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Fluid-Mechanics-and-Hydraulics

The document is a comprehensive guide on fluid mechanics and hydraulics, covering various properties of fluids, hydrostatics, fluid flow principles, and measurement techniques. It includes chapters on fluid properties, hydrostatic forces, fluid flow in pipes, and open channel flow, along with solved and supplementary problems for practical understanding. Additionally, it provides tables of fluid properties and conversion factors for reference.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
10 views306 pages

Fluid-Mechanics-and-Hydraulics

The document is a comprehensive guide on fluid mechanics and hydraulics, covering various properties of fluids, hydrostatics, fluid flow principles, and measurement techniques. It includes chapters on fluid properties, hydrostatic forces, fluid flow in pipes, and open channel flow, along with solved and supplementary problems for practical understanding. Additionally, it provides tables of fluid properties and conversion factors for reference.

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To my mother Iuminada, my wife Imelda, and our Children Kim Deunice, Ken Dainiel, and Karla Denise TABLE OF CONTENTS Aa# ol 4 CHAPTER 1 Properties of Fluid ‘Types of Fluid. Unit Weight or Specific Weight. Specific Gravity Viscosity Kinematic Viscosity Surface Tension Capillarity Compressibility Pressure Disturbances Property Changes in Ideal Gas Vapor Pressure . SOLVED PROBLEMS. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEM! CHAPTER 2 Principles of Hydrostatics .. Unit Pressure Pascal's La Absolute and Gage Pressures.. Variations in Pressure .. Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids. Pressure Hea Manometers: SOLVED PROBLEMS. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 3 Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces Total Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfac Properties of Common Geometric Shapes. Total Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surface. Dams ‘Types of Dams. Analysis of Gravity Dams Buoyancy. Archimedes’ Principies Statical Stability of Floating Bodi Stress on Thin-Walled Pressure Vesse Cylindrical Tank. Spherical Sheil SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS CHAPTER 4 Relative Equilibrium of Liquid Rectilinear Translation Horizontal Motion Liquid Surface Conditions. SOLVED PROBLEMS. TABLE OF CONTENTS . CHAPTER 5 Fundamentals of Fluid Flow Di Bernoulli's Energy Theorem, Energy and Hydraulic Grade Lines SOLVED PROBLEMS. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS HuRiny PROHECMWE Ey LIRiaAny CHAPTER 6 Fluid Flow Measurement .. Device Coefficient ‘Head lost in Measuring Devices Orifice... Values of H for Various Conditions .. Contraction of the Jet... ~ iv . TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 7 Fluid Flow in Pipes Definitions. Reynolds Number Velocity Distribution in Pipes Shearing Stress in Pipe: Head Losses in Pipe Flow. Major Head Loss. Equivalent Pipe..... Reservoir Problems. Pipe Networks... SOLVED PROBLEMS. TABLE OF CONTENTS v CHAPTER 8 Open Channel 481 Specific Energy Chézy Formula. Kutter and Gunguillet Formula Manning Formula Bazin Formula. Powell Equation .. Uniform Flow... Normal Depth... Most Efficient Sections Proportions for Most Eificient Sections Rectangular Section. Trapezoidal Section ‘Triangular Section.. Circular Sections. Velocity Distribution in Open Channel Alternate Stages of Flow Froude Number. Critical Depth. Non-Uniform or Varied Flow Hydraulic Jump... Flow around Channel Bends. SOLVED PROBLEMS. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS vi. TABLE OF CONTENTS ee CHAPTER 9 Hydrodynamics Force against Fixed Flat Plates Force against Fixed Curved Vanes Force against Moving Vanes .. Work Done on Moving Vanes. SOLVED PROBLEMS. SUPPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS APPENDIX Properties of Fluids and Conversion Factors Table A - i Table A - Viscosity and Density of Air at 1 atin... ‘operties of Common Liquids at 1 atm & 20°C. 1 Properties of Common Gases at 1 atm & 20°C..... Table A - 5: Surface Tension, Vapor Pressure, and Sound Speed of Water .. Table A - i Table A - Table A - : Other Conversion Factors. INDEX I-IV FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER ONE 1 & HYDRAULICS Chapter 1 Properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Fluid Meclumtics is a physical science dealing with the action of fluids at rest or in motion, and with applications and devices in engineering using fluids. Fluid mechanics can be subdivided into two major areas, fluid statics, which deels with fluids at rest, and fluid dynamics, concerned with fluids in motion. ‘The term hydrodynamics is applied to the flow of liquids or to tow-velocity gas flows where the gas can be considered as being essentially incompressible, Hydraulics deals with the application of fluid mechanics to engineering devices involving liquids, usually water or oil. Hydraulics deals with such problems as the flow of fluids through pipes or in open channels, the design of storage dams, pumps, and water turbines, and with other devices for the control o use of liquids, such 9s nozzles, valves, jets, and flowmeters. ‘TYPES OF FLUID Fluids are genetelly divided into two categories: ideel fluids and real fluids. Meal fluids ‘+ Assumed to have no viscosity (and hence, no resistance to shear) ‘ Incompressible ++ Have uniform velocity when flowing + No friction between moving layers of fluid «No eddy currents or turbulence Real fluids « Exhibit infinite viscosities + Non-uniform velocity distribution when flowing += Compressible + Experience friction and turbulence in flow FLUID MECHANICS. 