Title: Nobility under the Sultans of Kashmir (1339-1586)

Name of the Scholar:- Mujtaba Shafi Banday

Introduction
The nobility under the Sultans of Kashmir (1339–1586) played a decisive role in
shaping the political, administrative, and cultural framework of the Sultanate.
Unlike the centralized monarchies of Delhi and other contemporary Islamic
polities, the Kashmiri Sultanate was characterized by a delicate balance of power
between the monarchy, the nobility, and religious elites. This balance was often
marked by fluid alliances, factional rivalries, and power struggles, making the
nobility not just administrators but kingmakers and cultural patrons. Despite their
importance, the nobility’s role in shaping the Sultanate’s governance, economy,
and intellectual landscape has not been comprehensively analyzed. This research
seeks to fill this gap by exploring how the nobility functioned as both the
stabilizing and destabilizing force of the Sultanate.

The historiography of medieval Kashmir is largely dominated by Persian sources

and modern scholarly interpretations, particularly Kashmir Under the Sultans by
Mohibbul Hasan and A History of Muslim Rule in Kashmir by R.K. Parmu. Hasan’s
work provides an extensive account of the administrative structures and political
history of the Sultanate, yet it primarily views the nobility through the lens of
court intrigues and military obligations, without examining their agency as
independent powerbrokers or patrons of culture. Parmu, on the other hand, offers
a broader chronological narrative of Muslim rule but does not adequately explore
the internal dynamics of noble factions or their socio-economic influences. Both
accounts tend to emphasize the role of monarchs while underestimating the role
of noble lineages in influencing policy decisions, succession disputes, and cultural
developments.

One major gap in existing scholarship is the lack of emphasis on the ethnic
diversity of the nobility and how this diversity influenced governance. The nobility
in Kashmir was not a homogeneous entity but consisted of indigenous Kashmiri
elements, Turkic, Persian, and Afghan settlers, and Sayyid elites. This diversity led
to factional rivalries that were instrumental in both sustaining and destabilizing
the Sultanate. Another overlooked aspect is the nobility’s economic role—beyond
their control over jagirs (land grants), they were involved in trade, agrarian
policies, and the patronage of artisans and scholars, which shaped Kashmir’s
economic history.

Furthermore, while previous studies focus on the decline of the Sultanate in terms
of Mughal expansion, this research argues that internal noble factionalism and
power shifts played an equally crucial role in weakening the Sultanate’s defenses.
The transition from the Shah Mir to the Chak dynasty, for instance, was not simply
a dynastic change but a reflection of noble-led realignments that reshaped
Kashmiri politics.

This study aims to reassess the nobility’s role through a critical analysis of primary
Persian chronicles, inscriptions, and administrative records, supplemented by
comparative studies of other medieval Islamic polities. By doing so, it seeks to
provide a more nuanced understanding of the Sultanate of Kashmir, not merely as
a monarchy but as a polity deeply influenced by the ambitions, rivalries, and
cultural contributions of its noble elite.
Justification of the Study
Nobility worked as the motor force of sultanate from the successful
establishment to its vibrant functioning the nobility worked as the primary reason
d'etre . The division of nobility on the lines of ethnicity , caste , culture and class
made it stratified and competitive. The unresolved conflict between nobles and
monarchy acted as the fulcrum of power functioning , sharing and delegation .
The sultanate in kashmir primarily worked as per the interest of nobility and
monarchy where centrifugal and centripetral tendencies led to the enthronement
and dethronement of ruler.

The appropiation of jagirs and offices was subject to

accomodation and change in the composition and role of nobility under diffent
sultans . The nobles often emulated sultans in their cultural pursuits that made
them patrons of art, literature and learning . The aim of present work is to study
nobility as Tour de - force of the sultanate.

Research Questions

1. How did the establishment of the Sultanate of Kashmir in 1339 unfold, and
what was the nobility’s role in this process?

2. What were the ethnic and social compositions of the nobility, and how did
these groups evolve during the Sultanate period?

3. How did the nobility’s political and cultural contributions shape the
Sultanate’s governance and intellectual landscape?

4. In what ways did the dynamics of the nobility contribute to the Sultanate’s
eventual decline and absorption into the Mughal Empire in 1586?
Research Objectives and Methodology

5. To examine the establishment and composition of the nobility under the

Sultans of Kashmir.

Methodology: This study employs an empirical approach, using historical

fieldwork and archival research to examine the structure and development of the
nobility. A comparative historical analysis will be conducted to assess how the
nobility emerged, its social composition, and its influence in shaping the
Sultanate. Socio-political trends will be analyzed using case studies from historical
records.

