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Date of publication xxxx 00, 0000, date of current version xxxx 00, 0000.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2017.Doi Number

A Comprehensive Review on the Core

Thermal Management Improvement
Concepts in Power Electronics
SINA LOHRASBI1, RENÉ HAMMER1, WERNER ESSL1, GEORG REISS1, STEFAN
DEFREGGER1, WOLFGANG SANZ2
1 Materials Center Leoben Forschung GmbH, Roseggerstrasse 12, 8700 Leoben, Austria
2 Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria

Corresponding author: Sina Lohrasbi (e-mail: [email protected]).

This work receives funding from the Austrian Ministry for Transport, Innovation and Technology (bmvit) in the program ‘Mobility of the
Future’ within the project INTEGRA.

ABSTRACT A heat sink is a specific type of heat exchanger integrated with heat generating devices – mostly
electronics – for the sake of thermal management. In the design procedure of heat sinks, several
considerations such as manufacturing cost, reliability, thermal and hydraulic performance have to be
included. In the past few decades, the prevailing trend of electronics design miniaturization has led to high-
power-density systems necessitating high performance cooling concepts. This paper intends to provide a
comprehensive review on various employed heat transfer enhancement techniques in cooling procedures of
electronics thermal management devices, with a focus on core ideas. The main motivation is to give a rapid
overview on the key concepts in different high-performance cooling designs along with a quantitative
comparison between the different concepts all in one reference which is missing in literature. For this, the
key idea of each design is firstly categorized, and then a detailed description is provided for each case. The
discussed categories consist of concepts based on channel cooling in various scales, phase transition, jet
impingement, spray cooling and hybrid design. At the end, quantitative comparison is illustrated for thermal
and hydraulic performance of a selection of the reviewed references covering all these different categories.
Based on this comparison, an overview on thermo-hydraulic performance of the presented categories is
provided, and recommendations for future studies are given based on this and the detailed review of
references.

INDEX TERMS Coolant, convection, heat transfer, impingement, phase transition, thermal management

I. INTRODUCTION density electronic devices with compact design. For this,

In order to achieve reliable and highly-efficient operation for various thermal management techniques have been
power electronics, especially for those cases with high developed. As illustrated in FIGURE 1 along with
requirements on compactness following the ongoing corresponding references, the major methods in this
miniaturization trend, it is necessary to provide thermal reference list, that form the main categories in this paper, are
management solutions capable of dealing with high-power- channel cooling-based thermal management designs in
densities. Thermal management is a crucial topic in a variety various scales including mini-channel and microchannel,
of applications including electronics, solar collectors and phase transition-based cooling techniques, jet impingement
furnace engineering [1]. Specifically, in electronic devices, and spray cooling designs along with hybrid designs
in order to avoid damage caused by formation of local hot benefitting from combination of these methods.
spots on the one hand, the maximum temperature within the
device is desired to be kept in a restricted range [2]. On the A wide variety of general cooling concepts is available in
other hand, in order to achieve the desired reliability, smooth literature, and they are different from the viewpoint of
cooling with uniform temperature distribution has to be cooling capacity, involved mechanisms and improvement
achieved. This explains why efficient cooling mechanisms potential. A primary method for electronics cooling is to
have become an important topic of numerous research attach highly-conductive extended surfaces called fins with
activities with the growing trend of developing high-power- various structures to the heat dissipating part [3]. Heat is

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conducted through the solid layers to the extended surfaces, layers and desirably high heat transfer coefficients, which
and natural convection releases heat to the ambient. make the concept suitable for compact designs [13].
Obviously, thermal interface materials play a key role in such However, the more complicated design and manufacturing
designs [4], and an area increase is the core idea. However, procedure of this type of cooling devices compared to
the advances in electronics have necessitated higher cooling channel cooling designs led to intense competition between
capacities making this method incompatible with a majority these two methods.
of more recent designs [5].
Another efficient thermal management method is spray
In order to achieve higher cooling performance, forced cooling which works by breaking the coolant into droplets
convection-based air cooling concepts have emerged. Fan and impinging them to the hot surface. The role of the
induced air cooling, benefiting from the forced convection thermal boundary layer acting as a thermally insulating layer
mechanism, was proposed as another thermal management in channel cooling and impingement cooling designs is
solution in electronics industry. Further improvement of the minimized in this method, so it is known as an efficient
heat transfer coefficient in this method for instance by higher concept widening its application in high capacity cooling and
air flow velocities is accompanied by higher noise and general compact designs [14]. However, there are important
requires high power. Ultimately, it is the low heat capacity parameters restricting performance of spray-based thermal
of air which impedes the usage of forced convection-based management designs, and the most important one is the high
air cooling concepts in high-power-density applications [6]. pressure drop required in the nozzle to produce spray
droplets [15].
Another major thermal management method is liquid
cooling. The designs in this category show higher cooling In another category of cooling devices, phase transition is
capacity making them suitable for being integrated with utilized. Phase change material (PCM) and heat pipe-based
compact electronics and high power densities [7]. Liquid designs can be placed in this group. The main advantage of
cooling methods can be categorized by various concepts heat sinks utilizing PCM lies in the significantly higher heat
including direct and indirect approaches. The wide absorbed in latent form compared to sensible heat absorption
application of liquid cooling has been emerged in different designs [16]. However, low thermal conductivity of
design concepts including cold plates, jet impingement- conventional materials used as PCM led to a restriction of
based designs and immersion cooling [8,9]. Each of the this approach, and also a great attention is attracted to the
above-mentioned methods has attracted growing attention in enhancement of effective thermal conductivity in these
the past few years. In cold plate designs, channel cooling in systems [17] and [18]. On the other hand, heat pipes, which
various scales from micro to mini-channel is used. The can be placed in different categories from indirect liquid
microchannel topic has been the center of attention cooling to phase transition cooling designs, benefit from
according to its desirable features for miniaturization. In fact, liquid-vapour phase change mechanism. In fact, a heat pipe
in spite of low flow rate and small hydraulic diameter in is partially filled by liquid, and its inner wall called wick acts
microchannels which lead to laminar flow regime, as capillary pump. Heat is absorbed by the working fluid in
effectively a high heat transfer can be achieved by allowing the evaporator side leading to fluid evaporation. Following
many small channels in parallel, inducing a large solid-fluid this, the vapour goes to the condenser side due to a pressure
interface. In addition, it benefits from design flexibilities gradient and is condensed there. The wick structure
such as diameter reduction for increasing heat transfer transports the fluid back to the evaporator. As a result,
coefficient which is in accordance with compact design benefitting from this mechanism, the effective thermal
scope that has made this method attractive to thermal conductivity of a heat pipe reaches several tens of thousands
management designers [10]. However, the increased of Watt per meter Kelvin, which makes it an attractive
pressure drop can lead to restriction of further technology for thermal management purposes [19,20].
miniaturization [11]. This is why tuning the parameters in
microchannel-based designs has formed a great proportion With the growing trend towards high-power-density
of research items in this field [12]. electronics applications on the one hand, and performance
restrictions of conventional thermal management solutions
The other method of liquid cooling in the subcategory of on the other hand, the use of high performance heat transfer
direct methods is immersion cooling. This concept benefits enhancement concepts in this field has become more critical
from the desirable feature of having the fluid close to the heat in the past few years [21]. Since heat sink design for being
source, for instance the electronic chip [9]. In this method, integrated with electronic devices is becoming more compact
natural convection and two-phase flow are involved; and needs to be capable of dealing with high-power-density
however, an important restriction of this method - i.e. the thermal management applications, it seems necessary to
requirement of liquid compatible with the device - led to provide a review on novel ideas on heat transfer
restrictions of its application in thermal management enhancement methods used in such systems in one review
devices. paper. By doing this, it is intended to collect inspiring ideas
in one reference to facilitate the design procedure for future
Liquid jet impingement has been shown to be an efficient studies.
cooling technology by achieving thin thermal boundary

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General concepts employed in thermal management designs integrated with power

electronics

Channel cooling-based Phase transition-based Jet impingement-based Spray cooling-based

Hybrid cooling ideas
ideas ideas ideas ideas

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Ramos-Alvarado et al. [22]

Zeng et al. [23]
Liu and Yu [24]
Al-Waaly et al. [25] Jörg et al. [53]
Xie et al. [41]
Lu et al. [26] Olesen et al. [54]
Siyabi et al. [42] Han et al. [75]
Yeom et al. [27] Kwon et al. [55] Zhou et al. [66]
Wang et al. [43] Husain et al. [76]
Xie et al. [28] Wu et al. [56] Bostanci et al. [67]
Zhu et al. [44] Robinson et al. [77]
Wang et al. [29] Tang et al. [57] Yang et al. [68]
Hamida [45] Huang et al. [78]
Shen et al. [30] Ravanji and Rajabi [58] Xie et al. [69]
Wan et al. [46] Wiriyasart and Naphon
Tseng et al. [31] Ndao et al. [59] Hsieh et al. [70]
Song et al. [47] [79]
Ho et al. [32] Paniagua-Guerra et al. [60] Liu et al. [71]
Zhou et al. [48] Zhou et al. [80]
Xu et al. [33] Lelea [61] Chapman et al. [72]
Yang et al. [49] Ju et al. [81]
Li et al. [34] Waddell et al. [62] Hsieh et al. [73]
Solomona et al. [50] Wang et al. [82]
Rips et al. [35] Kim and Lee [63] He et al. [74]
Chen et al. [51] Sun et al. [83]
Shoele and Mittal [36] Zhou et al. [64]
Kang et al. [52]
Li et al. [37] Naphon et al. [65]
Sarkar [38]
Kumar and Sarkar [39]
Raj et al. [40]

FIGURE 1. Classification of the reviewed research categories (a: reprinted with permission from [35], b: reprinted with permission from [41], c:
reprinted with permission from [60], d: reprinted with permission from [84], e: reprinted with permission from [76]).

