pioneering principles led us to the reasonable foundation for
describing architectural geometry with TPS’s simplest and most
fundamental shapes. They are still used in many disciplines related to
vision and are found in many textbooks (Gordon ; Metzger ). Meanwhile,
it has been widely accepted that “the simpler the plan shape, the lower
will be its unit cost” as a general rule (Seeley ; Wing ). While some
evidence supported the impact of building facades (Stamps ) and height
(Lindal and Hartig ) on the impression of buildings or their environments,
Steadman (, ) showed that the form of the architectural plan was
primarily classified as TPS and suggested that each form offered
distinctive characteristics.
By definition, a circle is the locus of all points equidistant from a central
point. It encloses the most space inside the shortest perimeter of all
shapes and is considered perfect and compact by definition. Schneider ()
traced ancient philosophers who believed that the circle represented the
number one. Ching () appreciated the circle in architecture as a
centralized, introverted form that is usually stable and self-centring in its
environment. Vartanian et al. () showed that curvilinear contour
activated the brain region more strongly responsive to objects’ reward
properties and emotional salience than rectangular shapes through an
fMRI experiment in neuroscience.
Regarding the social and functional interpretation of the three primary
shapes, the square is defined as a convex quadrilateral with sides of equal
length positioned at right angles to each other. It is stable when standing
on one of its sides and felt in general with equality, reliability, fairness,
firmness, solidity and a balanced state of equilibrium, as Schneider ()
stated. Steadman () explained that Bemis and Burchard’s earlier finding
of the predominance (83%) of rectangular housing design was due to
dimensioning flexibility. This rectangular predominance in the house plan
is consistent with subsequent finding, where the rectangular design
dominates at 98%. The efficiency of the horizontal and vertical loading of
building components is one of their most critical elements. He deduced
that the significance of the geometric arrangement of triangles and
circles succeeded the importance of the rectangle for the same reason.
An equilateral triangle is a three-sided plane with all sides equal and
equiangular. A building facade in a triangular shape with the vertex
pointing upwards converges the most at the apex, facilitating stability
and reliability in building design. Heavy base and the pinnacle on the top
in many A-framed residential homes enable handling weight because of
how the energy is distributed throughout the triangle; the symmetry in
the equilateral triangle and the isosceles triangle aids in distributing
weight. Trusses exist as bearing structures because of the inherent
triangles provided by struts and other bracing elements (Lenartowicz ).
The Pyramid in Giza, composed of four equilateral triangular faces, has
stood for over 4,000 years. The equilateral triangle encloses the smallest
area in the most extended perimeter and is a basic unit representing the
three-dimensional surface. On the other hand, it can be seen that the
triangular-shaped floor plan is unpractical from a functional point of view,
as walls converging at an acute angle of 60° contain narrow leftover
margins.
Evaluation of the shapes
Measures to grasp the topological properties of the geometric shapes
emerged from diverse backgrounds. Birkhoff () first classified the
measures of various forms into complexity, vertical symmetry,
equilibrium, rotation symmetry, and horizontal and vertical relationships.
This has been widely accepted, modified and improved (, 1971;
Eysenck, ). The seventy-five years of history following his research of the
computational measurement of geometric properties were reported by
Greenfield (). Since then, Bar and Neta () showed that curvilinear contour
activated the brain region strongly responsive to objects’ reward
properties and emotional salience. )presented the general aspect of
visual information processing implemented by our visual brain.
Meanwhile, Iigaya et al. () asserted that human preferences for art could
be explained as a systematic integration over the underlying visual
features of an image.
Further research on the simple topological properties of the geometrical
shapes emerged to explain the association between forms of visible
space and perceptual activities. Zusne (extracted that compactness,
symmetry, and elongation could be computed with moments of area,
which emerged as the predictors of some perceptual tasks. Brown and
Owen (categorized random shapes to be measured and developed
variables based on the geometric properties, later extracted into three
characteristics of compactness, jaggedness, and skewness by Zusne .
Stamps (), who viewed the complexity as crucial in architecture and its
built environment, concluded that the most significant factor
determining shape complexity in building silhouettes is the number of
vertices. Similarly, Franz and Wiener () categorized the measurements,
derived from the form of isovists and visibility graph theory introduced
by Benedikt and Hillier and Hanson (), respectively, into four essential
spatial qualities. These measurements included features such as
jaggedness, revelation, roundness, clustering coefficient, symmetry and
redundancy. As their research suggested the examples of expressing
movement involved geometric forms, it has become intriguing to map
explicitly selected vocabularies, describing the human perception of the
geometric properties in architectural design, onto mathematical
descriptors of the building forms. While this approach in measuring the
shapes known as “isovist geometry” (Conroy ) involves the idea of
embedding spatial experience in a visible area that is subdivided by a
grid, what this study proposes is the way how to describe the pure
geometric difference of building forms with architectural design terms,
such as the primary architectural shapes.
Regular and irregular
Regularity of the structure deals with the a symmetrical and compact
shape of the structure. The importance of regularity of the building is for
avoiding unpredictable stress concentration that can cause local
collapses and modification of the dynamic behaviour. Irregular
structures, like structures having a L-shaped plan, that can be defined
"irregular" according to both perceptive criteria and irregularity rules
provided by guidelines, show that, if the diaphragms are rigid and the
columns are distributed according to the shape, the irregularity is
"apparent". The disturbance to the response, induced by the irregularity
consists of torsional effects, that can be accounted for, at design stage.