2. To explore the political role of the nobility in courtly affairs, jagir assignments,
and military responsibilities.

Methodology: Prosopographical analysis will be employed to study the careers,

family networks, and factional affiliations of nobles. This will involve tracing noble
lineages, their power struggles, and their influence in governance and military
operations. The study will use historical biographies and genealogical records to
reconstruct noble participation in political and military affairs.

3. To analyze the relationship between the nobility and other power structures,
including the king and the ulema.

Methodology: A textual referencing method will be applied, where primary and

secondary sources will be systematically analyzed to examine the interactions
between the nobility, monarchy, and religious elites. This includes analyzing legal
documents, royal decrees, and religious texts to understand the power dynamics
between these groups.
4. To assess the literary and cultural contributions of the nobility to Kashmiri
society.

Methodology: Analytical methods will be used to assess the cultural and literary
patronage of the nobility. This will include evaluating Persian and Kashmiri literary
works, architectural contributions, and patronage records. The study will also
examine artistic and intellectual movements influenced by the nobility, using
material culture and manuscript analysis to understand their contributions to
Kashmiri heritage.

Chapterization
1. Sultanate and Evolution of Nobility

This chapter will examine the origins and development of the nobility under the
Sultans of Kashmir, tracing its ethnic composition, roles, and the process of noble
integration into the power structure.

2. Court Power Politics and Loyalties

This section will explore the political maneuvering of the nobility, their courtly
factions, allegiances, and role in succession struggles. It will also analyze how
shifting alliances influenced governance.

3. Nobility: Privileges and Duties

This chapter will study the nobility’s administrative and military responsibilities,
their economic privileges, control over land grants, and their role in policymaking
and governance.

4. Nobility: Patronage, Art, Aesthetics, and Endgame

The final chapter will assess the nobility’s contributions to culture, including
literary patronage, architectural advancements, and religious endowments, while
also examining their decline and the eventual absorption of Kashmir into the
Mughal Empire.

Literature Review

6. Kashmir Under the Sultans by Mohibbul Hasan

Mohibbul Hasan’s Kashmir Under the Sultans (1959) is one of the most
comprehensive historical accounts of medieval Kashmir, covering the political,
administrative, social, and cultural aspects of the Sultanate period (1339–1586).
The book draws upon Persian chronicles, historical records, and contemporary
sources to provide an in-depth analysis of the Shah Mir dynasty and its successors.

1. Establishment of the Sultanate and Governance

Hasan explores the foundation of the Sultanate under Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir,
emphasizing the political conditions that facilitated its establishment. He
examines the role of external influences, including the decline of Hindu rule,
internal conflicts among local rulers, and the influx of immigrants who contributed
to the formation of the nobility. The book discusses the administrative structure
adopted by the Sultans, including revenue collection, land grants (jagirs), and the
role of the nobility in governance.

2. Role and Composition of the Nobility

A significant portion of Hasan’s work is dedicated to analyzing the nobility’s

composition, which included both indigenous Kashmiri elements and foreign
groups such as Turks, Sayyids, and Afghans. He highlights how these nobles were
not only military commanders but also administrators and patrons of cultural and
religious institutions. The book discusses how nobility gained power through
political alliances, strategic marriages, and appointments to key administrative
and military positions.

3. Political and Military Dynamics

The book extensively discusses the factionalism and power struggles among
nobles, which often led to political instability. Hasan illustrates how nobles acted
as kingmakers, supporting or overthrowing rulers based on personal ambitions
and rivalries. The book provides case studies of influential nobles such as Malik
Saif-ud-Din and the role of the Chaks in the later period. Additionally, Hasan
examines the military obligations of the nobility, particularly their role in
defending the Sultanate against external threats such as the Mongols and the
Mughals.

4. Cultural and Religious Patronage

Hasan highlights the patronage of art, literature, and religious institutions by the
Kashmiri nobility. The book explores the fusion of Persianate and local traditions,
which led to the flourishing of Persian literature, Sufi traditions, and architectural
advancements. The influence of prominent Sufi saints and the establishment of
madrasas under noble patronage are also key themes in the book.

5. Decline of the Sultanate and Role of Nobility

The book examines how internal conflicts among the nobility, economic instability,
and external pressures from the Mughals contributed to the decline of the
Sultanate. Hasan argues that while the nobility played a crucial role in stabilizing
the kingdom at times, their factional rivalries and inability to unite against
external threats weakened the Sultanate. The eventual fall of the dynasty in 1586
and the absorption of Kashmir into the Mughal Empire is analyzed in the context
of noble politics and administrative failures.