2 cohesion (©) Cohesion > adhesion Capillary (Capillary action) is the name given to the behavior of the liquid in a thin-bore tube. The rise or fall or a fluid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and depends on the relative magnitudes of the cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes they wet (adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes they do not wet (cohesion > adhesion). Capillary is important when using tubes smaller than about 3/8 inch (9.5 mm) in diameter. Eq 1-11 = 450086 oe ea For complete wetting, as with water on clean giass, the angle 0 is 0°. Hence the formula becomes where: . f= capillary rise or depression in m y= unit weight in N/m? d= diameter of the tube in m = surface tension in Pa FLUID MECHANICS @ CHAPTERONE ‘& HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids HS Table 1 - 3: Contact Angles, 6 COMPRESSIBILITY, B Compressiility (also known as the coefficient of compressibility) is the fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a constant- temperature process. FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Pressure disturbances imposed on a fluid move in waves. The velocity or celerity of pressure wave (also known as acoustical or sonic velocity) is expressed as: of - 4 Eq1-17 i P Bp where: AV = change in volume V= original volume 4p = change in pressure V/V = change in volume (usually in percent) BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY, Ey ‘The bulk modulus of elasticity of the Nuid expresses the compressibility of the fluid. It is the ratio of the change in unit pressure to the corresponding ‘volume change per unit of volume. PROPERTY CHANGES IN IDEAL GAS. For any ideal ges experiencing any process, the equation of state is given by: PuMa wae, Eq. 1-18 hh ‘When temperature is held constant, Eq. 1- 18 reduces to (Boyle's Law) Ve 19 When temperature is held constant (isothermal condition), Eq. 1 - 18 reduces to (Clarke's Lan) FLUID MECHANICS. & HYDRAULICS _— oo For Adiabatic or Isentropic Conditions (no heat exchanged) where: Px initial absolute pressure of gas P2™ final absolute pressure of gas, Vi = initial volume of gas Vz» final volume of gas Tr= initial absolute temperature of gas in °K (°K = °C + 273) T,® final absolute temperature of gas in °K k= ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure to the specific heat at constant volume. Also known as adiabatic exponent. VAPOR PRESSURE Molecular activity in a liquid will allow some of the molecules to escape the liquid surface, Molecules of the vapor also condense back into the liquid. The Vaporization and condensation at constant temperature are equilibrium Processes. The equilibrium pressure exerted by these free molecules is known 8 the vapor pressure or saturation pressure. ‘Some liquids, such as propane, butane, ammonia, and Freon, have significant vapor pressure at normal temperatures. Liquids near their boiling point or that vaporizes easily are said to volatile liquids. Other liquids such as mercuty, have insignificant vapor pressures at the same temperature. Liquids with low ‘Vapor pressure are used in accurate barometers, ‘The tendency toward vaporization is dependent on the temperature of the liquid. Boiling occurs when the liquid temperature is increased to the point that the vapor pressure is equal to the local ambient (surrounding) pressure, ‘Thus, a liquid’s boiling temperature depends on the Jocal ambient pressure, as well as the liquid’s tendency to vaporize. . CHAPTERONE 4.4 Properties of Fiuids ——— OOOO Typical Vapor Pressures Solved Problems Problem 1-4 A reservoir of glycerin has a mass of 1,200 kg and a volume of 0.952 cu. m. Find its (@) weight, W, (b) unit weight, y, (c) mass density, p, and (2) specific gravity (6). Solution (a) Weight W=Mg = (1,200)981) Weight, W = 11,772 N or 11.772 kN ©) Unit weight y= az lm 0.952 Unit weight, y= 12.366 kN/m? © Density p= HE _ 1200 Density, p= ‘0952 Density, 9 = 1,260.5 kg/m? 12 CHAPTER ONE FLUID MECHANiCS Properties of Fiulds i HYORAULICS aos (Specie gravity» = 2 water ity, «= 12605 Specific gravity, s = AER Specific gravity, s= 1.26 Problem 1-2 — — — he specific gravity of certain oil is 082. Calculate its (a) specific weight, in Tb/ft? and kN/m?, and (6) mass density in slugs/f¥ and kg/m, Solution (a) Specific weight, y= ‘Specific weight, y= 62.4 « 0.82 = 51.168 Ib/f Specific weight, y= 9.81 x 0.82 = 8.044 kN/m? (8) Density,» pyain x5 Density, p = 1.94 x 0.82 = 1.59 stuga/t? Density, p = 1000 x 0.82 = 820 kg/m? Problem 1-3 A liter of water weighs about 9.75.N. Compute its mass in kilograms. Solution Mass = & 9 981 Mass = 0.994 kg Problem 1-4 — If an object has a mass of 22 kg at sea level (@) what will be its weight at a Point where the acceleration due to gravity ¢ = 9.75 m/s*? (b) What will be its ‘mass at that point? CHAPTER ONE Suvonauuce Properties ofFiuids 3 Solution @) Wemg=20975) Wa2lasN (Since the mass of an object is absolute, its mass will still be 22 kg. Problem 1-5 ‘What is the weight of a 45-kg boulder if it is brought to a place where the acceleration due to gravity is 395 m/s per minute? ‘Solution If the specific volume of a certain gas is 0.7848 m'/kg, what is its specific weight? Solution wet ° -i.1 ony.” o7eiB pm 22742 kg/m Specific welght, =p xg 2742 9.81 ‘Specific weight, y = 12.5 N/m* CHAPTER ONE FLUID MECHANICS 14 Properties of Fluids HYDRAULICS Ei ranics Problem 1-7 What is the specific weight of air at 480 kPa absolute and 21°C? ‘Solution Ym pxg ek = 5 pe Ee where R = 287 J/kg-°K 48010 287(21 + 273) P= 5.689 kg ¥= 5.699 «9.81 y= 55.81 Nin? Problem 1-8 Find the mass density of helium at a temper ature of 4 °C and a pressure of 184 KPa gage, if atmosp! My heric pressure is 101.92 kPa, (R= 2079 J/kg * °K) ‘Solution ity, p= Be Density, » Rr P* Penge + Pat = 184 + 101.92 p= 285.92 kPa T=4+273=27K 3 Denuity, p= 2889210 2,079(277) Density, 0 = 0.4965 ket Problem 1-9 At32°C and 205 kPa gage, the specific weight of a certain gas was 13.7 N/m. Determine the gas constant of this gas. ms ve FLUID MECHANICS. CHAPTERONE 41g & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids ‘Solution Density, p = £ type - Bz 9at =1.397 kg/m? ity,p= Density, p= 10? g97 = (2054101325): RQ2 + 273) Gas constant, R = 718.87 J/kg -°K ‘Note: Pain = 101.325 KPa Problem 4 - 10 Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa absolute and a temperature of 30°C in a ‘500-liter container, What is the mass of air? ‘Solution =e OORT = _200%10* 287(30 + 273) p= 23 kg/m? Mass px ¥ =23x Mass = 1.15 kg Problem 1-42 A cylindtical tank 80 em in diameter and 90 cm high is filled with a liquid. The tank and the liquid weighed 420 kg, The weight of the empty tank is 40 kg. What is the unit weight of the liquid in kN/m’. 