When a building is subjected to seismic excitation, horizontal inertia

forces are generated in the building. The resultant of these forces is
assumed to act through the center of mass (C.M) of the structure. The
vertical members in the structure resist these forces and the total
resultant of these systems of forces act through a point called as center
of stiffness (C.S). When the center of mass and center of stiffness does
not coincide, eccentricities are developed in the buildings which further
generate torsion. When the buildings are subjected to lateral loads, then
phenomenon of torsional coupling occurs due to interaction between
lateral loads and resistant forces. Torsional coupling generates greater
damage in the buildings. Eccentricity may occur due to presence of
structural irregularities. These irregularities may be broadly classified as
Plan (Horizontal) and Vertical irregularity. Plan irregularity is further
subdivided into Torsional irregularity, Re-entrant corners, Floor Slabs
having Excessive Cut-Outs or Openings, Out-of-Plane Offsets in Vertical
Elements, Non-Parallel Lateral Force System etc. And NonParallel Lateral
Force System etc. And Vertical irregularities is further classified into
Stiffness Irregularity, Mass Irregularity, Vertical Geometric Irregularity, In-
Plane Discontinuity in Vertical Elements Resisting Lateral Force, Strength
Irregularity etc.
Transformation
In Architecture, Transformation is defined as “The principle that an
architectural concept, structure, or organisation can be altered through
a series of discrete manipulations and permutations in response to a
specific context or set of conditions without a loss of identity or
concept.”
The principle of transformation allow an architect or designer to select a
prototypical architecture model whose formal structural and ordering of
elements might be appropriate and reasonable, and to transform it
through series of discrete manipulations in order to respond to the
specific conditions and context of the design.
A design is a generative process of analysis and synthesis, of trial and
error, of trying out possibilities and seizing opportunities. In the process
of exploring an idea and inquiring its potentials, it is essential that
an architect or designer should understand the fundamental nature and
structure of the concept. If the ordering system of a prototypical model
is perceived and understood, then the original design concept can be
done through a series of finite permutations, be clarified, strengthened
and built upon, rather than destroyed.
Basically, the repetition of form can also be said to show the
transformation of shapes and forms in architecture, if it looks a little
different each time. Sometimes shapes are transformed by getting bigger
or smaller and they might also rotate, stretch, or morph into a different
transformation of shapes and forms.
Principles and Elements
Conceptual Architectural is a fascinating aspect of the architectural field
that delves into the realm of abstract ideas and theoretical concepts. It
goes beyond the physicality of buildings, focusing instead on the
underlying principles, ideologies, and design philosophies that shape
architectural creations. In other words, it explores how architects
conceptualize their designs to convey meaning and evoke emotions.
One key element in conceptual architecture is symbolism. Architects use
symbols and metaphors to express deeper meanings or convey specific
messages through their designs. For example, an architect might use
elements such as light to represent hope or a bridge to symbolize
connection and unity. These symbolic gestures add layers of depth to
architectural creations and allow viewers to engage with the space in a
more meaningful way.
Another important characteristic of conceptual architecture is its focus
on innovation and experimentation. Architects often challenge
traditional norms and push boundaries when it comes to design
concepts. They strive to create unique experiences for occupants by
incorporating novel materials, technologies, or spatial arrangements into
their projects. This emphasis on innovation results in visually striking
structures that challenge perceptions and provoke thought.
Overall, conceptual architecture encourages architects to think beyond
the practical aspects of building design by developing creative ideas that
can transform spaces into meaningful experiences for users. By exploring
symbolism and embracing innovation, architects can create designs that
inspire emotion, provoke thought, and leave a lasting impact on society.
Visual Element
Visual design is about creating and making the general aesthetics of a
product consistent. To create the aesthetic style of a website or app, we
work with fundamental elements of visual design, arranging them
according to principles of design. These elements and principles together
form the building blocks of visual design, and a firm understanding of
them is crucial in creating a visual design of any product.
Any product — from software products such as websites and apps to
hardware products such as toasters and hairdryers — can be broken
down into fundamental elements of visual design, as described by Alan