Conclusion

Kashmir Under the Sultans provides a critical analysis of the nobility’s role in
shaping medieval Kashmir’s political, administrative, and cultural landscape.
Hasan’s work remains a foundational text for understanding the Sultanate period,
offering valuable insights into the interplay between the monarchy, nobility, and
religious institutions. His research highlights both the contributions and
contradictions of the nobility, illustrating their indispensable yet often divisive role
in the history of Kashmir.

2. A History of Muslim Rule in Kashmir (1320–1819) by R.K. Parmu

R.K. Parmu’s A History of Muslim Rule in Kashmir (1320–1819) provides a

comprehensive historical analysis of the Muslim period in Kashmir, covering the
Sultanate era (1339–1586) and extending to the Afghan rule (1752–1819). The
book is significant for its detailed examination of the political, administrative,
economic, and cultural developments that shaped the region during this period.

1. Political Developments and Sultanate Rule

Parmu traces the establishment of Muslim rule in Kashmir from the early 14th
century, beginning with the advent of Rinchana and the rise of Shams-ud-Din Shah
Mir. He explores how political instability, internal strife, and foreign influences
played a role in shaping the Sultanate. The book delves into the governance
structures implemented by the rulers and the shifting power dynamics among
different factions, including the nobility, the ulema, and foreign settlers.

2. Role of Nobility in Administration and Governance

The book offers an in-depth discussion on the nobility's function within the
Sultanate, highlighting its composition and influence. Parmu examines how the
nobility was drawn from diverse ethnic backgrounds, including Turks, Sayyids, and
local Kashmiri elements, and how they played a central role in administration,
revenue collection, and military affairs. The text discusses the distribution of land
grants (jagirs), the responsibilities of noble families, and their role in maintaining
the Sultanate’s stability.

Parmu also analyzes the factional conflicts among the nobility, particularly the
rivalry between the indigenous Kashmiri nobles and the Chaks, who gained
prominence in the later years of the Sultanate. These conflicts, according to
Parmu, were instrumental in weakening the administration and making the
Sultanate vulnerable to external invasions.

3. Cultural and Religious Transformations

One of the strengths of Parmu’s work is his analysis of the cultural and religious
transformations that occurred under Muslim rule. He discusses the role of Sufis,
ulema, and court scholars in shaping Kashmiri society. The book highlights how
Persian influence permeated literature, architecture, and governance, leading to a
distinct fusion of Persianate and indigenous traditions. Parmu provides insights
into the literary patronage of various Sultans, particularly under Zain-ul-Abidin,
whose reign marked a golden age of cultural development.

4. Economic and Social Aspects

Parmu provides a detailed assessment of the economic conditions under the

Sultans of Kashmir. He examines agrarian policies, taxation systems, and trade
networks that sustained the economy. The book discusses the role of the nobility
in economic affairs, including their control over land revenue and their
involvement in trade and commerce. The impact of these economic policies on
the peasantry and artisans is also explored, offering a nuanced view of social
hierarchies in medieval Kashmir.

5. Decline of the Sultanate and Transition to Mughal Rule

The book explores the internal weaknesses of the Sultanate, particularly the
growing factionalism among the nobility and the inability of rulers to maintain
centralized control. Parmu argues that these internal conflicts, combined with
external pressures from the Mughals, ultimately led to the downfall of the
independent Sultanate in 1586. He provides a detailed account of Akbar’s
annexation of Kashmir and the subsequent integration of the region into the
Mughal Empire, marking a new phase in its history.

Conclusion

Parmu’s A History of Muslim Rule in Kashmir (1320–1819) serves as an essential

text for understanding the political, administrative, and socio-cultural dynamics of
the Sultanate period. His detailed analysis of the nobility’s role highlights both
their contributions and their internal divisions, which played a crucial role in
shaping the course of Kashmiri history. The book remains a valuable resource for
scholars studying the medieval history of Kashmir, offering insights into the
interplay between governance, religion, and culture during this transformative
era.

3. Siyasat Nama by Nizam al-Mulk

Siyasat Nama is a foundational treatise on governance and administration,

authored by Nizam al-Mulk, the vizier of the Seljuk Empire. Written in the 11th
century, the work provides practical guidelines for rulers and state officials,
drawing from historical examples and personal experiences. Several chapters offer
direct insights into the role of nobility in governance, their duties, and their
relationship with the ruler.
1. Nobility and Land Administration

A key theme in Siyasat Nama is the management of land grants (iqta) and their
distribution among the nobility. Nizam al-Mulk emphasizes that nobles should be
entrusted with land not solely based on lineage but on their merit and loyalty to
the state. He warns against granting too much autonomy to powerful nobles, as
their ambitions could lead to rebellion. This discussion is highly relevant to the
Kashmiri Sultanate, where jagirdars played a crucial role in governance and often
influenced succession struggles.