16 CHAPTER ONE FLUID MECHANICS Properties of Fluids & HYDRAULICS rat ics, ‘Solution ~M pry 420-40 pe ee Oe ssa kg/m Fosy*tas ~ kes YePg = 840(9.81) = 8240.4 N/m* y= 6.24 kKN/nw Problem 1-42 {Aland cube has a total mass of 80 kg. What isthe length of its side? Sp. gr of lead = 113, Solution “Let L be the length of side of the cube: M=pv 80= (1000 11.3) L* L=0.192m=1920m Problem 1-13 A liquid compressed in a container has a volume of 1 liter at a pressure of 1 MPa and a volume of 0.995 liter at a pressure of 2 MPa. ‘The bulk modulus of elasticity (Es) of the liquid is: Solution fga-—#P_ g__2-1 aV/V ~"O535-1/A Es = 200 MPa Problem 3-14 ‘What pressure is required to reduce the volume of water by 0.6 percent? Bulk modulus of elasticity of water, Ex = 2.2 GPa, ” FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERONE — 47 S-HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids Solution Exe “Pi ap pio dp = Pe aVaVn-M dV = -0.6%V = -0.006V Pa ‘.006v7V r= 0.0132. GPa a= 13.2MPa =22 Exe Probiem 1-15 Water in a hydraulic press, initially at 137 kPa absolute, is subjected to a pressure of 116,280 kPa absolute. Using Ea = 2.5 GPa, determine the percentage decrease in the volume of water. Solution enV i¥ av/V 25x10 Problem 1-16 : If 9 nv of an ideal gas at 24 °C and 150 kPaa is compressed to 2-m', (#) what is, the resulting pressure assuming isothermal conditions. (b) What would have been the pressure and temperature if the process is isentropic. Use k = 13. charrer ONE 18 properties of Fluids FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Solution (a) For isothermal condition: PVi= Ve 150(9) = p» 2) pa 675 kPa abs () For isentropic process: PiVit = po Vit 159} = pa 24 pr= 1,060 kPa abs co Re (2) Th ln n. ( ss)" syns 244273, 150 ‘Te 466.4°K or 193.4°C_ Problem 1 - 47 IF the viscosity of water at 70 °C is 0.00402 poise and its specific gravity is 0.978 determine its absolute viscosity in Pa - and its kinematic viscosity in n?/s and in stokes. Solution Absolute viscosity: = 0.00402 poise poise = 0.000402 Pa~s Kinematic viscosity: = 9.000402 p (1000x0978) v= 441x107 mys stoke v= 411x107 mt/s x SS _ 0.0001 m/s VE4.11 x 109 stoke FLUID MECHANICS CHAFTERONE 1.9 & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids Problem 1-18 ‘Two large plane surfaces are 25 mm apart and the space between them is filled with a liquid of viscosity 1 = 0.958 Pa-s, Assuming the velocity gradient to be a straight line, what force is required to pull a very thin plate of 0.37 m? area at ‘a constant speed of 0.3 m/s if the plate is 8.4 mm from one of the surfaces? Solution FoAeh Uy = FLA uly Fa 6441266 F=19.06N Problem 1-19 A cylinder of 125 mm radius rotates concentrically inside a fixed cylinder of 130 mun radius, Both cylinders are 300 mm long. Determine the viscosity of the liquid which fills the space between the cylinders if a torque of 0.88 N-m is required to maintain an angular velocity of 2x radians/sec. Assume the velocity gradient to be a straight line. CHAPTER ONE 20 Properties of Fluids Solution wet uly Usro U=0.125(2n) rotatog. U=0.785 m/s epider y= 0.005 m Torque = F(0.125) Torque = A (0.125) 0.88 = + [2n(0,125)(0.3)] (0.125) += 2988 Pa 29.88. 4 *0785/0.005 b= 0.19 Pas 043m Problem 1-20 An 18-kg slab slides down a 15° inclined plane on a 3-mm-thick film of oil with viscosity 4 = 0.0814 Pa-sec. If the contact area is 0.3 my, find the terminal velocity of the slab, Neglect air resistance. ‘Solution W = 1849.81) = 176.8 PUID MECHANICS CHAPERONE 94 Properties of Flulds F,= 17658 sin 15° u WeecAe pal y ints= u 17658 sin 5° = 00814 5 (03) U=5614m/s v= 5.614 mf Problem 1 - 21 Hstimate the height to which water will rise in a capillary tube of diameter 3 eam. Use o = 0.0728 N/m and y= 9810 N/m* for water. ‘Solution Note: 6 = 90° for water in clean tube illary rise, b= 4 Capillary tise, b= jlary rise, pw (0.0728) Capillary tise. h= Se ons) Capillary rise, h = 0.0099 m= 9.9 mm Problem 1-22 Estimate the capillary depression for mercury in a glass capillary tube 2:mm in diameter. Use ¢ = 0514 N/m and 0 = 140° Solution ‘tary rise, px 275088 ., 4(0.514)(c0s140*) Capillary rise, b= “T= oat043.6)(0.003) Capillary rise, k= 0.0059 m (he negative sin inceats cailory depressn) Capillary depression, h=5.9 mm 2 CHAPTER ONE FLUID MECHANICS Properties of Fluids ‘& HYDRAUUCS ee OS Problem 1 - 23 ‘What is the value of the surface tension of a small drop of water 0.3 mm in diameter which is in contact with air if the pressure within the droplet is 561 Pa? Solution -% ad 40 56L= 0.0008 ¢ = 0.042 NYm ‘Problem 1-24 An atomizer forms water droplets 45 yim in diameter. Determine the excess Pressure within these droplets using o = 0.0712 N/m. Solution 40 a = 40.0712) _ asxio® 9 P# ‘Problem 1-25 Distilled water stands in a glass tube of 9 mm diameter at a height of 24 mun, ~ What is the true static height? Use o = 0.0742 N/m. Solution je ASC0s0 where @ = 0° for water in glass tube 40.0742) '9810(0.609) = 0.00336 m = 3.36 mm ‘True static height = 24 -3.36 True static height = 20.64 man FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERONE 93 & HYDRAULICS Properties of Fluids Problem 1 - 26 A sonar transmitter operates at 2 impulses per second. If the device is held to ‘lw surface of fresh water (Ep = 2.04 x 10° Pa) and the echo is received midway between impulses, how deep is the water? Solution The velocity of the pressure wave (sound wave) is: c= fe ° on 208210? 1408 m/s 1000 Since the echo is received midway between impulses, then the total time of travel of sound, 1 = 920.5) = sec and the total distance covered is 2h, then; dhact 2h= 142804) he 1785Sm Problem 1-27 At what pressure will 80°C water boil? (Vapor pressure of water at 80°C = 47.4 kPe). ‘Solution Woter will boil if the atmospheric pressure equals the vapor pressure. Therefore water at 80°C will boil at 47.4 kPa. 24 ropertes of us NE HVORAULICS oo trtics Supplementary Problems Problem 1 - 28 What would be the weight of 1 3-kg mass on a planet where the acceleration. due te gravity is10m/s? Ans: 30N Problem 1 - 29 A vertical cylindrical tank with a diameter of 12 m and a depth of 4 mis filled with water to the top with water at 20°C, If the water is heated to 50°C, how much water will spill over? Unit weight of water at 20°C and 50°C is 9.79 KN /1n? and 9.69 N/a’, respectively. Ans: £7 me Problem 1- 30 ‘ A rigid steel container is partially filled with a liquid at 15 