The main motivation of this review paper goes back to the comprehensive classification ranging from channel cooling-
fact that the reviews available in literature in the field of based heat sinks, impingement designs, spray cooling, phase
thermal management are restricted to a specific topic, such transition cooling to hybrid cooling systems used for thermal
as phase transition cooling [1] and [85], channel cooling management of power electronics (see FIGURE 1).
ideas [86], nanoparticle dispersion [87] and jet impingement Moreover, a quantitative comparison is made between all
cooling [88]. However, in this paper, the focus is on core heat these different ideas at the end in order to provide the thermal
transfer improvement ideas used in various designs with management designers with the opportunity of rapid scan of
different heat transfer mechanisms from phase transition, the core ideas used in different papers and a quantitative
natural to forced convention and different working fluids comparison of the cooling capacities. Note that all of the
ranging from air, liquid, refrigerants, nanofluids, and phase reviewed references may not necessarily be integrated with
change materials with different physics from single phase power electronics; however, their key concepts are reviewed
convection to multiphase. These are grouped in a here as the representative inspiring ideas that can be

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potentially utilized in future cooling designs integrated with pressure drop fluctuations and wall temperature instabilities
power electronics. Besides, it is noteworthy that for each are the examples. Accordingly, benefitting from positive
thermal management idea, there may be several papers, but aspects of multiphase channel cooling along with tackling
at least one representative paper is brought to compare with the challenges has become a hot topic in this field [90]. The
other different concepts in order to provide the thermal characteristic parameters in this category of thermal
management society with a guideline. This work should management designs include flow rate, Reynolds number
enable to have a quick scan on the previous works and also (Re), Prandtl number (Pr), Strouhal number (𝑆𝑡), hydraulic
to inspire from high performance ideas as a starting point to diameter (𝐷ℎ ) and geometrical parameters associated with
come up with new exclusive thermal management ideas. For each case. Besides, the response functions considered in the
each category in the proposed classification, an introductory design procedure are the approximated total thermal
description, a table and a schematic of ideas are provided in resistance (𝑅𝑡ℎ ), thermal efficiency index (𝜂𝑖 ), thermal
the next sections. Finally, a quantitative analysis is done to performance factor (𝜂), heat transfer coefficient in terms of
provide fair comparison between the various reviewed Nusselt number (𝑁𝑢) or convective coefficient (ℎ), and
methods from thermo-hydraulic performance point of view. hydraulic loss in terms of pressure drop (Δ𝑃), friction factor
Moreover, at the end of this paper, the gaps that can be (𝑓), and pumping power (𝑃. 𝑃). In addition, the junction
potentially filled later are listed in the conclusions. temperature (the highest operating temperature of the active
region within a semiconductor device), peak temperature,
II. High performance ideas implemented in channel
cooling – based heat sink designs maximum temperature difference and critical heat flux (in
two phase cooling) are also used to describe thermal
performance. The equations describing the abovementioned
A. Introduction to channel cooling
parameters are as follows [27]:
4𝐴
Channel and mini/micro channel cooling-based thermal  𝐷ℎ = 𝑝 , where 𝐴 and 𝑝 represent flow cross section and
management designs are reviewed in this section. According wetted perimeter respectively.
to the advances in manufacturing methods, channel cooling 
𝜌𝑣𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇 , where 𝜌, 𝑣, 𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇 represent fluid density,
in all scales has attracted considerable attention as thermal
management solution [89]. In contrast, there are still flow characteristic velocity, characteristic length and
undeniable challenges involved in channel cooling, dynamic viscosity, respectively,
𝑐 𝜇
including pressure drop/pumping power penalty and  𝑃𝑟 = 𝑝 , where 𝑐𝑝 , 𝜇 and 𝑘 are specific heat, dynamic
𝑘
restricted heat transfer due to the formation of a boundary viscosity and thermal conductivity respectively.
layer, and non-uniform cooling due to undesirable 
𝜈𝐿
𝑆𝑡 = 𝑈 , 𝜈 is vortex shedding frequency, L is
temperature rise in the coolant. To tackle these issues,
several ideas have been implemented in order to reduce the characteristic length and U is flow velocity
𝑇 −𝑇
thermal boundary layer and to achieve uniform cooling at  𝑅𝑡ℎ = ℎ𝑃 𝑐 , where 𝑃𝑡 , 𝑇ℎ and 𝑇𝑐 are total heat load
𝑡
minimal pressure loss. In FIGURE 2, a schematic of some generated by the device, hot spot temperature and inflow
channel cooling designs is provided. As illustrated in this bulk temperature, respectively. Note that there is
figure, the facilitated manufacturability made channel another version of total thermal resistance where 𝑃𝑡
configuration ideas one of the most widely-investigated represents the input heat flux on the heating surface
methods in this class. In addition, inserting different solid (W/m2). In this case, thermal resistance unit is Km2/W
bodies such as pin fin, lattice structures and various types of instead of K/W.
vortex generators form another main concept for heat 
𝑞
ℎ = 𝑇 −𝑇 , where 𝑞, 𝑇𝑤 and 𝑇𝑏 are heat flux, channel
transfer enhancement in this category. Similarly, flow 𝑤 𝑏
agitation by simple structures such as reeds is a simple and wall temperature, and average coolant bulk temperature
efficient method, used to cause strong vortices in the flow to respectively.
ℎ𝐷
disturb boundary layer and enhance heat transfer. Another  𝑁𝑢 = 𝐾 , where h, D and K represent convective
part of studies in this context is skin design such as nature- coefficient, characteristic length, and fluid thermal
inspired shark skin structure as illustrated in the mentioned conductivity, respectively.
figure. Finally, enhancing thermal performance of a heat sink  𝑃. 𝑃 = 𝑄Δ𝑃, where 𝑄 and Δ𝑃 are volumetric flow rate
by improving the coolant is the other field reviewed here. In and pressure drop, respectively.
addition to single phase channel cooling, another possibility 2Δ𝑃 𝐷
 𝑓 = 2 . ℎ, where 𝑢 and 𝐿 refer to average flow
is to use a boiling fluid as a coolant with higher cooling 𝜌𝑢 𝐿
capacity compared to its single-phase counterpart due to velocity and length of the channel, respectively.
utilization of latent heat of vaporisation in the heat transfer Besides, Δ𝑃, 𝐷ℎ and 𝜌 are flow pressure drop, hydraulic
process. Besides, uniform temperature distribution should be diameter of flow passage and fluid density, respectively.
𝑁𝑢
in principle easier achieved in flow boiling heat transfer  𝜂𝑖 = 1⁄3, where 𝑁𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 are Nusselt number and
𝑓
since it occurs at the fluid saturation temperature. However,
friction factor, respectively.
there are restricting challenges associated with this approach.
Flow instabilities such as flow reversal causing strong severe

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(𝑁𝑢 ⁄𝑁𝑢𝑝 ) (𝑁𝑢 ⁄𝑁𝑢𝑝 ) enhancement factor (𝜂) show the same concept of
 𝜂= or 𝜂 = , where 𝑁𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓 are
(𝑓 ⁄𝑓𝑝 ) (𝑓 ⁄𝑓𝑝 )1⁄3 considering both thermal and hydraulic performance;
Nusselt number and friction factor, respectively. Note however, in the second version, less emphasis is placed
that in this equation, the subscript 𝑝 refers to plain on hydraulic loss.
channel in the absence of thermal enhancement. It is
noteworthy that the two presented forms of thermal

a. Channel configuration
modification
b. Different solid inserts

d. Flow agitation

c. Channel skin design e. Coolant enhancement

FIGURE 2. Graphical review of papers containing high performance ideas for heat transfer enhancement in channel cooling -based
heat sinks: (a) reprinted with permission from [22]; (b) reprinted with permission from [32]; (c) reprinted with permission from [34];
(d) reprinted with permission from [36]; and (e) reprinted with permission from [39].

The detailed review of channel cooling thermal management minimized hydraulic cost in terms of pressure drop or
concepts is presented in TABLE 1. the reviewed concepts pumping power. In the majority of the reviewed references,
include channel configuration modification, conductive the enhancement methods lead to a rise of pressure drop.
insert immersion, obstruction introduction, flow vibration, However, there are ideas with negligible pressure drop
use of structured surface, and coolant property enhancement. increase, and there is even an idea reducing pressure drop,
As discussed in this table, in the channel cooling concepts, which is the channel skin design. Finally, two-phase channel
the applied approaches are mainly targeting on disturbing cooling which normally achieves higher thermal
boundary layer for the sake of thermal mixing enhancement performance compared to single phase shows promising
in terms of temperature uniformity, heat transfer coefficient opportunities for further improvements.
improvement and junction temperature decrease at
TABLE 1
HIGH PERFORMANCE HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IDEAS UTILIZED IN CHANNEL COOLING HEAT SINK DESIGNS.

Main heat
Nature of
Method Core idea transfer coolant Major result Quantitative results Ref
study
mechanism
Channel Achieving uniform flow Laminar De-ionized water Numerical The proposed novel channel With P.P= 3× 10 −3 W as [22]
configuration distribution in multi- forced configuration achieved pumping power and an
modification channel liquid cooled heat convection uniform temperature input heat flux of 41.5
sink and as a result, distribution in the heat sink kW/m2, the thermal
uniform temperature with minimized thermal resistance and maximum
distribution on the heated resistance. Besides, pressure temperature difference on
surface. drop and pumping power the heating surface of the
are minimised due to the most desirable flow
symmetrical flow distributor configuration
distribution. was one third of those
obtained by conventional

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Main heat
Nature of
Method Core idea transfer coolant Major result Quantitative results Ref
study
mechanism
serpentine channel
configuration.

Channel Topology optimization is Laminar Air Experimental According to the enhanced The topology optimized [23]
configuration used to find the desired forced and flow mixing effect, local heat sink proved to be
topology distribution and shape of convection numerical high velocity regions and capable of achieving 54.9%
optimization solid structures inserted continuous boundary layer reduction in required
into the fluid in a mini- disturbance, the topology pumping power while
channel heat sink to optimized heat sink is able maintaining heat sink
achieve maximized to achieve lower junction temperature at 44.5℃ and
thermal performance and temperatures at the same heating power of 40W.
minimized pressure drop pumping power in
by causing strong flow comparison with a common
mixing effect, continuous straight channel design.
boundary layer disruption
and local high velocity
areas.

Channel inlet Improve the flow Laminar Water Numerical The adopted method The obtained results [24]
flow maldistribution by forced indicated good performance indicated that this method
modification utilizing non-uniform convection in achieving desired leads to uniform flow
baffle array at the inlet of temperature distribution distribution causing
mini-channel heat sink uniformity and low total reduction in total thermal
cooling channels. thermal resistance. resistance by 9.9 to 13.1%.
However, increased
pressure drop is reported as
a result of embedding non-
uniform baffles at the inlet
of channels.

Using Minimization of hot spot Laminar Water Experimental Uniformity of temperature A 20% reduction in thermal [25]
subchannels and non-uniform heat flux forced and distribution and reduced resistance at 11% rise in
adjacent to hot by increasing the heat convection numerical total thermal resistance are pumping power was
spot area extraction potential of the achieved. In addition, the obtained.
channel and dividing it maximum temperature is
into subchannels in hot also reduced. However,
spot areas. these are obtained at the
expense of increased
pressure drop due to the
flow recirculation at the
inlet of the sub-channels and
also due to the increased
velocity in the sub-channels
as a result of a reduction in
channel cross section.

Levelled In order to achieve Natural and Water Numerical Desirably uniform The obtained results [26]
channel uniform cooling forced temperature distribution was revealed that a significant
branching performance in liquid convection/ achieved and peak decrease in peak
cooled heat sinks for chip unspecified temperature was reduced temperature (28.8%) and
thermal management, Y- flow regime considerably by the average temperature
shaped channel branching proposed branched design. (13.5%) of the liquid
by constructal theory with The advantage of this cooling-based heat sink was
1-4 levels was proposed. method is nearly negligible obtained at a negligible
pressure loss by each level pressure drop increase (0.04
of branching. kPa by each branching
level).

Micro-pin fin Copper micro pin fins are Laminar and Air Experimental In the adopted micro sized Promising heat transfer [27]
roughened wall fabricated on the channel turbulent pin fin array, the desirable coefficient enhancement
surface to achieve heat forced fluid dynamics effect got (maximum 79% over plain
transfer enhancement as a convection stronger with the increase of surface) was reported for
result of flow mixing on pin diameter. Besides, it was the micro pin fin assisted
the rear side of pins. reported that at fixed pin heat sink design as a result
height and pitch-to- of desirable flow mixing
diameter-ratio but variable around the micro pin fins.
number of pins, with the
decay in micro pin fin
diameter, the pressure-drop
increased as a result of
increased friction area.

