Lab 1 Outline

Anatomical Terminology and Medical Imaging

Objectives
By the end of this lab, students should be able to:

- Discuss location of anatomical features using appropriate terminology

- Identify the planes that produce specific prosection orientations
- Identify basic tissue types on MRI, CT and X-ray images

Content & Materials to be Covered

Anatomical Terminology
• Explain planes of reference (Front/coronal, sagittal/median, transverse)
• Anatomical terminology
o Review all terms: Superior, Inferior, Anterior, Posterior, Medial, Lateral, Median,
o Proximal, Distal, Superficial, Deep, Ipsilateral, Contralateral.
o Explain appropriate use of terms dorsal, ventral, rostral, caudal
Medical Imaging
• Identify bone, soft tissue, air and blood (contrast enhanced) on MRI, CT and X-ray
images
 Lab 2 Outline
General structure and Function of the CNS
Objectives
By the end of this lab, students should be able to:
• Distinguish between gyri, sulci and fissures
• Identify the cerebral lobes and describe their borders
• Identify the major components of the brain stem and spinal cord
• Describe the general structure of a neuron
• Describe the structure and function of the supporting cells of the CNS and PNS

Introduction to CNS
• Major divisions of the CNS (Cerebrum, cerebellum, diencephalon, brainstem, spinal
cord)
o Note the embryological origins of the major CNS divisions
o Discriminate among sulcus (sulci), gyrus (gyri) and fissures
o Identify landmarks or border lines between lobes (longitudinal fissure, central
sulcus, lateral sulcus, parieto-occipital sulcus) (precentral and postcentral gyrus)
o Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, posterior commissure and
pineal gland)
o Brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata)
o Spinal cord gross features (cervical enlargement, lumbar enlargement, conus
medullaris, cauda equina, filum terminale)

Histology – Use the Histology Guide (http://histologyguide.com Slidebox - Chapter 6 Nervous

Tissue) to view the following slides:
• View slide MHS 283 Rat brain stained with cresyl violet. Find the cerebellum which is
the area that is highly folded and deeply staining. Zoom in on the darkest area to notice
the number of neurons stained. The innermost paler core is the white matter. Many of
the nuclei stained here belong to the oligodendrocytes which myelinate axons in the
CNS. If you look carefully, you can make out pale stained axons.
• View slide UCSF 163 Spinal cord stained with cresyl violet. At low power, notice the
inner more darkly stained area of the grey matter surrounded by the paler white matter.
In the ventral area of the grey matter, notice the very large nuclei. These belong to the
motor neurons. Other smaller nuclei belong to smaller neurons – interneurons – and
glial cells.
• View slide MH 052 of peripheral nerve. Zoom into the longitudinal section of the
peripheral nerve. These are axons cut longitudinally and they are surrounded by myelin.
The larger round nuclei belong to Schwann cells which myelinate axons in the periphery
while the very thin nuclei belong to fibroblasts which form the connective tissue which
supports the nerve.
• Other glial cells require specialized stains to show them. You should be able to describe
the function and location of astrocytes, microglial cells, oligodendrocytes and Schwann
cells.
 Lab 3 Outline
Skull, Ventricles and Meninges

Objectives
• Identify the cranial bones and the foramina within them
• Identify the structures that fill the cranial fossae and travel through the foramina
• Explain the differences in the meningeal coverage between the brain and spinal cord
• Describe the shape and location of ventricles and their continuity
• Predict the pathway meningitis is spread and how you would test for it

Cranial Bones
• Frontal – metopic suture, bregma, (ant. Fontanel), lambda (posterior fontanel),
supraorbital margin, supraorbital notch (foramen), glabella, frontonasal suture,
maxillary process, zygomatic process
• Parietal – coronal and sagittal sutures, pterion, bregma, lambdoid suture
• Temporal – Note 4 regions: 1. Squamous, 2. Tympanic, 3. Mastoid, 4. Petrous
o Squamous – zygomatic process, mandibular fossa of TMJ
o Tympanic region – external auditory meatus, styloid process
o Mastoid region – mastoid process, stylomastoid foramen*
o Petrous region – middle/posterior cranial fossae
• Occipital – occipital condyles, external occipital protuberance (inion), external
occipital crest, foramen magnum, superior nuchal line, inferior nuchal line
• Sphenoid – Note 4 major regions – body, greater wings, lesser wings, pterygoid plates,
carotid canal*
• Ethmoid – crista galli, cribriform plate, lateral masses, superior and middle conchae,
ethmoid sinuses, perpendicular plate