atm. The volume of the liquid és 2.23200 L._At a pressure of 30 atm, the volume of the liquid is 1.25100 L. Find the average bulk modulus of elasticity of the liquid over the given range of pressure if the temperature after compression is allowed to ‘return tots initial value. Whats the coefficient of compressibility? ‘Aus: Ea = 1.872 GPa; = 0.534 GPat Problem 8-31. Calculate the density of water vapor at 350 kPa abs and 20°C if its gas constant is 0462 KPa-m’/kg-*k,, Ans: 259 kg/m? Problem 1 - 32 Air is kept at a pressure of 200 kPa and a temperature of 30°C in a 5O0-L container, What is the mass of the air? Anns: 1.15 kg, CHAPTER ONE FLUND MEcHANacs Properties ofFhids 2D Problem 1-33 i ited to expand (w) If 12 m’ of nitrogen at 30°C and 125 kPa abs is permit ‘ehermally to 30 a’, what is the resulting pressure? (b) What would the . been if the had been isentropic? pressure and temperature have Process. ‘Ans (0150 kPa abs (2) 34.7 kPa abs; 63°C Problem 1 - 34 te ds A square block weighing 1.1 kN and 250 mm on an edge slides down an incline on a film of oil 6.0 um thick, Assuming a linear velocity profile in the oil and neglecting air resistance, what is the terminal velocity of the block? if oll is 7 mPa-s. Angle of inclination is 20. The viscosity of ol is 7 mPa-s. Angle Ans: 5.16 tn/'s Problem f - 35 Benzene at 20°C has a viscosity of 0.000651 Pa-s. What shear stress is required ig fluid at a strain rate of 4900 $17 to deform this fuid at a ‘Ans: 1=319 Pa Problem 1-36 o A shaft 70 mm in diameter is being pushed at a speed of 400 mm/s through a tearing sleeve 70.2 num in diameter nd 250 mn ng, ‘The clearance, assumed uniform, is filled with oil at 20°C-with v =-0.005 m2/s and sp. gr. = 0.9. Pind the force exerted by the oil in the shaft. sans Problem 1-37 a ‘Two clean parallel glass plates, separated by a distance d = 1.5 mm, are dipped inva bath of water ‘How far doés the water rise due to capillary action, if o = 010730 N/m? Ane: 9.94 mm FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER ONE 26 & HYDRAULICS Properties of Ftuids Problem 1 = 38 Find the angle the surface tension film leaves the glass for a vertical tube immersed in water if the diameter is 0.25 inch and the capillary rise is 0.08 inch, Use o = 0.005 lb/ft. Ans: 643° Problem 1 - 39 What force is required to lift a thin wire ring 6 cm in diameter from a water surface at 20°C? (@ of water at 20°C = 0.0728 N/m). Neglect the weight of the ring. Ans: 0.0274N FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Chapter 2 ies of Hydrostatics cHaPrTeR TWO Principles of iydrostaics 27 Princip UNIT PRESSURE OR PRESSURE, p Pressure is the force per unit area exerted by a liquid or gas on a body or surface, with the force acting at right angles to the surface uniformly in all directions. Force, F PY Area,A Eg.2-1 In the English system, pressure is usually measured in pounds pet square inch {psi); in international usage, in kilograms per square centimeters (kg/cm), or in atmospheres; and in the international metric system (Sl), in Newtons per square meter (Pascal). The unit atmosphere (atm) is defined as a pressure of 1.03323 kg/em? (14.696 tb/in), which, in terms of the conventional mercury barometer, corresponds to 760 mm (29.921 in) of mercury. The unit kilopascal (kPa) is defined as a pressute of 0.0102 kg/cm? (0.145 Ib/sq in). PASCAL'S LAW Pascal's law, developed by French mathematician Blaise Pascal, states that the pressure on a fluid is equal in all directions and in all parts of the container. In. Figure 2 - 1, as liquid flows into the latge container at the bottom, pressure pushes the liquid equally up into the tubes above the container. The liquid riges to the same level in all of the tubes, regardless of the shape or angle of the tube, : Figure 2 - 2: Ilustration of Pascal's Law ‘The laws of fluid mechanics are observable in many everyday situations, For example, the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a pond will be the same as the pressure exerted by water at the bottom of a much narrower pipe, provided depth remains constant. If a longer pipe filled with water is tilted so that it reaches a maximum height of 15 m, its water will exert the same pressure as the other examples (left of Figure 2 -2). Fluids can flow up as well as down in devices such as siphons (right of Figure 2 - 2). Hydrostatic force ‘causes water in the siphon to flow up and over the edge until the bucket is ‘empty or the suction is broken. A siphon is particularly useful for emptying containers that should not be tipped. NX veh Figure 2 - 2: Mustration of Pascal's Law FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER TWO EHvORAULCS 29 Principles of Hydrostatics ABSOLUTE AND GAGE PRESSURES. Gage Pressure (Relative Pressure) Gage pressures are pressures above or below the atmosphere and can be nwasured by pressure gauges or manometers, For small pressure differences, a U- tube manometer is used. It consists of a U-shaped tube with one end connected to the container and the other open to the atmosphere. Filled with a liquid, such as water, oil, or mercury, the difference in the liquid surface levels in the two manometer legs indicates the pressure difference from local atmospheric conditions. For higher pressure differences, a Bourdon gauge, named after the French inventor Eugene Bourdon, is used. This consists of a hollow metal tube with an oval cross section, bent in the shape of a hook. One end of the tube is ‘closed, the other open and connected to the measurement region. Atmospheric Pressure & Vacuum “Atmospheric Pressure is the pressure at any one point on the earth's surface from the weight of the air above i, A uncuum is a space that has ll matter removed from it It is impossible to create a perfect vacuum in the laboratory; no matter how advanced a vacuum system is, some molecules are always present in the vacuum area, Even remote regions of outer space have a small amount of gas. A vacuum can also be described as a region of space where the pressure is less than the ‘orina) atmospheric pressure of 760 mm (29.9 in) of mercury. . Under Normal conditions at sea level: Pam = 2166 Ib/ = 147 psi = 29.9 inches of mercury (hg) . = 760 mm Hg = 101.325 kPa Absolute Pressure Absolute pressure is the pressure above absolute zero (acum). ae pee EE Note: + Absolute 2ero is attained i all aris removed. tis the lowest passe pressure attainable. * Absohite pressure can never be negative, 1 The smallest gage pressure is equal to the negative ofthe ambient atmospheric pressure, cHarrer Two 30 principles o Hydrostates FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS Stancard ere | 55675 ga0e soso = 10225 ahs ‘Absclte ero = -101.325, ‘or-100 gage eee Al pressure units in KPa Figure 2 ~ 3: Relationship between absolute and gage pressures "Note: Unless otherwise speatied in this took, the term pressure signifies gage pressure. MERCURY BAROMETER ‘A mercury barometar is an accurate and relatively simple way to measure changes in pressure. At sea fevel, the weight of the atmosphere {forces mercury 760 mm (29,9 in) up a calibrated ‘lass tube, Higher elevations yield lower readings because the atmosphere is fess dense there, and the thinner air exerts tess pressure on the mercury. ANEROID BAROMETER In an aneroid barometer, 2 partially evacuated metal drum ‘expands or contracts in response to changes in air pressure. A ‘Series of levers and springs transistes the up and down ‘movement of the drum top into the cirelar motion of the pointers along the aneroid barometers face, CHAPTER TWO TUNDRAULICS ACEEG( SR —Princitesortyarostatcs 31 VARIATIONS IN PRESSURE ‘Consider any two poin's (1 & 2), whose difference in elevation isk, to lie in the ends of an elementary prism having a cross-sectional area a and a length of L. ‘Since this prism is at rest, all forces acting upon it must be in equilibrium. Figure 2 4: Forces acting on elementary prism Note: Free Liquid Surface refers to liquid surface subject to zero gage pressure oF with ‘abmospheric pressure onl. With reference to Figure 2-4: WerV Wer(al) GR=0 F-F=Wsin@ pid pray (al) sin® popieyLsin® ‘Therefore; the difference in pressure between any two points in a homogeneous fluid at rest is equal tothe product of the unit weight ofthe fluid (y) to He vertical distance hy) betteen the points. but L sind =h . 32 Suan TNO. FLUID MECHANICS Principles of Hydrostatier Me OE _tiionics: This means that any change in pressure at point 1 would cause an equal chan; ige at point 2. Therefore; a pressure applied at any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted equally and undiminished to every other point in the liquid. Tet us assume that point © in Figure 2-4 lie on the free liquid surface, then the gage pressure ps is zero and Eq. 2- 4 becomes: CHAPTERTWO 33 HvDRA $ Principles of Hydrostatics ‘& HYDRAULICS, Cnsider the tank shown to be filled with liquids of different densities and with air at the top under a gage pressure of pa, the pressure at the bottom of the tank is: < Pionn =Et ke pen he + nist pa .2-7) PRESSURE HEAD Pressure head is the height “Ir” of a column of homogenous liquid of unit weight y that will produce an intensity of pressure p. ee] This means that the pressure at any point “h” below a fre tguid surface i ‘the product of the unit weight of the fluid () and h. fre tai Senaie Consider that points @ and © in Figure 2 - 4 lie thath =, then'Eg 2-4 becomes, on the same elevation, such pep ge This means that the along the . . tre een ‘Pressure along the same horizontal plane in a homogeneous fluid Pressure below Layers of Different Liquids awk q.2-8 a ‘To Convert Pressure head (height) of liquid A to liquid B “Tins 24 or ha fig 2& or hgh 2A. Bg: 2-9 2 5B Pa Ye ‘To convert pressure héad (height) of any {Iquid to water, just multiply its: height by its specific gravity Tete, = Fag * 2-10 34 0 SHAPTERTWo Principles of Hydrostatics MANOMETER AA maiometer is a tabe, usually bent in a form of a U, Known specific gravity, the surface of whi containing a liquid of of pressure. Its used fo measure sreanene nov? Propertionally to changes FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS ‘Types of Manometer Open Type - has an atmospheric ie nneans ase pressures, ferential Type - without an atmospheri ‘measuring only differences of pew Sieice and eapile of Piecometer + The simplest form of. of container or conduit for the purpose of measuring pressure, ‘dy of Aid inthe container or conduit risus in thas tober forma beesuriace surface in one leg and is capable of Limitations of Piezometer: 2 Latee pressures in the lighter liquids require long tubes * Gas Sanrabeeseures can not be measured because gas can-not form a free A (2) Open manometer (©) Dierentat man: (©) Pezometer FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER TWO i HYDRAUUCS 35 Principles of Hydrostatics Steps In Solving Manometer Problems: 1. Decide on the fluid in feet or meter, of which the heads are to be expressed, (water is mast advisable). 2. Stazting from an end point, number in order, the interface of different fluids. 3. Identify points of equal pressure (taking into account that for a homogeneous fluid at rest, the pressure along the same horizontal plane are equal). Label these points with the same number. 4. Proceed from level to level, adding (if going down) or subtracting (if going up) pressure heads as the elovation decreases or increases, respectively with due regard for the specific gravity of the fluids. a Solved Problems Problem 2-1 If a depth of liquid of 1 m causes a pressure of 7 KPa, what is the specific gravity of the liquid? ‘Solution Pressure, p= yi 7 = @81 xs) (1) 820.714 > Specific Gravity roblem 2-2 What is the pressure 125 m below the ocean? Use sp. Solution pryh P= (981 *1.08)(125) pa lB3kPa 36 CHAPTERTWo Principles of Hydrostatics Problem 2-3 If the pressure 23 meter below a liquid is 398.445 kPa, it : a determine its unit weight y, mass density p , and specific gravity s. . ‘Solution (a) Unit weight, y park 338445 = y (23) y= 14715 kN/o? (Mass density, p pat 8 14.715x10? 