Array of flow Enforce the flow in micro Laminar Water Numerical The overall thermal Thermal performance factor [28]
obstructions channel heat sinks to split forced performance considering (η) for the best case was
as a result of making the convection both heat transfer and reported to be
flow encounter an array of pressure drop effects approximately 1.6, which
obstacles. This is done to showed desirable strongly justifies the
avoid formation of fully enhancement over the case implemented enhancement
method by considering both

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Main heat
Nature of
Method Core idea transfer coolant Major result Quantitative results Ref
study
mechanism
developed boundary layer in the absence of these thermal and hydraulic
flow. obstacles. aspects.

Novel louvered The main idea was to Laminar Water Numerical The obtained results The quantitative [29]
microchannel utilize flow pulsation in forced illustrate improved mixing comparison between the
heat sink microchannel in the convection between core and near wall proposed louvered design
controlling flow presence of louver-like flows as a result of and conventional ribbed
pulsation for structures with specified contraction-expansion and baffled microchannels
the sake of heat geometrical parameters induced and controlled by proved a maximum Nu ratio
transfer including pitch ratio in the proposed louver (averaged Nu divided by
enhancement order to control and structure. Consequently, the Nu number for fully
enhance thermal convective coefficient in the developed laminar flow in
performance of cooling proposed structure was parallel plates) of 6.16 in
channel. reported to be superior to the range of friction factor
ribbed and baffled ratios less than 50
microchannels at the same (averaged friction factor
range of pressure loss. divided by friction factor
for fully developed laminar
flow in parallel plates).

Insertion of Y-shaped a structured Laminar Water Numerical The microchannel with Y- In more details, the thermal [30]
structured copper foam was forced shaped foam showed resistance of microchannel
metal foam immersed in microchannel convection desirable thermal heat sink in the presence of
heat sink in order to enhancement as a result of combined metal foam
benefit from both foam flow mixing. Porosity of indicated 44% reduction
effect and enhanced metal foam showed compared to the case in the
mixing effect as a result of insignificant effect on absence of metal foam at
bifurcated Y shape. thermal performance and the same Reynolds number.
large effect on pressure
drop.

Insertion of Inserting uniform and Forced Water Experimental Decrease in thermal In details, 26% and 67% [31]
additively non-uniform additively- convection- resistance at reasonable reduction in thermal
manufactured manufactured porous unspecified pumping power is reported. resistance were observed
porous structures in working fluid regime The non-uniform porous compared to homogeneous
structure in order to guide the flow structure showed better porous structure and
toward heated surface and thermal performance and chevron-type corrugation
enhance heat transfer. considerably lower pressure channel at 1W pumping
drop compared to the power, respectively.
uniform structure.

Insertion of The core idea was to Laminar Water Experimental The thermal efficiency The highest Nu of 906 with [32]
additive immerse a new class of forced and index containing both up to 5.5 times greater
manufactured lattice structure with convection numerical thermal and hydraulic effective thermal
lattice structure uniformly arranged lattice performance at the same conductivity compared to
unit cells benefitting from time showed superior aluminium foam was
high packing density with performance of the printed obtained as a result of
its orderly ligament lattice structure over inserting the proposed
arrangement in cooling aluminium foam and pin lattice structure in coolant.
channel to enhance fin-based heat sinks. This Comparison in Re range of
conduction paths along was mainly attributed to the around 1700 to 5800 led to
with forced convection enhancement of effective 2.8 to 3 times greater
thermal and hydraulic thermal conductivity thermal efficiency index for
performance. lattice structure over pin fin
based heat sink.

Channel skin Dimpled structure with Forced Water Numerical Dimpled channel surface Comparison between the [33]
modification by different geometrical convection- causes swirling flows and proposed optimum dimpled
dimple parameters including laminar transverse convection which channel with a flat channel
structure aspect ratio, depth and regime can be considered as the case illustrated 3.2 K
spacing is used to modify main reason of heat transfer decrease in temperature,
microchannel skin in enhancement. Besides, 15% increase in Nu number
order to improve heat pressure drop is reported to and 2% decrease in pressure
transfer. decrease compared to loss.
smooth channel as a result
of trapped flow in dimples
where main channel flow is
in contact with forward
moving trapped flow which
leads to reduced velocity
gradient and pressure drop
compared to smooth
channels with flow in
contact with solid surface.

Channel skin Shark skin – inspired Forced Water Numerical The proposed skin The range of thermal [34]
modification by surface structure is convection- modifications push the main performance factor was
shark skin adopted to reduce friction laminar flow towards the side walls, obtained between 1.1 to 3.1
bionic structure loss by reduction of shear regime and the sequential which illustrated the

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Main heat
Nature of
Method Core idea transfer coolant Major result Quantitative results Ref
study
mechanism
stress as a result of contraction-expansion area justification of channel skin
modifying velocity of split passage enhance the design from thermo-
distribution/fluctuation. fluid exchange. Besides, hydraulic performance
Besides, this structure can thermal performance and viewpoint.
enhance thermal temperature uniformity as a
performance through the result of secondary flows
secondary flows by caused by the proposed
guiding a part of main structure are reported to be
flow to side walls, strongly dependent upon
enhancing the secondary Reynolds number.
flow in channel.

Flow-induced The core idea was Forced Air Numerical As a result of using self- In comparison with plain [35]
vibrations by inspired from wind- convection- actuated fluttering reed in channel, the obtained
self-actuated instruments where the laminar the channel, efficient flow results showed 30% higher
fluttering reed flow induced vibration of regime mix caused considerable heat transfer at constant
a “reed” generates sound. enhancement in heat flow rate. Besides, by
In fact, in this design, the transfer at low pressure drop considering both thermal
reed installed in a channel penalty. The low pressure and hydraulic performance
subjected to heat from loss is attributed to the fact aspects, the thermal
side walls in order to that the “unused” high core performance factor was
generate vortex structures. flow momentum is extracted enhanced by 11%.
These vortices are formed to generate reed fluctuations
and jetting of coolant causing a better mixing of
toward hot walls takes core/near wall flows.
place. As a result,
temperature gradient and
heat transfer are
enhanced.

Flow-induced The main idea was to find Forced Air Numerical Thermal performance of the Quantitatively speaking, for [36]
vibrations by the suitable properties of convection- channel cooling system was a reed inertia of 1 as
reed-parametric flexible reed (inertia and laminar more sensitive to the reed optimum point, a maximum
study of system bending stiffness) in regime inertia rather than bending thermal enhancement factor
properties convective heat transfer in stiffness. Therefore, if mass of 1.23 was obtained for the
channel flow subjected to properties of the reed are investigated range of
heat flux in the presence adjusted to achieve the parameters.
of flow induced proposed optimum mass
oscillating reed. ratio, operating in near
maximum thermal
performance would be
fulfilled. Besides, thermal
performance enhancement
by vibrating reed is more
dependent upon the large
modulations created in the
boundary layer as a result of
interaction between the
wake induced by the reed
and channel walls. In
contrast, the large circular
vortices occupying a great
part of the channel do not
contribute so much to
thermal performance
enhancement

Bio-inspired Self-agitator inspired by Forced Air Experimental As a result of resonance in The experimental results [37]
self-agitator blades of grass vibrating convection- and flow mixing caused by self- revealed up to 200%
in the wind is proposed as laminar numerical agitator, considerable heat enhancement in the heat
the solution to achieve regime transfer improvement is transfer coefficient in
heat transfer achieved without additional comparison to the plain
enhancement. In fact, self- pumping power channel at the same Re
sustained vibration requirement. number. At the same
introduces strong vortices pumping power, this
disturbing thermal enhancement was reported
boundary layer. For as 120%.
further enhancement, it is
tried to match the
frequency of structural
motion to that of the
dominant flow mode to
cause resonance and
enhanced fluid mixing.

Heat transfer Supercritical CO2 is used Forced Supercritical Numerical The supercritical CO2 leads Maximum 30% thermal [38]
fluid as the coolant in micro- convection- CO2 to better performance resistance reduction as a
improvement by channel heat sink for laminar compared to conventional result of utilizing
utilizing power electronics cooling. regime coolants such as water for

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Main heat
Nature of
Method Core idea transfer coolant Major result Quantitative results Ref
study
mechanism
Supercritical certain range of inlet supercritical CO2 as
CO2 temperature. In fact, the use coolant was reported.
of supercritical CO2 as
coolant for power electronic
cooling at lower ambient
temperature is
recommended.

Heat transfer Hybrid nanofluid was Forced Water Experimental All hybrid nanofluids are The hybrid nanofluid with [39]
fluid used with total volume convection- Al2O3+MWCNT superior to base fluid (with Al2O3 plus MWCNT with
improvement by fraction of 0.01% laminar nanoparticles overall thermal performance a mixing ratio of 6:4 was
utilizing hybrid containing Al2O3 and regime factor above one) from reported as the best mixture
nanofluid multi-walled Carbon thermal performance point from hydrothermal
nanotube (MWCNT) with of view by considering characteristics perspective.
various mixing ratios in pressure loss effects. More For this mixture, the
order to improve importantly, the proposed maximum achieved heat
thermophysical properties hybrid nanofluid showed transfer coefficient at the
of working fluid in considerable heat transfer investigated flow rate was
minichannel heat sink to coefficient enhancement reported to be
benefit from positive compared to available approximately 4200
aspects of both Al2O3 hybrid nanofluids. The W/(m2K). This was
nanoparticles (low cost, thermal performance achieved at approximately
high accessibility, enhancement was mainly 0.225 kPa pressure loss.
chemical firmness and attributed to thermal
desired heat transfer conductivity enhancement
capability by considering and various slip
pumping power) and mechanisms along with the
MWCNT (high thermal effects of nano-fin and nano-
conductivity and very porosity.
high surface area).

Stepped The core idea was to use a Unspecified Deionized water Experimental The obtained results showed Quantitative results [40]
microchannel stepped microchannel that the combination of a indicated up to 98%
used to tackle (narrow V-shaped at the narrow V channel at the increase in heat transfer
the bottom and wider bottom and wider coefficient and 77%
hydrothermal converging channel on converging channel at the reduction in pressure drop
challenges in top) to compromise top eradicated the as compared to
two phase between the accelerating hydrodynamic instability conventional rectangular
channel cooling and frictional pressure caused by upstream cross section
drop to mitigate the compressible volume by microchannels.
fluctuations of pressure providing a larger area for
drop and wall temperature flow passage in form of
in order to reduce flow wider channel. Besides, heat
boiling instability. transfer coefficient was
observed to enhance due to
increased surface area and
better bubble removal
capability for the proposed
stepped design.