2. Responsibilities and Ethical Conduct of Nobles

Another significant chapter stresses the ethical responsibilities of the nobility.

Nizam al-Mulk argues that nobles should act as just administrators, avoiding
oppression of the peasantry. He advises rulers to maintain a close watch on the
conduct of the nobility, rewarding those who display competence and integrity
while punishing those who abuse power. This aligns with similar concerns in
Kashmir under the Sultans by Mohibbul Hasan, where noble factions often
manipulated power for personal gain.

3. The Role of Nobility in Military and Governance

Nizam al-Mulk details how an effective state relies on a well-organized nobility

that supports the ruler both in administration and military campaigns. He
discusses the importance of granting military command to capable nobles rather
than hereditary elites who may lack battlefield experience. The Kashmiri Sultanate
followed a similar structure, where military nobility (both indigenous and
immigrant) played an essential role in defending the kingdom against external
threats.
4. Court Politics and Noble Factions

The book also examines the dangers of noble factions at court, particularly how
unchecked noble ambitions can lead to instability. Nizam al-Mulk highlights
historical cases where powerful noble families conspired against the ruler, leading
to assassinations and coups. This theme is mirrored in the history of Kashmiri
Sultans, where noble factions like the Chaks played a decisive role in the rise and
fall of various rulers.

Conclusion

Siyasat Nama serves as an essential reference for understanding the role of

nobility in medieval Islamic governance. Its discussions on land administration,
military obligations, court politics, and noble conduct provide valuable parallels to
the Kashmiri Sultanate. By examining these themes, historians can better
contextualize the power dynamics between Kashmiri rulers and their noble elites.

4. Nobility Under the Sultans of Delhi (1206–1398) by S.B.P. Nigam

S.B.P. Nigam’s Nobility Under the Sultans of Delhi (1206–1398) is a significant

scholarly work that examines the composition, evolution, and political role of the
nobility during the Delhi Sultanate. The study primarily focuses on the military and
administrative elites who played a decisive role in governance, factional politics,
and court intrigues. The book provides valuable insights into the functioning of
the nobility, many of which are applicable to the study of the nobility in Kashmir
under the Sultans.

1. Composition and Ethnic Diversity of the Nobility

One of the key themes in Nigam’s work is the ethnic composition of the nobility,
which included Turks, Afghans, Persians, and Indian converts to Islam. He argues
that the early Delhi Sultans, particularly the Mamluks and Khaljis, relied heavily on
foreign nobles, often former slaves (ghulams) who rose to prominence through
military service. However, over time, Indian Muslims and local elites also gained
influence.

This analysis is particularly relevant to the study of Kashmiri nobility, where the
ruling elite comprised a mix of foreign immigrants (Turks, Afghans, Sayyids) and
local nobility, with power shifting over time due to political and military factors.

2. Role of Nobility in Administration and Military

Nigam discusses how the Delhi Sultanate functioned as a military state, with the
nobility forming its administrative and martial backbone. Nobles were granted
land (iqta) in exchange for military service and were responsible for maintaining
law and order in their assigned regions. He highlights the importance of the wazirs
(prime ministers), maliks (high-ranking officers), and amirs (commanders) in the
power structure.

Similar structures were present in Kashmir, where the nobles were assigned jagirs
and had both civil and military obligations. Their influence often determined the
rise and fall of Sultans, reflecting a political pattern common in medieval Islamic
states.

3. Factional Rivalries and Power Struggles

Nigam’s work sheds light on the factionalism that plagued the Delhi Sultanate,
with Turkish, Afghan, and other noble groups vying for dominance. He highlights
the role of Turkan-i-Chihalgani (the Forty), a powerful group of nobles during the
Slave Dynasty, and later the struggles between old Turkish nobility and the new
Khalji elite under Alauddin Khalji.
In Kashmir, a similar dynamic played out, with shifting power struggles among the
indigenous nobility and foreign elites. For instance, the Sayyid and Chak factions
played a decisive role in the Sultanate’s later years, much like the noble factions in
Delhi.