9.81 P=1,500 kg/m? (¢) Specific gravity, s = Pais, FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS pe Problem 2-4 Ifthe pressure at a in th i Felon ae 2 Point inthe ocean i 60 KPa, what the pressure 27 meters Solution ‘The difference in pressure between any two points i ‘epee th ¥Y two points in a Pas pit yh = 60+ (9.81x1.09@7) pa" 392.82 kPa JUD MECHANICS CHAFTERTWO 37 A LIVDRAULICS, Principles of Hydrostatics Problem 2-5 Ut the pressure in the air space above an oil (s = 0.75) surface in a closed tank is 11) KPa absolute, what is the gage pressure 2m below the surface? Solution P™ Pout #1 Paanixe = TIS ~ 101.325 Prastce = 13.675 kPa gage p= 13.675 + (9.81%0.78)(2) p= 28.39 KPa Mote: Pan = 101.325 kPa Problem 2-6 tnd the absolute pressure in KPa at a depth of 10 m below the free surface of vif of sp. gr. 0.75 if the barometric reading is 752 mmHg. Solution Pats = Prim * Page Pats ™ Ya He 281 x 13.6(0.752) Puan = 100.329 kPa ‘Pas = 100.329 + (9.81 x 0.75)(10) pa =173.9 kPa Problem 2-7 ‘A pressure gage 6 m above the bottom of the tank containing a liquid reads 90 kPa. Another gage height 4 m reads 103 kPa. Determine the specific weight of the liquid. Solution Popreyh 108 - 90= 72) Y= 68KN/n? cnarres Two 38 ATO ee up aroeues Problem 2-8 An open tank contains 5.8 m of water covered with 3.2 m of kerosene’ (y = 8 N/m. Find the pressure atthe interface and at the bottom af the tank, Solution (a) Pressure at the interface Pam =©62, Pa= 256 KPa (6) Pressure at the bottom, penZyh Yo hia + Ye = 9.8158) +832) pa= 62498 kPa Problem 2-9 q Hf atmospheric pressure is 95.7 kPa and the gage attached to the tank reads 188 mmHg vacuum, find the absolute pressuie within the tank, Solution . Pate ™ Pas * Paige Proee * ery aeeny = O81 x 13.6)(0.188) Pa = 95:7 + (25.08) Pam * 70.62 kPa abs Probiem 2-39 ‘The weight density of a mud is given by y = 10+ 0.5h, where yis i ; is in KN/av and Jrisin meters. Determine the pressure, in kPa, at a depth of § m. FLUID MECHANICS ‘CHAPTER TWO & HYDRAULICS 39 Principles of Hydrostatics Solution ‘Since the density of the mud varies with depth, the pressure should be solved by integration dp=ydh dp= (10+ 0.5 hydh ? 5, fo - fossosina é ‘ 5 = [10(5) + 0.256) -0 p= 5625 kPa p= 10h + 0.2587 | Problem 2- it In the figure shown, if the atmospheric pressure is 101.03 kPa and the absolute Pressure at the bottom of the tank is 231.3 kPa, what is the specific gravity of olive oll? ‘Solution Gage pressure at the bottom of the tank, p = 231.3 - 101.03, Gage pressure at the bottom of the tank, p = 130.27 kPa ee P= Yala Yole+ Yoh Yor hoa 130.27 = (9.81 x 13.6)(0.4) + (9.82 x 5)(2.9) + 9.81(2.5) + (9.81 «0.89)(1.5) = 138 FLUID MECHANICS * cnarrer Two 40 & HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics Problem 2-12 If air had a constant specific weight of 12.2 N/m* and were incompressible, what would be the height of the atmosphere if the atmospheric pressure (sea Jevel) is 102 kPa? Solution Height of atmosphere, h = , = 102x10% 122, Height of atmosphere, i = = 8,360.66 m Problem 2 - 13 (CE Board May 1994) ‘Assuming specific weight of air to be constant at 12 N/m’, what is the approximate height of Mount Banahaw if a mercury barometer at the base of the mountain reads 654 mum and at the same instant, another barometer at the top of the mountain reads 480 mim. Solution Pro Prop = 1h in a)ocriom = (Yon Ha hion = AY Fair (9810 x 13.6)(0.654) - (9810 x 13.6)(0.48) = 124 1h 193453 m FLUID MECHANICS CHAFTERTWO gy & HYDRAULICS Principies of Hydrastatics Problem 2-24 Compute the barometric pressure in kPa at an altitude of 1,200 m if the pressure at sea level is 101.3 KPa. Assume isothermal conditions @ 21°C. Use = 287 Joule /kg-*K. Solution For gases: dp B71 + 73) = 0.00002185 p dp = -(0.00001185 p)(9.81) alt # 0.001163 ? r me f& =-0.0001163 fm P i ansav? , 20 re Jrnoawe “een J, Imp In (101.3 « 10) = -0.0001163(1200 - 0) Inp= 11.386 pa eta 7 = 88,080 Pa CHAPTER TWO. FLUID MECHANICS 42 _ principles of Hycrostatcs & HYDRAULICS oo Eiirntcs Problem 2-15 Convert 760 mm of mercury to (¢) oil of sp. gr. 0.82 and (b) water. Solution ) et ™ her BOM fe 07638 Aou = 12.605 m of oil () Freier * Tinercury Smescucy = 076136) ‘rower 10.34 m Of water a» Problem 2-16 (CE Board May 1994) A barometer reads 760 mmHg and a pressure gage attached to « tank reads £850 cm of oil (sp. gt. 0.80). What is the absolute pressure in the tank in kPa? Sotution Pata = Pasa + Page = O81 x 13.6)(0.76) + 081 «0.8)(8.5) Pa, = 168.1 kPa al Problem 2-17 A hydraulic press is used to raise an 804 KN cargo truck. If oil of sp. gr. 0.82 acts on the piston under a pressure of 10 MPa, what diameter of piston is required? Solution Since the preasure under the piston is uniform: Force = pressure x Area 80,000 = (10 x 10%) De D=01m~=100mm FLUID MECHANICS & HVDRAUUCS cHarTeRTWwO gy Principtes of Hydrostatics Problem 2- 18 (CE November 1998) H iston B is 950 sq. cm. Viston A has a cross-section of 1,200 sq, cin while that of pisto withthe later higher than piston A bY 15m. the intervening passages ore filled with oil whose specific gravity is 0.8, what is the difference in pressure between A and B, ‘Solution ra Pa” Yoho Pere Toto x0.8\175) pa~ pe? 13,734 Pa ‘Solution 7 Since points 1 and 2 lie on the 300mm @ same elevation, pi = pr 450. WwW 40.08 5003)? W=150kN 44 sharren two FLUID MECHANICS Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS Problem 2 - 20 A drum 700 mm in diameter and filled with water has a vertical pipe, 20 mm in diameter, attached to the top. How many Newtons of water must be Poured into the pipe to exert.a force of 6500 N on the top of the drum? Solution Force onthe top: + Fepx Area 6500 = px $ (700? - 20%) { p= 0.016904 MPa. 20mm p= 16,904 Pa | bari 16,904 = 98104 {Top h=1723m Weight = 7 Volume = 9810% $ (0.02)40.728) ‘rea on top Weight = 5.31N 700 mm @ roblem 2-2 The figure shown shows a setup with a vessel containing a plunger and a cylinder. What force F is required to balance the weight of the cylinder if the weight of the plunger is negligible? ECHANI chaprer wo NCS teaonaulics Pencplesortivcrosttis 45 evorAuuEs OE ——— rv ‘ftolution unger, Ja = 6.00323 mt 136.22 - 309.6 F = (9.81 x 0.78(4.6) F=0326kN =326N Problem 2 ‘The hydraulic press shown is filled with oil with sp. gr. 0.82. Neglecting the wight ‘ofthe two pistons, hat force Fon the hantle is required to support the 10 KN weight? 46 CHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS Principles of Hydrostatics E HYDRAULICS Solution Since points 1 and 2 lie on the same elevation, then; pipe Ab Ar Az 10 iA 700.075)? 