Cranial Fossae
• Anterior Cranial Fossa: orbital plate of frontal bone, crista galli and cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone, lesser wing of sphenoid bone, anterior clinoid processes, sphenoid
ridge
• Middle Cranial Fossa: squamous and petrous portion of temporal bone; petrous ridge
contains semicircular canals; greater wing of sphenoid bone, sella turcica (tuberculum
sellae, pituitary fossa, dorsum sellae, posterior clinoid processes)
• Posterior Cranial Fossa: petrous ridge of temporal bone, occipital bone, foramen
magnum, internal occipital protuberance, internal occipital crest

Foramina
• Anterior Cranial Fossa – cribriform plate
• Middle Cranial Fossa – optic canal, superior orbital fissure, foramen rotundum,
foramen ovale, foramen spinosum foramen lacerum
• Posterior Cranial Fossa – internal auditory meatus, jugular foramen, hypoglossal
foramen, foramen magnum
Meninges and Sinuses: Explain the differences in the meningeal coverage in brain as
compared to the spinal cord

• Brain
o Dura Mater: Identify the Periosteal and meningeal layer, dural sinuses
(superior sagittal sinus, inferior sagittal sinus, straight sinus,
confluence of sinuses, transverse sinus, sigmoid sinus), falx
cerebri, falx cerebelli, tentorium cerebelli
o Arachnoid Mater: Identify the structures called Arachnoid villi and explain
their function.
o Pia Mater

• Spinal Cord
o Dura Mater:
o Explain how the dura mater covering the spinal cord is different
from the dura mater covering the brain.
o Explain the difference between the epidural space & subdural space
o Into which space are anesthetics injected (i.e for an
epidural)? Why?
o Arachnoid Mater:
o Identify the location of the subarachnoid space.
o Identify the vertebral level at which the arachnoid and dura mater
end.
o Pia mater:
o Identify the denticulate ligaments along the spinal cord; what is their
function?
• Meningitis
o Explain how the inflammation spreads and how you would test for this
infection.

Ventricular Systems and Cerebrospinal fluid: Describe the shape and location of
ventricles and their continuity

1) Describe the location of each ventricle relative to other brain structures

• Lateral ventricles
o Anterior horn:
o Body:
o Posterior horn:
o Inferior horn:
o Septum pellucidum:

• 3rd Ventricle
o Explain the function of the interthalamic adhesion.

• 4th ventricle
 o Explain the function of the median aperture and lateral apertures.

2) Describe the continuity of the ventricular system and flow of CSF

• Explain the function of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Where it is produced?
• What is the function of the ependymal cells in the ventricles?
 Lab 4 Outline
Cerebral Hemispheres and Blood Supply
Objectives:
By the end of this lab, students should be able to:
• Easily identify cerebral lobes and major landmarks of the cerebral hemispheres (sulci
and gyri)
• Name, locate and describe the function of the motor, sensory and association areas of
the cerebral cortex
• Describe the pathways of the internal carotid, vertebral and middle meningeal arteries
• Identify the vessels which contribute to the circle of Willis
• Describe the venous drainage of the skull
• Describe the location, and clinical importance of the cavernous sinus
• Predict the symptoms of an infarct or rupture of one of the above vessels

Cerebral Hemispheres
Review cerebral lobes and landmarks of the cerebral hemisphere:
• 5 cerebral lobes and borders that dividing lobes
o Frontal lobe, Parietal lobe, Occipital lobe, Temporal lobe, Insular lobe
• Major sulcus/sulci and gyrus/gyri of the cerebral hemisphere
o Longitudinal fissure, transverse cerebral fissure, central sulcus, lateral sulcus,
parieto-occipital sulcus, calcarine sulcus, precentral gyrus, postcentral gyrus