III. High performance ideas implemented in phase heat transfer performance from heat pipe to device and
transition – based heat sink designs regarding design compactness, which should be also
complemented by innovative ideas. The main idea of heat
A. Introduction to phase transition cooling pipe was proposed by Grover et al. [91]. Cotter [92]
Solid-liquid and liquid-gas phase changes are the most developed a basic theory that has been used since then as a
widely-used phase transition-based designs in power basis for heat pipe design. Heat pipes make use of a liquid-
electronics thermal management. For this, two main gaseous phase change of a working fluid to transport heat
approaches are the utilization of phase change materials from an evaporator to a condenser. Since the phase change
(PCM) and heat pipe assisted heat sinks. Thermal takes place at a constant temperature, the device is capable
management by utilizing PCMs has been considered as a of transferring heat for long distances with small temperature
promising technique due to numerous desirable features gradients. This makes them act as a “thermal
including high heat storage density as a consequence of high superconductor” and an efficient alternative for thermal
latent heat of fusion for common PCMs, and being able to management of high-power-density electronic components.
withstand a large number of cycles at relatively constant However, conventional heat pipes suffer from restrictions in
melting temperature. However, the main drawback of PCM- thermal performance that are tried to be eradicated by the
based thermal management is the low thermal conductivity ideas discussed in this section. According to the mentioned
of PCM materials. The other phase transition-based group of plus and minus points for the abovementioned phase
devices which benefit from the high effective thermal transition-based heat sink designs, heat transfer enhancement
conductivity of heat pipes face some challenges in terms of

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has become a hot topic in this field. In this section, the related
innovative ideas employed to enhance these systems are
reviewed. An overview is provided in FIGURE 3.

b. Embedding material in d. Wick structure modification

porous metal in PCM- in heat pipe assisted thermal
based thermal management devices
management devices

a. Immersing conductive
structures

e. Working fluid
enhancement in heat pipe
c. Condenser/evaporator assisted thermal management
design modification in devices
heat pipe assisted thermal
management devices

FIGURE 3. Graphical review of papers containing high performance ideas for heat transfer enhancement in phase transition -based heat sinks:
(a) reprinted with permission from [41]); (b) reprinted with permission from [43]; (c) reprinted with permission from [46]; (d) reprinted with
permission from [48]; and (e) reprinted with permission from [52].

The characteristic parameters in PCM based thermal Finally, the heat transferred by the heat pipe for calculation
management devices are phase change time, operation time of heat transfer capacity by 𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 ⁄𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 is the other
of electronic devices without exceeding critical temperature, characteristic parameter.
melting fraction, heat source temperature, solid insert The reviewed phase transition based thermal management
efficiency, input power, and the stored energy. On the other concepts are provided in detail in TABLE 2. In the PCM
hand, filling ratio is one important parameter in heat pipe based concepts, the conducted review shows that the main
assisted devices, and it is defined as the ratio of working fluid challenge is to deal with the weak thermal conductivity of
volume to the total volume of the miniature-loop heat pipe. phase change materials. This explains why a majority of
In addition, condenser/evaporator temperature and their works in this field are focused on the use of conductive
temperature difference along with evaporation, condensation inserts or other methods in order to improve the functionality
and total thermal resistance form the other important of PCM based designs in minimizing and stabilizing
parameters in heat pipe-assisted thermal management maximum temperature of the target system. The heat pipe
devices. These thermal resistance values are calculated as assisted thermal management devices reviewed in this article
follows [48]: benefit from various ideas from modification of evaporator
𝑇 −𝑇 𝑇 −𝑇
 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑎 , 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑐 = 𝑎 𝑐 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑒 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ 𝑐 , and condenser to modification of wick in order to enhance
𝑃ℎ 𝑃ℎ
the thermal performance of heat pipes in terms of quick
Where 𝑃ℎ , 𝑇𝑎 , 𝑇𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑐 are heat load and temperature at
response, minimized thermal resistance and reliable
adiabatic section, evaporator and condenser, respectively.
operation.

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TABLE 2
HIGH PERFORMANCE HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IDEAS UTILIZED IN PHASE TRANSITION-BASED HEAT SINK DESIGNS

Method Core idea Phase coolant Nature of Major result Quantitative results Ref
change study
process
Immersing novel The main idea was to immerse a Solid-liquid PCM Numerical The proposed conductive The obtained results [41]
conductive structures novel branched conductive (RT35) structure showed high revealed that the safe
in PCM-based heat structure into low-conductivity potential in enhancing heat operation time is increased
sinks PCM contained heat sink in order sink performance in terms of from 61.6 s to 1339.7 s as a
to improve heat transfer by critical temperature and result of increasing metal
optimizing the inserted material volume fraction from 20%
orientation/configuration of heat minimization. Besides, the to 27.6% when considering
diffusion assisting branches and role of natural convection heat 45 ℃ as critical temperature
to minimize the volume fraction transfer mechanism on to define the safe operation.
of the immersed body. melting of PCM, which is the Besides, this efficiency of
Furthermore, it was the goal to heat absorbing stage in the highly conductive solid
maximize operation time for the PCM-based heat sink was insert in increasing safe
cooling-targeted electronic device reported to be beneficial and operation time was observed
without violating critical crucial in the design to be more pronounced at
temperature. procedure. However, it was low critical temperatures,
illustrated that the increase of which proves the
the metal volume fraction opportunity of optimizing
weakens the natural solid structure inserted in
convection motion and PCM based heat sinks for
restricts convective flow; low critical temperature
therefore, minimization of the applications.
total solid mass by
optimization of conductive
structure was reported to be
crucial.

Using multiple PCMs The core idea was to use multiple Solid-liquid PCM Experimental The obtained results revealed The obtained quantitative [42]
in PCM-based heat PCMs with different properties (RT47, that the arrangement of results illustrate that the
sink and melting temperatures to RT50, combined multiple PCM two-PCM technique, with
control the response of PCM- RT52, RT systems can significantly combination of RT50–
based heat sinks. For this, the 55 and increase thermal regulation RT55, causes 110 min and
effects of PCM arrangement, RT58) period and reduce the 130 min rise in safe
melting temperature and heat maximum temperature. operation time in
source intensity were examined. comparison with the system
containing just RT50 and
RT55, respectively. Besides,
this PCM combination of
2.0 W input power led to
heat sink temperature
reduction by 10.3 ℃ and
6.1℃ compared to RT50
and RT55, respectively.

Filling PCM-based The main idea was to embed Solid-liquid PCM Experimental The obtained results for a With a critical temperature [43]
heat sink with porous PCM in a new porous metal (RT55) PCM-based heat sink in the of 65 ℃, both time
metal fiber matrix made of copper fibers with presence of novel porous averaged thermal resistance
ample antler microstructures on metal fibers subjected to a and safe operation time of
the surface fabricated by cutting LED as heat source indicated PCM-based heat sink are
by multitooth tool in order to significant heat transfer increased as a result of
enhance heat dissipation in low- enhancement and decrease in using porous metal fiber in
conductivity phase change heat source temperature. More PCM. Under 8.54 W input
material. The idea was to interestingly, heat transfer power, this increase is from
enhance heat dissipation due to enhancement was observed to approximately 700 s (for
the high thermal conductivity and be more pronounced under Paraffin) to more than 1000
large specific area of the insert. larger heat flux. This heat s (for PCM in the presence
transfer enhancement is of metal fiber). In the same
mainly attributed to high comparison, time averaged
thermal conductivity and large thermal resistance is
specific area of the matrix. reduced from 7.018 to 6.854
℃⁄W.

PCM with partially The core idea was to use partially Solid-liquid PCM Experimental As a result of investigation of It was observed that safe [44]
filled copper foam filled copper foam in low (RT40) filling height ratio on thermal operation time was reduced
conductivity phase change response of a PCM-based heat by 25% from the full-filling
material in order to benefit from sink, performance case for the 15 ppi copper
effective thermal conductivity enhancement was observed to foam. Accordingly, partial
enhancement of PCM in the be saturated when filling of 2/3 was
presence of foam at optimum approaching the full-filling recommended for a
weight/cost. case. Consequently, it was balanced relation between

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Method Core idea Phase coolant Nature of Major result Quantitative results Ref
change study
process
concluded that partially filling the heat transfer
strategy shows a promising enhancement gain and
behaviour for such systems cost/weight penalty.
benefitting from foam
structure to achieve
enhancement in effective
thermal conductivity in the
composite phase change
material at minimized cost and
weight.

PCM-based heat sink The core idea was simultaneous Solid-liquid PCM Numerical Different arrays of heat sinks The best case was reported [45]
in the presence of fins use of passive fin natural (RT42) including one with fin and in the presence of ten fins
with alternate air- convection cooling and transient without PCM, one filled with and five PCM cavities as a
PCM cavities thermal management by PCM to PCM and the one with result of better switch
enhance overall thermal alternate cavities air-PCM between passive natural
management performance. This were investigated, and the convection cooling by
was done by investigation of results revealed that from the increased number of fins
different cases including a finned viewpoint of delaying the peak and transient thermal
heat sink filled with PCM, temperature and preserving management by PCM
partially filled with PCM in temperature in low range for a cavities. This decreased
alternate pattern, and without long time, the alternate junction temperature by
PCM. cavities air-PCM shows better 21%.
performance compared to the
other two cases.

Miniature loop heat The main idea was to modify the Liquid- Absolute Experimental The obtained results revealed The obtained results [46]
pipe-assisted heat sink design of the condenser and vapour ethyl that optimal condenser indicated that the proposed
with modified evaporator for the sake of heat alcohol structure led to efficient miniature loop heat pipe is
evaporator/condenser transfer enhancement. For this, thermal management capable of keeping the
design arrayed copper sheets are welded performance, reliable startup object temperature below
on a boiling chamber substrate in and continuous operation 100℃ when subjected to
parallel to provide regular under variable power, and 200W heat load.
passages for vapour flow and to achieved quick dynamic
increase the heat transfer area. response to abrupt change in
Besides, on condenser side, the heat load.
heat dissipation capacity
intensification is achieved by
machining numerous arrayed pins
on the upper wall of the
condenser so that the vapour
condensation area is increased,
and the condensed vapour is able
to flow along the pins to the
bottom of the condenser quickly
to reduce the heat transfer
resistance.

Novel flat evaporator The core idea was to utilize a Liquid- R245fa Experimental As a result of utilizing a The proposed design was [47]
structure in heat pipe ribbed plate for improvement of a vapour strengthened ribbed plate reported to preserve the
assisted thermal large square flat evaporator in structure in evaporator, the advantages of the flat
management device order to deal with the challenge large squared flat evaporator structure, including
of the large active zone caused by achieved normal and reliable temperature uniformity,
large flat structures of the heat operation, desirable where the difference
pipes. temperature uniformity and between the monitoring
high overall thermal points was less than 0.5 ℃.
performance.