30.025" Fy= 111 kN [Mo =] F(0.425) = F,(0.025) F(0.425) = 1.11(0.025) F = 0.0654 kN F=654N Problem 2-23 * The fuel gage for a gasoline (sp. gr. = 0.68) tank in a car reads proportional to its bottom gage, If the tank is 30 cm deep an accidentally contaminated with 2 em of water, how many centimeters of gasoline does the tank actually contain ‘when the gage erroneously reads “FULL”? #LUID MECHANICS CHAPTERTWO A ‘A HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics ‘ance the gage reads “FULL” then the reading is equivalent to 30cm of gasoline. Reading (pressure head) when the tank contain water = (y + 24g) em of gasoline ‘Then; y+ 2ghy #30 y= 27.06 om Problem 2 - 24 (CE Board November 2000) For the tank shown in the Figure, In = 3m and fy = 4m. Determine the value ofa. Solution ‘Summing-up pressure head from 1 to 3 in meters of water PL + nyo.sa)-x= PS Y 7 0+ 084m (4-3) "0 Jn= 139m. CHAPTER TWO 4g Stare two FLUID mecnanics tuo wecnanacs enciplsotyarontates 49 Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS Problem 2 - 25 (CE Board May 1992) Problem 2 - 26 Vor the manometer shown, + In the figure shown, what is the static pressure in kPa in the air chamber? determine the pressure at the \, center of the pipe. Hera, $= 1355, ism ot, s = 0.80 Solution | ‘The pressure in the air space seution head from | uals the pressure on the surfac: i-up pressure | ofl Press eens 1 to3 in meters of water: | " Fa 4103.55) +1508) = 22 piso Y Y . 2 Prt o+1a75~ B peai96ikra £3 21475 mof water Y = 14,759.81) Pra pom tele pn 4750: 19,62 - ps = (9.81 x 0.80)(4) ps2 144.7 kPa Py 711.77 kPa Another solution: Sumv-up pressure head from 1 to3 in meters of water: F. 42-4089) = 22 Y ee Po 42-32 2h : Ore 82 poo-AL.77 kPa cuarten wo FLUID MECHANICS: FIUID MECHANICS CHAPTER TWO 50 _ princes of ycrortatie moments My Tliwonnouce pincptsteyiente — 5I pre Problem 2-27 (CE Board November 2001) Problem 2 - 28 (CE May 1993) Determine the value of y in the manometer shown in the Figure. ln the figure shown, when the tunnel is empty the water surface ts a1 point A and the mercury of ap. ur. 13.55 shows a deffection of Ih em. Determine the new eflection of mercury when the tunnel is filled with water to B. tH ke Solution Solution. Summing-up pressure head from AtoB in meters of water: 2413908) 415-4186) = 2 7 34 Ar, 5K A 3m 5 Be gay 138° 16y= Be 1m where ps=0 | y= 032m Y Figure (b): Level at 8 Solve for y in Figure (2): . Sum-up pressure head from A to 2in meters of water: PA 4y.0,15(13.55)= 22 Y Y . 0+ y-203= y= 203m Harter Two rua SZ __ principles ot Hydrostatic nD MECHANICS In Figure (): ‘When the funnel is filled with water to B, point 1 will move down to” With the same value as point 2 moving up to 2” Sum-up pressure head from B to 2; a +08 ty tx~ (40.15 +2035) = 22 ? Y 040804 203+x-271r-203=0 26.1 x= 080 031 m=3.2em New reading, R= 154 [email protected]) - New reading, R = 21.2 cm Problem 2-29 The pressure at point m in the figure shown was increased from 70 kPa to 105 kPa. This causes the top level of mercury to move 20 mum in the sloping tube, What is the inclination, 6? water In Figure (a): charter Two MECHANICS Sinomauuics Principles ofHycrostatics 93 2 +y36-2e Fe y M86) 7 136y-x= Fr Eq. (1) Figure (0: ‘Sum-up pressure head from 2’ to m’ in meters of water: PE 4 .2sin0 + y +0.2)(136)- («+ 0.2)= fe 7 0+2728in 9 + 13.6y+272-2-02= I 136y-2=8183-272sind Eq. 2) [13.6y -x= 13.6y -3] 8183-272 sin@= sin ® =0.3852 0-22.66" Problem 2-30 - ; A closed cylindrical tank contains 2 m of water, 3-m of oil (s= 0:82) and the air above oil has a pressure of 30 kPa, If an open mercury manometer at the bottom of the tank has 1 m of water, determine the deflection of mercury. Solution Sum-up pressure head from 1 to 4 in meters of water: Pet + 3(082)+2+1-y36)= Mt 1 He, +2864+3-136y=0 y= 0.626 m CHAPTER TWO. /MECHANI 54 Principle of yarostaties PAE HYORAULICS -roblem 2 - 31. The U-tube shown is 10 mm in diameter tonne and contains mercury. 1f 12 mi of water is Poured into the right-hand leg, what are the ultimate heights in the two legs? Le 20mm —! Py 8 L teray Sotution LE t20mm I Solving for h, (see figure b: Volume of water= $ ()°h= 12cm Note: A ml= tam? i= 1528 om = 1528 mm Since the quantity of mercury before and after water is poured remain the same, then; 1203) =R+x+120+5 Rede=240 9 Eq. () smn o CHAPTER TWO UID MECHANICS 55 f HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostaties In Figure (): ‘Sumuming-up pressure head from 1 to3 in mm of water: PL +1528 -R03.6)= 2 Y Y R=11.24mm Io By. @ 11.24 + 2x = 240 x= 1138 mm Ultimate heights in each leg: Right-hand leg, fie = 1528+ 11438 Right-hand leg, kx = 267.18 mm_ Leftthand leg hu = R +x = 1124411438 Left-hand leg, i, = 125.62 nm Problem 2-32 Fora gage reading of -17.1 kPa, determine the (a) elevations of the liquids in the open piezometer columns E, F, and G and (#) the deflection of the mercury in the = U-tube manometer neglecting the weight of air. 56 SHAPTERTWo FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS. CHAPTERTWO GZ Principles of Hydrostaties & HYDRAULICS A HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics Solution Cotamn G Sum-up pressure head from 1 to g in meters of water; a + 30.7) + 4(1) - Iy(1.6) = fe Bob +214 4-16hy=0 hy= 272m Sarface elevation = 8 + hy Surface elevation = 8 + 272 = 10.72 m Deflection of mercury Sumn-up pressure head from 1 to 5 in meters of water; PL 4 3(0.7)4444- M136) = & 7 BB + 101-1364 he= 0618 m Problem 2-33 An open manonieter attached to a pipe shows a deflection of 150 mmHg with Column E the lower level of mercury 450 mum below the centerline of the pipe carrying Sumup pressure head from 1 to ¢ in metes of water; water, Calculate the pressure at the centerline of the pipe. " FL nor = Be 7 2 7 Solution Ht + hf0.7) =0 y= 25m Surface elevation = 15 ~ hy Surface elevation = 15-25=125 m Column F Sum-up pressure head from 1 to fin meters of waters Samvup prose waters te Pi Py Ft +307) tat) = Py PA 4 0.45-0.15(13.6) = 2 Y Y Y Bi + 21-mn=0 rh Ja = 0357 m Fy 1045; 204=0 Surface elevation = 12 + hy pi=156KPa Surface elevation = 12 + 0.357 = 12.357 m 58 CHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS: Principles of Hydrostatcs & HYDRAULICS Problem 2 - 34 imo For the configuration shown, calculate the weight of the piston if the pressure gege T reading is 70 kPa im o1 3 = 0.86, ‘Solution Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; fo ime + Pee 70KPa went PA (086) 28 ry Y ’ am i. Pa =. 981 086 981 ‘a LL pa=7e4akPa on 1.86 Weight = Fx Feo Pa xdvea = pax Area = 74x £0) ‘Weight = 61.61 KN Problem 2 - 35 ‘Two vessels are connected to a differential manometer using mercury, the ‘connecting tubing being filled with water. The higher pressure vessel is 15 m lower in elevation than the other. (@) If the mercury reading is 100 mm, what is the pressure head difference in meters of water? (6) If carbon tetrachloride ( = 1.59} were used instead of mercury, what would be the manometer reading for the same pressure difference? CHAPTER TWO tino rncpisettyocanie 59 —— Solution (0), Gage liquid = mercury, = 0.1 m ‘Sum-up pressure head from Tto 4 in meters of waters PL ex the W3.6)-x-15= PA 7 y Fs 015-01 + 0,113.6) Y ~ Ph 22.76 mof water 1