Functional areas of the cerebral cortex: sensory, motor and association areas
• Sensory areas: Each sense has a primary sensory cortex and sensory association area
o There are 7 sensory areas listed in the textbook, however concentrate on the 3
major sensory areas: 1) somatosensory areas (relate to sensory homunculus),
2) visual areas and 3) auditory areas (Broca’s & Wernicke’s area)
• Motor areas (primary motor cortex, premotor cortex, frontal eye field, Broca’s area);
• Symptoms of certain cerebral cortex lesions:
o Agnosia: a defect in understanding sensory information – damage to association
area
o Aphasia: damage to language areas or their connections (left hemisphere:
Broca’s versus Wernicke’s aphasia)
o Apraxia: impairment in the performance of learned movements

Blood Supply
• Internal carotid artery: (aorta, common carotid a., internal carotid a.), carotid canal,
foramen lacerum, cranial cavity
• Vertebral artery: (aorta, subclavian a,) transverse foramen, foramen magnum
• Middle meningeal artery: (external carotid a., maxillary a.) foramen spinosum
• Circle of Willis: basilar a., posterior cerebral a., posterior communicating a., internal
carotid a., anterior cerebral a., anterior communicating a.
• Review meningeal folds: falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, tentorium cerebelli,
• Venous drainage – sinuses: superior sagittal, inferior sagittal, straight, transverse,
sigmoid, cavernous; confluence of the sinuses, internal jugular vein
 Lab 5 Outline
Basal Ganglia and Diencephalon

Objectives
By the end of this lab, the student should be able to:
§ Describe the components of the cerebral white matter (commissural fibres, association
fibres and projection fibres);
§ Describe the basal ganglia in terms of its components and functions.
§ Identify the structures which make up the diencephalon
§ Explain the function of each structure in the diencephalon

Content
White matter and Basal ganglia
Cerebral white matter
o Commissural fibres (corpus callosum);
o Association fibres; (short and long)
o Projection fibres (internal capsule, corona radiata).
Basal ganglia components
o Corpus striatum = caudate nucleus + lentiform nucleus (putamen + globus pallidus)
o Clinical applications explain how structures of the Basal ganglia or the connections
are impacted in the following clinical conditions:
o Dyskinesia
§ Parkinson’s disease
§ Huntington’s disease

Diencephalon
• Identify the structures that makeup the diencephalon
Thalamus – contains many different nuclei; identify the basic role of the thalamus. What
is the interthalamic adhesion?
o Explain the role of the 3 thalamic nuclei listed below
§ Ventral posterolateral nucleus
§ Lateral geniculate nucleus
§ Medial geniculate nucleus
o Hypothalamus
o Identify the location of hypothalamus and relate it to important landmarks
(mammillary bodies and thalamus).
o Explain the function of the hypothalamus
o Identify the pituitary gland and the connection to the hypothalamus.
o Epithalamus
o Identify the 2 components of the epithalamus.
o Discuss the location and function of the pineal gland
 LAB 6 OUTLINE
Brain Stem, Cranial Nerves and Cerebellum

Objectives

1. Identify the structures which make up the brain stem

2. Identify the 12 cranial nerves and indicate their functions
3. Identify the major landmarks, connections and functions of the cerebellum.

Contents

Brain Stem
o Identify the structures that makeup the brain stem from the ventral, lateral, and dorsal
views
o Briefly explain the function of the following structures.
§ Midbrain – Identify location of cerebral peduncles, cerebral aqueduct, superior
cerebellar peduncles, corpora quadrigemina (superior and inferior colliculus)
• What is the role of the substantia nigra, what does it secrete and how is the
body affected if it begins to degenerate?
• Relate to involvement with fight or flight and reflexes
§ Pons – Identify the location of the middle cerebellar peduncles
§ Medulla Oblongata – Identify the location of the pyramids, olive, inferior
cerebellar peduncles.
• Explain where the reticular formation is located and its visceral function.
• Relate the brainstem structures to the ventricular system
Cranial Nerves
o Name the 12 pairs of cranial nerves and demonstrate where each originates.
§ Identify which area of the brainstem each nerve originates from.
§ Recognize what type of information each nerve carries (motor only, sensory only,
or mixed, with/or without parasympathetic fibres)
§ Explain the major function of each cranial nerve.
§ Identify the foramina the nerve passes through to enter/exit the cranial cavity

Name Mnemonic: Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Green Vegetables AH (Nerves:

Olfactory, Optic, Oculomotor, Trochlear, Trigeminal, Abducens, Facial, Vestibulocochlear,
Glossopharyngeal, Vagus, Accessory, Hypoglossal)
Function Mnemonic: Some Say Money Matters, But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More
(Sensory, Motor, Both)

Cerebellum
Anatomical Divisions of the Cerebellum
o Identify the cerebellar hemispheres
 § Distinguish the three lobes that make up each cerebellar hemisphere and the large
fissures that separate them.
• Anterior, posterior and flocculonodular nodes – vermis
• Primary and Dorsolateral fissures
§ Identify the vermis - what is its function?
o What are the folia of the cerebellum?
o Identify the main functions of cerebellum (3 main functions).