Designing ultrathin The main idea was to propose a Liquid- Deionized Experimental The hybrid biporous spiral It was reported that the [48]
flattened heat pipe hybrid biporous spiral woven vapour water woven mesh wick was optimal biporous wick had
utilizing biporous mesh wick structure in the reported to be successful in 22% fewer copper wires
spiral woven mesh presence of large and small achieving enhanced thermal compared to mono-porous
wick internal pores to achieve an performance and high heat wick. Besides, 24 W was
ultrathin heat pipe suitable for removal capacity with reported as the maximum
high-power-density thermal relatively low production heat transport capacity of
management. The proposed costs. the ultrathin flattened heat
hybrid structure for the wick pipe.
enables benefiting from low flow
resistance due to large pores and
strong capillary forces due to the
presence of small pores.
Use of novel oxidized The main idea was to propose Liquid- Deionized Experimental The obtained results proved In details, heat transfer [49]
braided wires wick oxidized composite wires wick vapour water that surface oxidization capacity of more than 15 W
structure in ultra-thin structures for thermal induced high roughness for the was reported for oxidized
heat pipe performance enhancement of braided wires achieved mono and composite
ultrathin flattened heat pipes so stronger heat transfer for all braided wire under
that the surface roughness of types of braided wires. horizontal operation.
braided wires was increased as a Besides, the core wire with a Besides, comparison
result of oxidization, and as a larger diameter provided low between heat transfer

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Method Core idea Phase coolant Nature of Major result Quantitative results Ref
change study
process
result, the capillary force was resistance for the returning capacity for mono and
increased leading to heat transfer flow, and the smaller exterior composite designs showed
improvement. structure achieved larger over 32.5% superiority of
capillary pressure at the the composite design.
liquid-vapour interface Finally, the optimal filling
compared to the core loading ratio which was
structure. reported as a pivotal
parameter achieved thermal
resistance as low as 0.12
K/W with heat transfer
capacity of 20 W.

Bio wick material as The core idea was to use a natural Liquid- Deionized Experimental The obtained measurement Reduction in total thermal [50]
wick structure in bio-carbon-based wick structure vapour water results revealed reduction in resistance (0.75 to 0.17
compact loop heat with high water-absorbing thermal resistance and ℃/W) was observed as a
pipes capacity to enhance loop heat temperature difference result of utilizing charcoal
pipe thermal performance at between the evaporator and in compact loop heat pipe.
minimized cost. Besides, the condenser. This was attributed Besides, evaporator
biomaterial-based wick structure to a combined capillary force temperature was reported to
benefits from high availability, produced by different sizes of be kept in the range of 65 to
environmental friendliness, light pores enhancing wetting and 95 ℃ under input power
weight and low cost features. capillary pumping of the ranging from 50 to 250 W.
working fluid. Besides, this Accordingly, the heat pipe
advantage was accompanied performance was reported to
by cost effectiveness, light be suitable for electronic
weight, high capillarity and applications with junction
being environmentally temperature level lower than
friendly compared to metal- 100 ℃.
based wick structures.

Use of surface The core idea was to use surface Liquid- acetone Experimental The proposed novel ultrathin Quantitatively speaking, the [51]
functional wicks in functional wicks. The wick in this vapour flat plate heat pipe, in the proposed ultra-thin
ultra-thin flat plate study benefits from orthogonal presence of surface functional Aluminium flat plate heat
heat pipe assisted microgrooves. Besides, the wick structure to enhance pipe achieved a thermal
thermal management groove surfaces were covered by capillary performance, proved resistance as low as 0.156
device grain-like microstructures. This is to achieve rapid thermal ℃/W under 140 W input
done to promote hydrophilicity response, favourable thermal power due to the desired
for the sake of intensifying performance at stable and capillary performance of the
capillary performance of the minimized thermal resistance surface-functional wicks.
wick. in the entire test range.

Working fluid Dispersion of highly conductive Liquid- Deionized Experimental The temperature distribution The maximum thermal [52]
enhancement in heat nanoparticles in the working fluid vapour water with results for the heat pipe in the resistance reduction of 80%
pipe assisted thermal was the core idea of this work in Silver presence of nanofluid and 50% over distilled water
management device order to benefit from thermal nanoparticl indicated considerable decline was obtained for
conductivity enhancement es in thermal resistance in nanoparticle sizes of 35nm
induced by the nanofluid. This comparison with heat pipe and 10nm, respectively.
was used to flatten the transverse with deionized water; and
temperature gradient of the fluid thermal resistance was
and to reduce the boiling limit reported to be decreased with
because of the increasing the increase in nanoparticles
effective liquid conductance in volume fraction and diameter.
heat pipes. This is expected to
lead to a decline in the heat pipe’s
thermal resistance.

IV. High performance ideas implemented in jet weight of fluid delivery system, and the required pumping
impingement – based heat sink designs apparatus can be named as a few. In this section, the recent
research items containing novel ideas for improving
A. Introduction to jet impingement cooling impingement-based heat sink designs for being integrated
The jet impingement technique has attracted the attention of with power electronics are reviewed. The different
thermal management designers in the past decade due to enhancement techniques are mainly categorized in six
desirable features including higher local thermal absorption, groups including impingement configurations, immersed jet
potential of achieving more temperature uniformity, and array, impinged area design, impingement manifold design,
suitability for hot-spot-targeted cooling design. However, utilization of multiphase impingement cooling and
impingement-based cooling designs suffer from various additively manufactured impingement nozzles (see FIGURE
restrictions. Interferences between adjacent jets or 4).
interactions due to collision of surface flows, large size/

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b. Immersed jet array

a. Modified impingement c. Impingement surface

configuration modification

e. Channel confined jet f. Piezoelectric fan assisted

d. Impingement manifold impingement impingement cooling
design

g. Coolant properties
enhancement

FIGURE 4. Graphical review of papers containing high performance ideas for heat transfer enhancement in jet impingement-based heat sinks: (a)
reprinted with permission from [54]; (b) reprinted with permission from [56]; (c) reprinted with permission from [58]; (d) reprinted with permission from
[60]; (e) reprinted with permission from [62]; (f) reprinted with permission from [64]; (g) reprinted with permission from [65].

The important parameters and response functions used for used as another response function in this section among the
performance evaluation and design of impingement-based reviewed references [57]:
systems are jet dimensions, jet-to-wall distance, critical heat 2(𝑃 −𝑃 )
𝐶𝑝 = 𝑥𝜌𝑢2𝑎𝑡𝑚 , where 𝑃𝑥 , 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 , 𝜌 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢 represent local
flux (two phase impingement cooling), surface superheat
defined as the surface and saturation temperature difference static pressure on target surface, atmosphere pressure,
(two phase cooling), steady state temperature, outlet coolant density and impingement velocity. Meanwhile,
temperature, maximum – minimum temperature difference, another performance evaluation criterion used in this field is
heat flux, coolant flow rate, Reynolds number, heat transfer overall performance as a balance between thermal and
coefficient (𝑁𝑢 and ℎ), pressure drop, and pumping power. hydraulic considerations in the form of the area under the
Besides, pressure coefficient in the following form is also curve of thermal resistance as a function of pumping power
[60].

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A wide variety of methods are used as impingement design with a potentially low pressure drop. Meanwhile, the
modifications in impingement based cooling concepts as reviewed articles in this table also show that the
reviewed in TABLE 3. The major ideas are those using manufacturing challenges of fluid delivery system for such
various jet configurations for strong and uniform cooling designs are being tackled by the new trends in manufacturing
performance, surface modification and coolant properties technologies especially additive manufacturing which may
enhancement. The review shows that in general, jet facilitate novel impingement designs.
impingement based cooling with potentially high number of
cooling units is an efficient thermal management solution

TABLE 3
HIGH PERFORMANCE HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IDEAS UTILIZED IN JET IMPINGEMENT HEAT SINK DESIGNS

Method Core idea Heat transfer coolant Nature of study Major result Quantitative results Ref
mechanism
Direct liquid The main concept is Laminar and Water Experimental and The obtained results indicated From compactness perspective, [53]
jet focused on direct cooling turbulent forced numerical great potential of direct micro heat transfer coefficients up to
impingement by utilizing micro-water convection jet liquid cooling with 12000 W/(𝑚2 𝐾) were achieved
jets for hot spot removal minimized flow travel path and in 10.8 𝑐𝑚2 assembly space in
and thermal resistance compact designs. Besides, the the case without electrical
minimization. design shows promising insulation. In the other case
opportunity to reduce the with electrical insulation, 6000
coolant flow rate due to the W/(m2K) was achieved at 30
achieved high heat transfer ml/min as flow rate and 3 mW
coefficients. as pumping power.

Normal liquid The core idea was to Forced Ethylene Numerical The idea led to simple, The obtained thermal [54]
jet impinge the coolant convection/unsp - potentially low cost due to performance examinations
impingement perpendicularly to the hot ecified flow Glycol/w simplicity, low pressure loss showed maximum heat transfer
surface and to get rid of the regime ater and high thermal performance coefficients higher than 10000
coolant instantly before it design. Besides, due to the use (W/m2K) for the proposed
accumulates large of high number of cooling design and 30-40% superiority
temperature gradients along cells, uniform cooling was the over conventional pin-fin based
large portions of the target other achievement. The heat sink under the same
device. For achieving this, obtained results showed conditions.
an array of nozzles guides considerable enhancement in
the coolant to the target thermal performance of the
surface. On the other hand, proposed design compared to
a corresponding number of pin fin heat sink.
outlet nozzles guides the
coolant away before the
coolant travels large
distances on the hot
surface.

Additively Additively manufactured Forced Air Experimental and The obtained results showed Heat flux dissipation of 58.4 [55]
manufactured polymer jet coolers were convection/unsp numerical cooling performance W/cm2, cooling rate of 6.6 ℃/s,
nozzles for jet used to impinge air flow ecified flow comparable with common and convective coefficient up to
impingement onto heat source. The main regime materials and manufacturing 17000 W/(m2ꞏK)) were
advantage of additive methods but with greater achieved with the mentioned
manufacturing for manufacturing flexibility and manufacturing flexibility and
producing nozzles was compactness opportunity. compactness.
reported for compact
designs by consolidating
flow delivery system,
distributer and nozzle.
Besides, it was facilitated
to produce complex and
lightweight cooling designs
for high-power-density
systems.

Direct In this liquid cooling Forced Deionize Experimental and The proposed immersed jet Results indicated an average [56]
impingement design, the chip was convection/unsp d-water numerical impingement was reported as a temperature of 78.7 °C for the
immersed jet immersed in the coolant, ecified flow suitable design for high-power- high-power chip with input heat
cooling and the coolant impinges regime density applications mainly flux of 1.6× 106 W/m2 in the
all surfaces of the chip. In due to the fact that it was able presence of 2000 ml/min as
order to prevent the to use all of the heat maximum flow rate and 41377
interference between dissipating area of the chip. W/m2·K as maximum achieved
neighbouring jets, heat transfer coefficient.
distributed array of outlets
were designed.

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Method Core idea Heat transfer coolant Nature of study Major result Quantitative results Ref
mechanism
Impingement The impingement region Turbulent forced Water Numerical The heat transfer coefficient Maximum increase of 13.6% in [57]
area design- was modified for the sake convection was enhanced in the case thermal performance for the
cone shaped of thermal performance where conical protuberance modified surface over flat plate
surface enhancement. For this, a was present in the was reported at Re=23,000 and
conical protuberance was impingement area compared to a cone angle of 60°
used in impingement area a flat impingement region. In
instead of flat plate. fact, when there is a conical
structure, two stagnation
regions were formed. The first
one was observed in the apex
where the jet meets the surface
for the first time, and the
second one was in the conical
edge region where an inclined
jet (secondary jet) was formed.
In this secondary jet area, a
horseshoe vortex was
generated and led to desirable
flow mixing and heat transfer
improvement.