Hashimoto, associate professor of Graphic Design and Computer Art at
Utah State University, and Mike Clayton, director and associate professor
of Computer Graphic Arts at the University of the Incarnate Word, in their
book, Visual Design Fundamentals: A Digital Approach. These elements
are the basic tools that we visual designers use in our daily work, and
having a basic understanding of them is definitely a prerequisite for the
job.
Relational Elements
Relational architecture can be defined as the technological actualisation
of buildings and public spaces with alien memory. Relational architecture
transforms the master narratives of a specific building by adding and
subtracting audiovisual elements to affect it, effect it and re-
contextualize it. Relational buildings have audience-activated hyperlinks
to predetermined spatiotemporal settings that may include other
buildings, other political or aesthetic contexts, other histories, or other
physics.
Virtual architecture could be differentiated from relational architecture
in that the former is based on simulation while the latter is based on
dissimulation. Virtual buildings are data constructs that strive for realism,
asking the participant to "suspend disbelief" and "play along" with the
environment; relational buildings, on the other hand, are real buildings
pretending to be something other than themselves, masquerading as
that which they might become, asking participants to "suspend faith" and
probe, interact and experiment with the false construct. Virtual
architecture tends to miniaturize buildings to the participant's scale, for
example through VR peripherals such as HMDs or CAVEs, while relational
architecture amplifies the participant to the building's scale, or
emphasizes the relationship between urban and personal scale. In this
sense, virtual architecture dematerializes the body, while relational
architecture dematerializes the environment.
Virtual and relational architectures are not opposing practices, nor are
they mutually exclusive. They are similar in that both are largely
participant-centered, computer generated, and less expensive,
permanent, sheltering and territorial than physical architecture.
Relational architecture need not be inscribed within postmodern
parasitic or symbiotic practice nor post-structural self-referentiality: it is
not necessarily engaged in deconstruction, nor does it need to use the
language or structure of the building itself. Instead, relational
architecture events could be considered "buildings with subtitles", where
the translators may or may not speak the building's language: the
subtitles need not be causal, referential, or even contextual. Relational
architecture pieces vindicate their synthetic, artificial qualities, and
reserve the right to be effectist, improvisational and useless.
But apart from special effects, beyond plasticity, the real motivation
behind relational architecture is the modification of existing behaviour:
the artist creates a situation where the building, the urban context and
the participants relate in new, "alien" ways. The piece can be considered
successful if the artist's intervention actively modifies the point of
dynamic equilibrium between the public's actions and the building's
reactions, and vice versa. There can be a variety of causal, chaotic,
telepresent, predetermined, or emergent behaviours programmed into
the piece and the uncertainty of the outcome is one of the main
motivations for doing such a piece.
Although relational architecture is a relatively new field within media
arts, precedents to the concept date back to ancient Greece (Simonides'
discovery of mnemonics), and to the use of the Art of Memory in
Chinese, Hermetic and Renaissance rhetoric traditions. In those
traditions architecture was used as a repository of relatively-located
memories which could be recalled by a speaker through a mental
"walkthrough". Contemporary practices of site-specific installation,
street performance and public art have been of paramount importance
in the development of the field. A significant number of artists can be
said to have been, and continue to be, influential in the practice, among
them Krzysztof Wodiczko, Archigram, Toyo Ito, Gordon Matta-Clark,
Jenny Holzer, the Situationists, Christian Moeller, Christo, Peter
Greenaway, Vito Acconci, Dennis Adams, Knowbotic Research, Dan
Graham, Richard Serra and Rachel Whiteread.
Rafael Lozano-Hemmer and Will Bauer are collaborating in the
development of a series of relational architecture pieces to be presented
over the next few years. The pieces entail the development of novel
architectural interfaces using real-time computer graphics, 3D sensors,
electro-acoustic music and robotic lights. The events, which will take
place after dusk, will be presented in half a dozen cities including Linz,
Graz, Madrid and Mexico City.
Balance
When it comes to architecture and design, balance and decorative
elements play a crucial role in creating a cohesive and visually appealing
space. The use of these elements can enhance the overall aesthetic of a
building, making it more inviting and engaging for its inhabitants and
visitors.