Functional Divisions of the Cerebellum

o The cerebellum can also be divided based on function. Match each of the functional
subdivisions listed below with an anatomical part(s) of the cerebellum. Describe the main
role of each functional division.
§ Cerebrocerebellum
§ Vestibulocerebellum
§ Spinocerebellum

o Review the superior, middle and inferior cerebellar peduncles and their connections.
o Explain how injury to different lobes of the cerebellum can affect a patient.
§ Identify a provincially regulated substance that has the ability to affect cerebellar
functions? (Hint: This is a legal substance sold in Canada and was outlawed for
the first twenty years of the 20th century)
 Lab 7 Outline
Spinal Cord
Objectives

§ Identify gross anatomical structures of the spinal cord

§ At the microscopic level, identify the ventral and dorsal horns
§ Compare the unique features of the spinal cord in cross sectional profiles at the cervical,
thoracic, lumbar and sacral levels.
§ Identify white matter tracks in the spinal cord with special note of if and where
decussation occurs
§ Predict the deficits associated with various spinal cord injuries – ie central, lateral,
dorsal, ventral locations

Spinal Cord
o Identify and explain the following structures of the spinal cord.
§ Conus medullaris
§ Cauda Equina
§ Filum terminale
§ Dorsal (posterior) median sulcus
§ Ventral (anterior) median fissure
§ Spinal nerve: dorsal root vs rami, ventral root vs rami
§ Sympathetic trunk – grey and white communicantes
§ Cervical and lumbar enlargements
§ Lumbar cistern

Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots

Use the digital slide box (https://histologyguide.com/slidebox/06-nervous-tissue.html) to
review sections of the spinal cord in addition to the specimens provided. Examine the slides
in the “spinal cord” section (MHS 240, UCSF 163, MH 047)
o Identify the following structures associated with the gray matter of the spinal cord.
§ Ventral (anterior) horn
§ Dorsal (posterior) horn
§ Grey commissure
§ Lateral horns
§ Dorsal root ganglia
§ Central canal
 o Explain how gray matter changes from the cervical level of the spinal cord to lumbar
level of the spinal cord. Identify representative cross sections from each of these
levels (not included in digital slidebox).

White matter of the spinal cord:

o Identify the three different white matter funiculi of the spinal cord and the types of
fibres they contain:
§ Dorsal – funiculus gracilis & funiculus cuneatus
§ Ventral – reticulospinal tracts, vestibulospinal, tectospinal, & ventral
spinothalamic
§ Lateral – Spinocerebellar tracts, rubrospinal tracts, lateral spinothalamic,
& lateral corticospinal tracts

o Identify the three different types of white matter fiber tracts that make up the
funiculi:
§ Ascending – carry sensory information from the sensory neurons of the
body up to the brain
§ Descending - carry motor instructions from the brain to the spinal cord to
stimulate contraction of the body’s muscles and secretion from its glands.
§ Propriospinal – interconnect various levels of the spinal cord
 Lab 8
Limbic System, Higher Functions, and Autonomic Nervous System
Identify the locations and functions of the limbic system and the reticular formation

Limbic System
Cerebral structures
• Hippocampus
• Amygdaloid body
• Cingulate gyrus
Diencephalon Structures
• Hypothalamus
• Anterior thalamic nuclei
Reticular Formation
• Nuclei in brainstem
o Reticular activating system (RAS)
Describe functions and connections of reticular formation

Higher Functions
Primary Association Cortices – identify the areas and describe the function of:
o Motor association cortex
o Auditory association cortex
o Visual association cortex
o Somatosensory association cortex
o Multimodal association cortices

Autonomic Nervous System

• Review Table 15.1 in your text and compare the parasympathetic and sympathetic
divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