4. Promotion and Demotion of Nobles

Nigam examines how merit, loyalty, and court politics influenced the rise and fall
of nobles. While some rulers, like Balban, emphasized aristocratic supremacy,
others, like Alauddin Khalji, curbed noble power to prevent rebellions. The study
also explores mechanisms of control, such as strict surveillance, executions, and
the redistribution of iqtas to weaken noble autonomy.

The Kashmiri Sultans adopted similar strategies, alternating between relying on

noble support and suppressing their power to maintain authority. Instances of
noble-led coups, assassinations, and exiles in both Delhi and Kashmir highlight the
volatile nature of noble influence.

5. Cultural and Intellectual Contributions

Despite their political rivalries, the nobility in the Delhi Sultanate significantly
contributed to Persianate culture, literature, and religious scholarship. Many
nobles patronized poets, scholars, and architects, leaving behind a rich cultural
legacy.

A parallel can be drawn with Kashmir, where noble patronage played a crucial role
in the development of Persian literature, Sufi traditions, and architectural
advancements during the Sultanate period.
Conclusion

Nigam’s Nobility Under the Sultans of Delhi (1206–1398) offers a comprehensive

analysis of the Delhi Sultanate’s ruling elite, highlighting their role in governance,
military affairs, factional politics, and cultural patronage. The study provides
valuable comparative insights for understanding the nobility under the Sultans of
Kashmir, particularly regarding their ethnic diversity, administrative functions, and
influence on state stability.

Baharistan-i-Shahi

The Baharistan-i-Shahi, meaning "Spring Garden of Royalty," is a 17th-century

Persian chronicle authored anonymously around 1614. It offers an in-depth
narrative of Kashmir's political history, focusing on the Sultanate era and the
subsequent Mughal influence. The chronicle provides insights into the nobility's
involvement in court intrigues, power struggles, and succession disputes,
highlighting their significant impact on the region's governance and stability. The
Baharistan-i-Shahi has been translated into English by K. N. Pandit, making it
accessible to a broader audience.

Waqi'at-i-Kashmir

Authored by Khwaja Muhammad Azam Didamari in 1747, the Waqi'at-i-Kashmir

(The Story of Kashmir) is another seminal Persian chronicle. Also known as Tarikh-
i-Azami, this work provides a comprehensive history of Kashmir, with particular
emphasis on the events and figures of the Sultanate period. Didamari's chronicle
sheds light on the composition and dynamics of the nobility, their patronage of
arts and literature, and their interactions with the ruling elite. The detailed
accounts of noble families and their roles in administrative and military affairs
make it a crucial source for understanding the era's socio-political fabric.
Tarikh-i-Kashmir by Haidar Malik Chadurah

Haidar Malik Chadurah, an administrator and soldier in the service of Mughal

Emperor Jahangir, authored his Tarikh-i-Kashmir in 1621. This Persian-language
history offers a detailed account of Kashmir's past, including the Sultanate period.
Chadurah's narrative provides valuable perspectives on the administrative
structures, military campaigns, and the intricate relationships between the
nobility and the ruling sultans. His position within the Mughal administration
lends a unique viewpoint to his accounts, bridging the Sultanate and Mughal
periods.

Primary Sources:-

Niẓām al-Mulk. (1960). The book of government or rules for kings (Siyar al-Muluk
or Siyasat-nama) (H. Darke, Trans.). Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Chadurah, H. M. (1991). History of Kashmir. (R. Bano, Ed. & Trans.). Bhavna
Prakashan. (Original work published 1621)

This work, originally titled Tarikh-i-Kashmir, was completed in 1621 by Haidar

Malik Chadurah and provides a detailed account of Kashmir's history during the
Sultanate period.

Anonymous. (2013). Baharistan-i-Shahi: A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir. (K. N.

Pandita, Trans.). Gulshan Books. (Original work published circa 1614)

Secondary Sources
Hasan, M. (1959). Kashmir under the Sultans. Gulshan Books.

Nigam, S. B. P. (1968). Nobility under the Sultans of Delhi (1206–1398).

Munshiram Manoharlal.

Parmu, R. K. (1969). A history of Muslim rule in Kashmir (1320–1819). People’s

Publishing House.

Khan, I. A. (2004). Gunpowder and firearms: Warfare in medieval India. Oxford

University Press.

Chandra, S. (2007). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206–1526).

Har-Anand Publications.

Eaton, R. M. (2003). India in the Persianate Age: 1000-1765. University of

California Press.

Rizvi, S. A. A. (1978). A socio-intellectual history of the Isnā ʿAsharī Shīʿīs in India

(Vol. 1). Munshiram Manoharlal.