Impingement The core idea was to Turbulent forced Air Experimental and It was revealed that the The quantitative results [58]
on concave combine two main ideas convection numerical presence of pin fins can illustrated 51, 53 and 59%
surface including a concave target significantly improve cooling increase in averaged Nu number
covered with surface and surface design performance. This was for Re numbers 23000, 35000
pin fins in order to intensify the attributed to two main reasons. and 55000, respectively, in the
effect of jet impingement in The first was the formation of presence of a pin finned
the cooling performance. In horseshoe vortices at the concave surface at constant
fact, the concave target leading edge of pins, and the curvature as the target of jet
surface with different second one was attributed to impingement cooling.
curvatures was subjected to the elliptical profile of the pins.
heat flux in the presence of This was reported to minimize
a circular pattern of the effect of dead area due to
elliptical pin fins. the strong recirculation in the
downstream of the pins.
Besides, the efficiency of pin
fins in heat transfer
enhancement was reported to
be more pronounced at higher
relative curvature of the
concave target surface.

Micro The main idea was to Single phase R134a Experimental Flow boiling jet impingement Quantitative results indicated [59]
structured enhance two phase convection and on micro pin fins displayed heat transfer coefficients up to
target surfaces impingement cooling two phase large heat transfer coefficients. 15× 104W/m2 K at a relatively
in two phase performance by enhanced boiling Moreover, a smoother low velocity of 2.2 m/s in the
impingement surfaces with circular, transition from single-phase to presence of the large (D = 125
cooling hydrofoil, and square micro two-phase boiling was lm) circular micro pin fins.
pin fins with area increase achieved which led to the
and nucleate boiling suppression of temperature
enhancement. overshoots and boiling
hysteresis observed in the case
of smooth surfaces.

Fractal A fractal manifold design Laminar forced Water Numerical The manifold design showed Up to 35% thermal resistance [60]
manifold for with high number of convection desirable flexibility in reduction at maximum pressure
microjet liquid nozzles was used to achieving balance between drop of approximately 0.14 kPa
cooling provide impingement heat transfer and hydraulic was obtained for a fractal flow
cooling with desired performance by adjusting the pattern with 64 channels.
thermal performance while manifold parameters,
achieving a compromise especially the number of
with pressure loss and nozzles. In fact, thermal
pumping power by resistance reduction and
adjusting the manifold pressure loss minimization
parameters. were achieved by higher
number of nozzles due to
uniform cooling performance.

Impingement The core idea was to use Forced Water Numerical Results indicated a decrease in According to the obtained [61]
pattern tangential injection in order convection/lami peak temperature and results, at 0.003 W pumping
modification in to benefit from swirl-flow nar flow regime achievement of uniform power, the maximum
microtube heat induced high mixing in cooling as a result of swirl- temperature is reduced by
sink-tangential addition to impingement flow enhanced mixing by adopting the jet impingement
injection features in order to improve utilizing tangential microtube compared to
heat transfer in channel- impingement. Besides, this conventional heat sinks (T =
based cooling heat sink swirl mixing was reported to 311.13 K vs. T = 324.14 K).
designs. cause efficient mixing at Moreover, a temperature
desirably high flow rates. difference of 7.8 K and 19.2 K
along the heated surface was
reported for the impingement

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Method Core idea Heat transfer coolant Nature of study Major result Quantitative results Ref
mechanism
design and classic microtube,
respectively.

Channel The main idea was to Laminar forced Water Experimental Successful impingement The results showed desirable [62]
confined jet by provide a low profile jet convection caused by the unconventional inclined jet impingement toward
orifice plate impingement inside a obstruction led to considerable the hot spot which led to a
obstruction channel to achieve compact enhancement in the convective maximum 495% enhancement
and hot-spot-targeted coefficient which proves the in average convective
cooling at low Reynolds high potential of immersing coefficient at Re=498.
numbers by immersing such obstructions in channel
curved orifice in the cooling to cause impingement
channel to cause the in compact designs.
desired inclined and
confined impingement in
the cooling channel.

Carbon Carbon dioxide jet flow is Forced CO2 and Experimental As a result of utilizing the idea At around Re= 45000, the CO2 [63]
dioxide dry-ice utilized in impingement- convection/unsp N2 of CO2 dry ice assisted solid-gas two-phase jet caused
assisted jet based cooling. When CO2 ecified flow impingement cooling, heat 8.1℃ lower stagnation
impingement passes through jet nozzle, it regime transfer enhancement was temperature than that of single-
cooling goes through a rapid reported due to two main phase N2 jet which was mainly
temperature and pressure reasons. The first was reported attributed to coolant bulk
drop, which leads to dry as reduction in coolant bulk temperature reduction and
CO2 ice particles formation temperature as a result of dry sublimation heat transfer
(Joule-Thomson effect). ice particle formation. The between dry ice particles and
This effect was used to second reason was considered hot surface.
enhance heat transfer by as the sublimation effect
utilizing the concept of between hot surface and dry-
solid-gas two phase ice particles.
impingement cooling. In
addition to carbon dioxide,
Nitrogen was used as
single-phase impingement
cooling to provide a
comparison in order to
clarify the role of two-
phase impingement
cooling.

Jet In order to increase the Turbulent forced Air Experimental The measurement results Based on the obtained results, [64]
impingement turbulent kinetic energy in convection illustrated an improved heat 10-20% enhancement of
cooling the circular jet in transfer coefficient and also a averaged heat transfer
enhanced by impingement-based cooling widened cooling region for the coefficient was observed for Re
piezoelectric design, an active method case in the presence of a fan numbers in the range of 10000-
fan using a piezoelectric fan actuator compared to a circular 18000.
was applied. The fan was jet without actuator. This was
driven at its resonance mainly attributed to intens ified
frequency where it turbulent kinetic energy by the
oscillates with maximized fan oscillations.
amplitude.

V. High performance ideas implemented in spray cooling performance. In a relatively different spray cooling
cooling – based heat sink designs mechanism entitled electrospray cooling, electric potential is
applied between liquid and target surface to produce the
A. Introduction to spray cooling spray for evaporation heat removal. This technology benefits
Spray cooling is recognized as higher cooling capacity from several advantages over conventional spray cooling
method compared to natural/forced convection cooling including lower required power to generate the spray
methods discussed earlier [84]. In this method, a liquid compared to mechanical spray systems with high friction
coolant is emitted from a pressurized nozzle and breaks up losses, and avoidance of droplet deceleration by drag force.
into droplets impinging the hot target surface. As a result of This is achieved by droplet acceleration by an electrostatic
this impingement, droplets are turned into a thin liquid film force, leading to droplets impinging on the surface with
which flows radially along the surface. Obviously, compared higher velocities.
to the normal/tangential flow impingement-induced heat Investigation of spray cooling is categorized by approaches
sink designs where coolant generates a thermally insulating on the spray and droplet level. The former examines spray
liquid boundary layer and experiences undesirable cooling performance from flow behaviour, surface
temperature rise, in spray cooling the hot surface conditions, fluid properties, nozzle array and similar
permanently receives fresh coolant droplets, leading to high viewpoints. However, in the droplet level analysis, the

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impact of droplet flow (single droplet or droplet burst) on the saturation-temperature, heat transfer coefficient, averaged
film flow (dry surface, stationary film, and flowing film) is surface temperature, and thermal resistance. Besides, the
analysed. Obviously, in the spray level examination difference between inlet pressure and back pressure of the
approach, deep understanding of detailed heat transfer spray nozzle is used for hydraulic cost description is some
mechanisms (convection between hot surface and film flow, references. Finally, spray angle, droplet diameter, droplet
nucleate boiling on the hot surface, conduction in film flow, velocity, and volume fraction along with surface tension can
and interfacial evaporation from liquid film to surroundings) be named as the other important parameters in this class. In
is missing unlike the droplet level [15]. The categories of addition, a dimensionless number used in this category is
enhancement ideas exploited in this field are illustrated in known as Bond (Bo) number to evaluate the contribution of
FIGURE 5 and a detailed description is provided in TABLE the capillary effect, which physically reflects the ratio of the
4. gravitational force to the capillary force as 𝐵𝑜 =
𝑅 ⁄√𝛾⁄(𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑉 )𝑔, where 𝑅, 𝛾, 𝜌𝑙 , 𝜌𝑉 , and g represent the
The important parameters and response functions in spray
cooling devices can be named as follows: critical heat flux radii of microcavities, the surface tension of coolant, the
(the peak average heat flux that is met once nucleation sites density of liquid coolant, the density of coolant gas and the
cover the heated surface completely), surface temperature gravitational constant, respectively.
and its non-uniformity, junction temperature, surface
superheat as the difference between surface-temperature and

a. Use of structured surfaces

b. Multi-nozzle array spray
cooling

d. Electro-spray cooling
c. Eorking fluid enhanced
spray cooling

FIGURE 5. Graphical review of papers containing high performance ideas for heat transfer enhancement in spray cooling -based
thermal management designs: (a) reprinted with permission from [66]; (b) reprinted with permission from [69]; (c) reprinted with
permission from [70], (d) reprinted with permission from [72].

Aside from all of the plus points in thermal performance of for its high cooling performance due to the mentioned
spray cooling-based thermal management devices, there are features which have made it suitable for high power density
undeniable challenges restricting overall performance of applications. As illustrated in this table, the major design
these systems including significant pumping power required modifications in this category are the use of structured
to provide large pressure drops for the nozzles to produce the surfaces, nozzle array modifications and coolant property
desired fine spray. Clearly, thermal performance enhancements. However, the motivation for adopting such
enhancement methods are required to deal with the approaches in spray cooling is different from the single phase
challenges to enhance the overall performance of such cooling designs since these modifications can also alter
systems and reduce total cost in terms of pumping power. wettability and nucleation sites in addition to a surface area
For this, several methods are used. TABLE 4 contains the increase for the sake of thermal transport enhancement. The
core concepts and major results of spray cooling designs for review shows that spray cooling is an attractive technology
thermal management. This technology is generally known

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for high performance cooling, but still there are crucial

challenges to be addressed for ensuring reliable operation.

TABLE 4
HIGH PERFORMANCE HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IDEAS UTILIZED IN SPRAY COOLING THERMAL MANAGEMENT DESIGNS

Method Core idea Droplet coolant Nature of Major result Quantitative results Ref
or spray study
level
Surface modification Pyramid/square Spray R410A Experimental The pyramid surface structure led The major quantitative [66]
induced heat transfer macrostructures and nanopores level to better heat transfer results illustrated enhanced
enhancement in spray were used as surface performance although it had thermal performance for the
cooling thermal modification to enhance heat smaller wetted area compared to case with rough pyramid fins
management device transfer in spray-based square structure. Therefore, shape compared to the case of a flat
cooling. It was expected that of surface modification was surface. In fact, the achieved
macrostructures improve heat found to be an important critical heat flux and heat
transfer by increasing the parameter. Besides, it was transfer coefficient were
wetted area. observed that due to the increase 3.3× 106 𝑊/𝑚2 and 3× 105
in the number of nucleation sites 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾. These are reported
and wettability, the nanoporous to be 1.6 and 5 times greater
surface structure led to enhanced than those obtained by the
heat transfer. Moreover, it was smooth flat surface.
observed that in the nanoporous
case heat flux experienced a
decrease and then increase with
pore size, which is mainly
attributed to a transition between
an evaporation-limited to a
viscosity-limited regime.