1. Sympathetic Division (SNS)

• Describe the basic organization of the sympathetic division of the nervous system
• Identify the spinal cord segments that contribute to the SNS.
• Identify the location of preganglionic sympathetic nerve cell bodies.
• Explain the difference between grey and white rami communicantes.
• Explain the 3 pathways that preganglionic sympathetic fibres may follow.
• Identify the main collateral ganglion that preganglionic SNS fibres may synapse in.
• Identify one effector organ associated with each ganglion (including sympathetic trunk)
• Identify the neurotransmitter released by preganglionic sympathetic neurons and
postganglionic sympathetic neurons
• Explain the main function of the SNS and the general response in the organs it
innervates.
 • Explain what organ produces a “surge of adrenaline”.

2. Parasympathetic Division
• Identify the origin of parasympathetic fibres (cranial outflow vs. sacral outflow).
• Examine the location of postganglionic parasympathetic neuron cell bodies. How does
their location compare to the spot where postganglionic sympathetic neuron cell bodies
are located?
• Identify the neurotransmitter released by preganglionic parasympathetic neurons and
by postganglionic parasympathetic neurons.
• Explain the main function of the Parasympathetic Nervous System
 Lab 9 Outline
Special Senses: Taste, Smell and Vision
Gustation
Use the Histology Guide Slide 264 which contains a circumvallate papillae which contains
taste buds
• Describe the taste receptors for taste
• Describe the paths by which taste information from taste buds travels to the brain
• Identify the general sensory and special sensory innervation of the tongue and the areas
served by: lingual, chorda tympani (facial), glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves.
• Review the function of the hypoglossal nerve
• Identify the foramina these nerves use to exit/enter the cranial cavity

Olfaction
Use the linked slide (area at the top of the slide in the nasal cavity) and the image below to
try to find a view the olfactory mucosa which contains the sensory receptors for smell
• Recognize where olfactory receptors are found.
• Describe the olfactory mucosa
• Explain the Olfactory pathway from stimulus to cerebral cortex.
• Identify the olfactory nerve

Vision
Use the Histology Guide (Slide 229 is a good one) to find slides on the eye and retina
• Describe the structure and function of the three layers of the eye
• Locate and describe the innervation of the sphincter and dilator pupillae muscles of the
iris
• Explain the impact of SNS or PNS damage to nerves which supply the pupil
• Describe the organization of the retina and the photoreceptors
• Explain the pathway of the generation of an image in the brain including optic nerve,
optic chiasma, optic tract, optic radiation, pretectal nucleus, superior colliculus and lateral
geniculate nucleus
• Review the cranial nerves which provide vision (CN II) and are responsible for eye
movement (CNIII, IV, VI) and the foramina they use to enter/exit the orbit.
 Lab 10
Hearing, Equilibrium, and Language Processing
Hearing
• Use Histology Guide to view the cochlea (slide MHS 230 Inner Ear in Ch 20 Special Senses)
which contains the sensory cells for hearing. Locate the hair cells.
• Explain how an impulse is generated
• Explain how the basilar membrane and primary auditory cortex are “tuned” to different
pitches
• On a brain, identify the primary auditory area (acoustic area)

• Identify the anatomical structures involved with the hearing pathway: Auricle, middle ear
and ossicles (stapes, malleus and incus), cochlea, vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), spiral
ganglion, lateral lemniscus, medial geniculate body of the thalamus, inferior colliculus,
primary auditory cortex

• Explain the two types of deafness and the structures impacted in each: conduction deafness
and sensorineural deafness.

Equilibrium
• Describe the location of the semicircular canals
• Using the histological images provided, identify the sensory cells of the vestibular system.
• Identify the vestibular nerve
• Locate the Vestibular (equilibrium) cortex
• Describe the initiation of an impulse in the vestibular system and follow that impulse into
the CNS

Language Processing
• Identify the anatomical areas involved with language: Receptive language area, Expressive
speech area, superior longitudinal (arcuate) fasciculus.
• Explain the anatomy involved with answering a question during a discussion.
• Explain auditory agnosia
• Explain the areas involved and presentation of the various aphasias:
Receptive (Wernicke’s) aphasia
Expressive (Broca’s) aphasia
Anomic aphasia
Conduction aphasia