Balance is an essential component of architectural design. It refers to the

distribution of visual weight in a space, which can be achieved through
the use of color, shape, texture, and other design elements. A well-
balanced space is one where every piece of furniture, artwork, and
accessory has a purpose and place within the room. Achieving balance
can create a sense of harmony and stability, which can be calming and
inviting.

Decorative architectural elements are also crucial in creating a well-

designed space. These elements can include moldings, cornices,
columns, arches, and other ornamental features that add interest, depth,
and character to a building. Decorative elements can also serve as a way
to tie together different design elements, such as color and texture.
When used correctly, they can transform an ordinary space into a work
of art.
When incorporating decorative architectural elements into a space, it's
important to consider the overall style and aesthetic of the building.
Some architectural styles lend themselves well to ornate decorative
elements, while others are better suited to a more minimalist approach.
It's also important to consider the function of the space and how the
decorative elements will affect the room's acoustics, lighting, and overall
atmosphere.

Ultimately, achieving balance and incorporating decorative architectural

elements into a space requires careful planning and attention to detail.
It's important to work with a skilled architect or designer who can help
create a cohesive and visually appealing space that meets the needs and
desires of the building's inhabitants and visitors.
Rhythm
Meaning of Rhythm in Architectural Terms: Refers to the patterned
repetition of elements like lines, shapes, colors, textures, and lighting to
create a sense of order and movement within a space.
Definition of Rhythm in Architectural Design: The repetition of elements
to produce a cohesive and dynamic visual experience, guiding the
viewer's eye through architectural spaces.
Techniques for Creating Rhythm in Architecture: Includes methods like
repetition, alternation, progression, symmetry, and gradation to
establish structure and flow.
Examples of Rhythm in Architectural Design: Classical examples such as
the Parthenon and modern examples like the Guggenheim Museum
demonstrate the use of rhythmic elements in various styles.
Role of Rhythm in Architecture: Guides movement, creates balance, and
evokes emotions, making designs more engaging and aesthetically
pleasing.
Emphasis
Emphasis in terms of design is a point of focus in the composition. It
determines the visual weight of the design establishes space and
perspective and often resolves where the eye goes first when looking at
the design. Every design should have a single primary visual element
called a focal point. It is given to an area within the design because the
area is meant to be seen or is more important when compared to the
other elements of design. Such area in most design sends the important
message. Special architectural features are often used as focal points. e.g.
Rose windows or recessed doorways from Gothic architecture, wind
scoops, fireplaces, staircases, balconies and many more…

Emphasis can be achieved by increased size, strong colour, greater detail,

sharp contrast, distorted shape, contrasting size (scale), placement and
positioning of the composition, movement of the image leading the eye
to a focal point. Scale can be used to attract attention by making the focal
point life size or even more dramatically, larger than life size.
An important thing to remember about emphasis is that if everything is
emphasized (all text large and bold, all images in bright colors, all possible
textures etc) then nothing will stand out, nothing will be emphasized,
nothing will grab the viewer’s attention. The point of emphasis should
command attention, but not dominate the overall design. Other features
within the room should not compete for the emphasis.
Conclusion
In conclusion, architectural design is an intricate and multifaceted
discipline that blends creativity, functionality, and sustainability. By
addressing key aspects such as aesthetics, structural integrity,
environmental impact, and user experience, architects create spaces that
not only serve practical needs but also inspire and elevate the human
experience. As the world faces new challenges, including climate change
and urbanization, the role of architectural design in shaping our built
environment becomes even more critical. The future of architecture lies
in the ability to adapt, innovate, and prioritize a harmonious relationship
between people, the environment, and the structures we create.
Ultimately, effective architectural design transcends mere construction;
it serves as a reflection of culture, values, and the evolving needs of
society.
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