Multi-scale surface Multi-scale surface structures Spray ammonia Experimental Compared to a smooth surface, The quantitative results [67]
structure for heat including microscale level the structured surface achieved a showed 7.72× 105 W/(m2℃)
transfer enhancement indentations and protrusions significant increase in heat at 5× 106 𝑊/𝑚2 input flux
in spray cooling along with macroscale pin fins transfer coefficient which is which corresponds to 161%
device with different shapes are used mainly related to surface area increase in heat transfer
to enhance heat transfer in a augmentation and stronger role of coefficient by multiscale
spray cooling device by boiling through surface structured surfaces over the
considering different scales. nucleation in addition to free- reference surface.
surface evaporation and
secondary nucleation.
Structured The core idea was the Spray ammonia Experimental The use of microcavities on the The obtained results showed [68]
microcavity surfaces utilization of a structured level surface in spray cooling led to a maximum heat transfer
used for heat transfer surface benefitting from improved heat transfer and coefficient of 148245
enhancement tool in microcavities in order to temperature uniformity. More W/(m2K) at a heat flux of
spray cooling device increase the capillary effect importantly, the extent of heat 4.51× 106 W/m2 for a
and nucleate boiling transfer enhancement was microcavity surface. This
mechanism as a result. observed to be dependent upon was attributed to the
the predominant heat transfer enhanced capillary effect. On
mechanism in each case. In fact, the other hand, from
thermal performance temperature uniformity point
enhancement in the case of low of view, temperature
surface superheats where single- distribution with deviation
phase convection is the main below 1.5℃ was reported
mechanism was insignificant. when subjected to 4.2× 106
While considerable enhancement W/m2 input flux.
was observed for the case of high
surface superheats where nucleate
boiling is the predominant heat
transfer mechanism.

Multi-nozzle spray The main idea was to use Spray R134a Experimental The obtained results indicated The obtained measurement [69]
cooling array as multi-nozzle spray cooling in level that the proposed multi-nozzle results indicated heat transfer
thermal management order to enable the use of spray cooling device provides coefficients as high as 2.81×
solution for being closed-loop spray cooling high heat transfer coefficients at 104 W/(m2K) but at high
integrated with high systems that naturally require high liquid usage fraction before nozzle pressure drop (0.42
power-large area large volume in the drainage the incidence of critical heat flux. MPa).
source region in order to efficiently Besides, it was reported that heat
remove the excessive liquid transfer coefficient and
and the produced vapour temperature uniformity are
during spray cooling. So a strongly dependent upon nozzle
large volume system is flow rate and pressure drop.
proposed with the purpose of Moreover, it was reported that
maximization of vaporization from the viewpoint of nozzle
of sprayed coolant to avoid array geometrical parameters, the
accumulation of liquid. And distance of a location relative to
obviously, the multi-nozzle the outlets add a more
pronounced effect on the local

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Method Core idea Droplet coolant Nature of Major result Quantitative results Ref
or spray study
level
array spray cooling can be surface temperature compared to
parallelized to deal large areas. spray-to-spray interactions.

Working fluid Seven different types of Spray Deionized Experimental They reported significant The obtained results [70]
enhancement in spray nanofluids in the presence of level water and improvement in the average heat indicated considerable
cooling based thermal nanoparticles or carbon Ag, Al, transfer coefficient and the increase over distilled water
management device nanotubes are used instead of Al2O3, critical heat flux as a result of for averaged heat transfer
by utilizing nanofluid conventional coolants in order Fe3O4, utilizing nanofluids compared to coefficient and critical heat
to inspect heat transfer SiO2, TiO2 base fluid spray cooling. This flux by 1.7 and 1.84 times,
enhancement in spray cooling nanoparticles improvement was observed for respectively, if nanoparticles
from the viewpoint of coolant and multi- both nucleate boiling and critical volume fraction increases
improvement. walled heat flux for all nanofluids. from 0.04% to 0.1. Besides,
carbon Al2O3 showed superior
nanotubes performance at volume
fraction of 0.1 vol% up to
3.75× 106 W/m2. This was
attributed to the small size of
nanoparticles and surface
tension.

Working fluid The main idea was to add Droplet Water and Experimental They reported that with the The obtained results showed [71]
enhancement in spray different types of alcohol to level ethanol/n- addition of even small amounts of a heat transfer coefficient of
cooling based thermal the base fluid in spray cooling propanol/iso- all proposed alcohols to water, 2.02× 104 W/(m2K) under
management device device and observe the propanol faster evaporation and higher an input heat flux of 1.0×
by utilizing low- response in droplet level bubble growth rate were 106 W/m2 in the presence of
alcohol additives analysis. observed. Besides, it was 4% volume fraction ethanol
indicated that surface tension and in water. This was equivalent
contact angle were decreased as a to approximately 36.5%
result of adding alcohol to water; enhancement in comparison
and consequently, the heat with pure water.
transfer rate was enhanced
because of improved wettability.

Electrospray phase The core idea was to use a Spray Methanol Experimental It was observed that the jet was Under the maximum heat [72]
change cooling with high momentum electrospray level and successful in thinning the films load, 245 W/cm2 was
entrained air jet with entrained air flow to numerical and reducing conduction dissipated at 99.5℃ as
streaming impinge high velocity droplets resistance in the film in addition average surface temperature.
to the target surface and to to minimizing mass transfer
benefit from enhanced mass resistance by surrounding air
transfer for evaporation by entrainment by spray jet. This
making use of surrounding air caused high evaporation rates and
entrainment. heat removal leading to enhanced
heat transfer and low surface
temperatures.

Microspray-based The core idea was to use a Droplet Deionized Experimental The performance of the proposed The obtained results [73]
thermal management piezo-electric micropump in level water system in the non-boiling regime illustrated 9375 W/(m2℃) as
device for cooling of order to propose a high was analysed, and the results maximum average heat
LED performance microspray revealed that the proposed transfer coefficient and 2
cooling based thermal microspray cooling system using ℃/W as minimum thermal
management device piezo-electric micropumping led resistance for a single spray.
to minimized thermal resistance
and a high average heat transfer
coefficient.

Spray cooling in the The main idea was to Droplet Water Experimental By having the opportunity of The proposed spray cooling [74]
presence of dual minimize the weaknesses of level and flow manipulation, spray angle with dual synthetic jet
synthetic jet actuator spray cooling designs such as numerical and impingement area are under actuator integrated with a
and piezoelectric narrow impacting area by control. A uniform and wider piezoelectric atomizer
atomizer utilizing dual synthetic jet and distribution of droplets on the indicated enhanced cooling
piezoelectric atomizer with surface led to heat transfer capability from 44 °C in
high capability of flow enhancement as a consequence of conventional spray cooling
manipulation. A piezoelectric rising evaporation efficiency of to 36 °C. Besides, from the
synthetic jet actuator was used the liquid film. viewpoint of temperature
as a flow control for increased uniformity, it achieved 18 °C
cooling efficiency and rapid deviation compared to 32 °C.
response. This can be achieved Finally, direct impacting
due to several effects including range is reported to be
increase of droplet velocity, increased from (−30 mm, 25
control of impact area, and mm) to (−60 mm, 57 mm).
change of the uniformity of
droplets.

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VI. High performance ideas implemented in hybrid heat overall performance is defined as (ℎ⁄Δ𝑃) and thermal
sink designs conductance is defined as (𝑞 ⁄(𝑇̅𝑠 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 )) where
𝑞, 𝑇̅𝑠 and 𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 are input heat flux, averaged surface
A. Introduction to hybrid cooling designs
temperature and coolant inflow temperature respectively.
In this section, the designs benefiting from two or more heat
The hybrid thermal management ideas along with the key
transfer improvement techniques known as hybrid designs
ideas and major results are discussed in detail in TABLE 5.
are reviewed. The research items in this section utilize
The table contains the designs combining at least two
combinations and synergies of jet impingement, solid insert,
concepts among jet impingement, fin insertion,
mini-microchannel array, surface modifications, phase
microchannel, structured surface, thermally enhanced
transition and thermoelectric coolers (see FIGURE 6 and
coolant, foam insertion, phase transition and thermoelectric
TABLE 5). The characteristic parameters in the reviewed
cooler. The review of the hybrid designs indicates that in the
hybrid designs are jet dimensions, jet-to-wall distance (for
majority of the proposed designs, the combination of ideas
impingement contained designs), volume fraction of
leads to a higher thermal performance in comparison with
nanoparticles (for nanofluid contained systems),
either of the individual ideas. However, in some designs, this
thermoelectric cold and hot side temperatures, fin
combination is shown to require further considerations in
dimensions, flow rate, Reynolds number, heat transfer
order to avoid side effects caused by the interactions between
coefficients, pressure drop and pumping power, hot spot
different individual concepts.
temperature, maximum temperature rise (difference between
maximum and minimum substrate temperature). Besides,

a. Hybrid micro-channel, -pillar and

–jet impingement heat sink;

b. Microchannel heat sink with

impinging jets and dimples

c. Impingement cooling and fin

f. Heat pipe assisted thermoelectric
cooler

e. Finned foam and impingement

d. Manifold, micro pin fin and nozzle jet

FIGURE 6. Graphical review of papers containing high performance ideas for heat transfer enhancement in hybrid designs: (a) reprinted w ith
permission from [75]; (b) reprinted with permission from [78]; (c) reprinted with permission from [79]; (d) reprinted with permission from [81]; (e)
reprinted with permission from [82]; (f) reprinted with permission from [83].

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10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3021946, IEEE Access

TABLE 5
HIGH PERFORMANCE HEAT TRANSFER ENHANCEMENT IDEAS UTILIZED IN HYBRID HEAT SINK DESIGNS

Method Core idea Heat transfer coolant Nature of Major result Quantitative results Ref
mechanism study
Hybrid design- The hybrid heat sink design Forced Water Numerical As a result of combining The thermal resistance of [75]
micro-jet slot consisted of three main convection/unspecified the cooling techniques to 1.3× 10−3 m2°C/W is
array, micro-pin layers including pin fin, jet flow regime form multi-layer hybrid obtained at a flow rate of
fin array and slot-drainage trenches and design, the design 0.5 l/min and 0.8 kPa
drainage micro- inlet/outlet channels. By achieved high heat pressure loss, and this
trenches this combination, firstly, removal efficiency at low resistance can be further
the coolant impinges the flow rate and pumping reduced by 40% by
heated wall. Then this energy. increasing the flow rate to 1
spent flow extracts heat l/min which leads to 2.4 kPa
from pin fin. Finally, heat pressure drop. Besides,
is delivered to outside desirably uniform cooling
when heated coolant flows performance was also
through nearby trenches. fulfilled by the design. In
fact, the surface temperature
variation rate at the bottom
heating area which is the
ratio between the maximum
temperature difference and
the spatially averaged
temperature is <3% at a
flow rate of 0.5 l/min.

Hybrid heat sink This hybrid design consists Laminar forced Water Numerical For the hybrid design, As a result of this [76]
containing of micro-jet impingement convection high thermal performance combination, a high heat
microchannel, and cylindrical micro- enhancement was transfer coefficient of more
pillar and jet pillars on the target surface observed. However, it was than 1.5× 103 W/(m2K)
impingement located at the middle of a found that the interaction was obtained by the
micro-channel. Flow from of different individual proposed hybrid design.
nozzles impinge the hot cooling concepts has to be The pumping power in the
surface. Besides, the considered as a design order of 0.0008W was
channel flow guides this priority in hybrid obtained at Re=200 for a
wall jet flow toward the approach. In fact, on the mass flow of 8.63× 10−5
outlet. When this flow one hand, introducing kg/s.
reaches pillars, it is channel flow in the jet
disturbed and flow vortices impingement cooling
enhancing heat transfer are design increases the
formed. overall flow rate.
Consequently, it reduces
liquid caloric thermal
resistance. On the other
hand, the channel flow
suppresses thermal
performance and increases
thermal resistance by its
sweeping effect which
reduces the stagnation
effect of jet impingement
and thickens the wall jet.

Hybrid heat sink Additive manufacturing is Laminar forced Water Experimental The combination proved They reported a heat [77]
design with used to design a complex convection and that the hybrid design transfer coefficient of 296×
integrating high performance heat sink numerical benefits from features of 103 W/(m2K) at 160 kPa
micro-jet, benefiting from positive microjets and pressure loss and 0.5 l/min
microchannel features of microjets and microchannels. It achieved flow rate.
and fin array microchannels that can higher performance
achieve higher compared to either of the
performance compared to individual methods in
either of the individual terms of thermal
methods. The design is conductance and pressure
called ‘FINJET’ since the drop cost which makes it
jet nozzles also serve as suitable to be integrated
hollow fins. In fact, fluid is with high performance
forced through the center applications.
of each fin in order to
direct jet impingement on
top of the heat source.
Then the flow is passed
from the jets into a
microchannel system. Due
to the beneficial features of
microchannels, especially
the high surface-to-
volume-ratio along with
high fin efficiency, good

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Method Core idea Heat transfer coolant Nature of Major result Quantitative results Ref
mechanism study
thermal performance was
expected.

Hybrid heat sink The core idea is to benefit Laminar forced Water Numerical Major results prove that as In details, heat transfer [78]
combining jet from desirable flow and convection a result of combining coefficients up to 3.75×
impingement, heat transfer behaviour of impinging jets instead of 104 W/(m2K) at a mass
microchannels impingement (compared to parallel flow with flow rate of 30 g/s and
and dimpled parallel flow) along with microchannels in the approximately 80 kPa as
surface microchannel arrays in the presence of convex pressure drop were
modification presence of dimpled dimples, desirable reported.
surfaces. Especially convex boundary layer
dimples are able to break disturbance and heat
the pre-existing boundary transfer enhancement is
layer and cause turbulence achieved at reduced
without forming pressure drop. Besides,
considerable dead area that comparison between
hinders heat transport. concave, convex and
Besides, the other mixed dimples illustrates
motivation is the reduced superior thermal
flow resistance at high flow performance of the convex
rates in the case of using type.
convex dimple structure
which is achieved since
dimples function as stream
guidance.

Hybrid heat sink The main idea was to Turbulent forced Water and Experimental The combination of the The quantitative results [79]
with combine liquid jet convection water-TiO2 and mentioned elements led to showed thermal resistance
impingement, impingement and different nanofluid numerical desirable performance and of approximately 0.03 ℃/
nanofluid and fin fin configurations, and also minimized thermal 𝑊 at Re=26800 with a
to improve thermal resistance for high heat cooling area of
performance of coolant by flux applications. 40mm×40mm subjected to
dispersing solid However, implementation 150W input power.
nanoparticles in water. of different fin
configurations illustrated
some important
considerations including
scrubbing effect of flow in
contact with different fin
geometries that have to be
taken into account in
designing such cases
benefitting from jet
impingement with fin
inserts.

Hybrid cold Slot jet and minichannel Laminar forced Water/Ethylene Numerical As a result of combining Maximum to minimum base [80]
plate design-slot are combined to form a convection Glycol slot jet with channel flow, temperature difference of
jet and hybrid cold plate. A uniform thermal approximately 3 K at a heat
minichannel manifold channel flow is performance with at transfer coefficient of 3.4×
used to achieve flow and reasonable pressure drop 104 W/(m2K) and a
heat transfer uniformity as was achieved which was pressure loss of 9.36 kPa
the main purpose. For this, mainly attributed to the was reported.
the manifold system mentioned flow division.
distributes coolant into
different power modules.
Besides, this manifold
separates the heat sink into
segments to avoid the
coolant flow travelling long
path and experiencing
undesirable temperature
increase.

Hybrid heat sink The main idea was to Laminar forced Water Numerical As a result of combining The obtained results showed [81]
design-manifold, utilize a novel flow convection manifold channel, nozzle total thermal resistance of
nozzle jet and distribution structure in the jet and micro-pin fin ideas, 9.37×10-6 m2K/W and
micro pin fin heat sink which is inspired desirable flow distribution temperature non-uniformity
by the chessboard. In fact, and thermal performance of 2.33 K under input heat
each inlet nozzle is are fulfilled. In fact, the flux of 7×106 W/m2 at
surrounded by four outlet temperature nonuniformity 4.928 kPa pressure drop.
nozzles and vice versa. The of the heating surface is
combination of manifold reported to be low. The
inlet/outlet channels above novel heat sink proved to
nozzles, and using a micro be able to take advantage
pin fin structure of both uniform flow
underneath, leads to distribution and ultra-high
desirable flow distribution heat flux cooling.
and disturbance, and as a

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Method Core idea Heat transfer coolant Nature of Major result Quantitative results Ref
mechanism study
result, desired heat transfer
performance.

Hybrid heat sink The combined use of slot Forced convection/ Air Experimental Thermal performance In fact, in this study, finned [82]
design- jet impingement, fin and unspecified flow enhancement of finned foam heat sinks showed 10–
reinforced foam element in heat sink regime foam was fulfilled due to 20 times greater pressure
copper foam was proposed for an the large heat exchange loss compared to finned
with inserted fins efficient hybrid design. The area but at high flow heat sinks. Therefore, this
subjected to flow core idea was to benefit resistance. Therefore, it combination was
impingement from positive features of was recommended to use recommended for compact
coolant impingement such structures in compact heat exchanger designs
(strong flow mixing and thermal management where pumping power is
thin boundary layer), foam designs where pumping not so crucial.
insertion (large heat power is not the main
exchange area) and design consideration.
overcoming the restriction
of heat conductivity in the
foamed design by
reinforcing it with plate
fins.

Hybrid thermal The core idea was to use a Forced convection/ Air Experimental The results revealed that The measurements [83]
management compact thermoelectric unspecified flow and the integration of a gravity illustrated a significant
design-heat pipe based cooling design by regime numerical assisted heat pipe was able increase in cooling capacity
assisted removing its thermal to improve the cooling (64.8%) as a result of using
thermoelectric restrictions due to high capacity of a a gravity assisted heat pipe.
cooler thermal resistance on its thermoelectric cooler and
hot side by attaching a at the same time
gravity assisted heat pipe preserving its desirable
on this side. thermal and vibration-free
operation features. On the
one hand, an airflow rate
increase at condenser side
led to enhanced cooling
performance. But this
enhancement was reported
to be restricted to high
ambient air temperature.
On the other hand, the
cooling capacity was
increased by air flow rate
increase on evaporator
side, but again it was
restricted by the
thermoelectric cold side
temperature.

In channel cooling, impingement and hybrid cooling, the

VII. Quantitative comparison between the thermal temperature difference between inflow and hot spot is used.
management categories In spray cooling, it is calculated as the difference between
In order to provide a fair comparison between the cooling surface temperature and saturation temperature. Finally, in
performance of the reviewed ideas in this paper including heat pipe thermal management devices as the candidate of
channel cooling, spray cooling, impingement cooling, hybrid phase transition-based cooling, it is defined as the
designs and phase transition based designs, the effective temperature difference between evaporator and condenser.
thermal conductance is adopted as the quantitative criterion The comparison is provided in FIGURE 7. The diameter of
as follows [77]: the circles in this figure is proportional to the required
𝑞 pumping power except for the phase transition-based cases
 𝛼𝑒𝑓𝑓 = [𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −1 ], Where 𝑞 and Δ𝑇 represent (No. 11 and 12), where no pumping power is required.
Δ𝑇
heat flux and temperature difference.

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FIGURE 7. Effective thermal conductance versus pumping power for the papers reviewed in the categories provided in FIGURE 1 (diameters
are proportional to pumping power (W) except for No. 11 and 12).

As illustrated this figure, the operating range of channel VIII. Conclusions and recommendations
cooling and impingement cooling ideas shows the possibility A review on high performance concepts used for improving
of achieving desired performance with comparably low heat transfer mechanisms involved in power electronics
pumping power. However, the effective thermal thermal management was provided in this paper. The main
performance is lower for these cases compared to other motivation was to give a comprehensive overview on the
categories especially spray cooling. This can be mainly available thermal management ideas and potentially
attributed to the nature of single-phase channel cooling and inspiring new ones and combinations of them. For this, a
impingement cooling benefitting only from sensible heat categorization covering the commonly-used heat sink
absorption unlike the spray cooling or two-phase channel designs was presented. In the categories, channel cooling in
cooling designs. Another reason is that the majority of various scales, impingement cooling, phase transition-based
channel cooling ideas available in literature are based on the designs, spray cooling and hybrid designs were presented.
laminar flow regime, and only a minority of research items Following this, a detailed description of the core of each idea
has provided analysis on turbulence enhanced designs to was provided. Finally, a quantitative comparison was given
benefit from increased momentum/energy exchange due to for a representative sample of the reviewed concepts from
turbulence nature. On the other hand, the impressive the viewpoint of thermal and hydraulic overall performance.
effective thermal performance of spray cooling ideas is
normally accompanied by high pumping power. In fact, it is Based on the conducted study, the following items are
known that in spray cooling cases, the crucial challenge is to proposed as future research recommendations.
keep the system working safely and reliably under high
pressure differences in the order of MPa between the inlet  Turbulence-enhanced channel cooling forms a tiny
pressure and back pressure for a long time. In addition, it is minority of designs in this category. However, the
inferred that a combination of different cooling ideas and upcoming manufacturing technologies enabling
wise layout of hybrid designs can fulfil high thermal complicated structures for novel mixing devices, and
performance at affordable pumping power as achieved in allowing a balance between enhanced thermal
case No. 13 and 15. Finally, the impingement and phase performance and increased hydraulic loss are promising
transition-based concepts indicate an overall thermal opportunities for adopting this approach.
performance of the same order but at different power  The employed heat transfer enhancement methods in
demands. Therefore, choosing among these methods should spray cooling such as surface modification indicate
be based on the specific priorities of the target system. considerable heat transfer enhancement and a great
potential for power electronics thermal management,

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