from (@) YY 296 = 15+ 0.59h = 236m Problem 2-36 In the figure shown, determine the height f of water and the ‘gage reading at A when the absolute pressure at B is 290 kPa, 60 SHAPTERTWo Fun Frinciples of Hydrostatics EMYDRAULICS Solution Suntup absolute pressure head from B to 2in meters of water; a 0.7(13.6)-h= a $B -952-h= he2203m 700 mm Summup absolute pressure head from B to A in meters of water; 78 07036) +07~ Fa Y Y -95240.7— Pa A smsa7- fe P4=2085 kPa abe Problem 2-37 To In the figure shown, the atmospheric Pressure is 101 kPa, the gage reading at is 40 kPa, and the vapor Pressure of alcohol is 12 kPa absolute, Compute x-+ y, Solution ‘Sum-up absolute pressure head from 1 to 2in meters of water; PL yog)= 22 7 209-7 $4101 gg 12 ‘981 sar y=id6rm et CHAPTER TWO. VUID MECHANICS Principles of Hydrostatics a 1DRAULICS ap pressure (gage) head from 1 to 4in meters of water; PL + 50.9) +1300.9)-1303.6)= me Y 2 +09x-1651-0 981 x=B8lm Then a+ y= 28.42 m problem 2-38 Wor the manometer setup shown, ‘Solution x4068=y+17 x-y=102m > Eq. (1) Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; PA. x.0.68(0.85)+ y= 2B. Y Y PA PB ayy +0578 > Eq.) YY Substitute x - y= 1.02 in Eq, (1) to Bq. Q): Pa. PB 10240578 1 7 PA PB 21508 981 pa~pa= 15.68 kPa 6t 62 CHAPTER TWO Principles of Hydrostaties Problem 2-39 A differential manometer is attached to a pipe as shown. Calculate the pressure difference between points A and B. Sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; fa = 0.9) - 0113.6) + 0.1(0.9) + (0.9) = 2B 7 Pa 1 PA-PE Lam om he Pan pe 12.46 kPa - a = 0.1136) -010.9) FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS: FLUID MECHANICS 4 HYDRAULICS Problem 2 40 In the figure shown, the letlection of mercury is initially 250 mm, If the pressure at A is cased by 40 kPa, while aintaining the pressure at B constant, what will be the new ercury deflection? Figure (a) CHAPTERTWO Principles of Hydrostatics Figure (b) In Figure g, sum-up pressure head from A to B in meters of water; 2A 06-025136) +025+ 21 2B Y Pa | PS 21.65 mof water Y 7 cuarten two no 64 Sites areas AD MECHANICS In Figure b, pa’ = pa + 40 Sum-up pressure head from A’ to B in meters of water; PA (06-)-(0.25 + 291964 295 +2)= Be 1 me 06+ 2-34-2724 +235 4x= 2B Y bay A = 26 Y oat 1,65 - 25.2 7 Pa 1 1.65 = 25.2.x- 2.423 x= 0.162. m = 162 mam - PB 22524-2423 But 24 . Pe 165 y ror New mercury deflection = 250 + 2x = 250-+ 2(162) New mercury deflection = 574 mm Problem 2- 41, In the figure shown, determine the difference in pressure between points A a FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERTWO ge 4. HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics Solution ‘Sum-up pressute head from A to B in meters of water; oa +0.2{0.88) - 0.09(13.6) - 0:31(0.82) + 0.25 -0.1(0.0012) = oe Fa BB 210528 mot water PA~ pa 9.81(1.0523) = 10.32 KPa voblem 2 - 42 (CE Board) Assuming normal barometric pressure, how deep in the ocean is the point where an air bubble, upon reaching the surface, has six times its volume than it had at the bottom? Solution Applying Boyle's Law {assuming isothermal condition) TV = pa] pr= 1013+ 981(L.03)1 pi= 1013+ 10.104 ‘ev a= 1013+0=1013 Yynov (101.3 + 10.104) = 101.3 6 ¥) 10.104 k= 101.36) - 101.3 hs 50.13 m ; 6 CHAPTER TWO FLUID MECHANICS Principtes of Hydrostaties & HYDRAULICS Problem 2- 43 A vertical tube, 3 m long, with one end closed is inserted vertically, with the open end down, into a tank of water to such a depth that an open manometer Connected to the upper end of the tube reads 150 mim of mercury. Neglecting vapor pressure and assuming normal conditions, how far is the lower end of the tube below the water surface in the tank? Sol Applying Boyle's Law: Y= paV2 Before the tube was inserted; Absolute pressure of air inside, pr = 101.3 Volume of air inside, Vi = 34 When the tube was inserted; Absolute pressure of air inside, pz = 101.3 + 9.81(13.6(0.15) Absolute pressure of ait inside, pa = 121 31 kPa Volume of air inside the tube, Vi= (3- yA {Viz pa Val 1013 4) =12131[@-y)4] 3-y=2505 ¥=0495 m From the manometer shown; Po= Yulin = 81x 13.6)(0.15) pr 200124 kPa CHAPTER TWO. PLUID MECHANICS ip nTeR NWO ‘A. HYDRAULICS hinee the pressure in air inside the tube is uniform, then pr = po = 20.0124 kPa Pe™ Yo ht 20.0124 = 981k; h=2.04m Then: x=h+y=2.04 + 0.495 22535 m Problem 2-44 ji sti ji indi igh, has a nec A bottle consisting of a cylinder 15 cm in diameter and 25 cm high, has which is 5 cmt diameter and 25.cm long. The bottle is inserted vertically in water, with the open end down, such that the neck is completely filled with water, Find the depth to which the open end is submerged. Assume normal baromtetric pressure and neglect vapor pressure. Solution Applying Boyle's Law nVi=pVs Before the bottle was inserted: Volume of air: Vix | C5) (25) + $F C5) Vi = 4,908.74 cm? Absolute pressure in air: pr 101.325 When the bottle is inserted: Volume of air: Va $05? (25) V_=44179 cm? Prescure in air: peo 101325 +981 h Vi= pV bh 101 325¢4, 90878) = (101.325 + 9.81 1)(4417.9) 101.325 + 9.82 k= 112.58 k= 1.5m xe ht 25=26.15 em 67 \ 68- P FLUID MECHANICS inciples of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS rics Problem 2-45 {Bicycle tice is inflated at sea level, where the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 KPa and the temperature is 21 °C, to 445 kPa, Assuming the tire does not orpand, what is the gage pressure within the tire on the top of a mountain where the altitude is 6,000 m, atmospheric pressure is 47.22 KPaa, and the temperature is 5 °C, Solution Atsea level: Absolute pressure of air, Pi= 101.3 + 445 Absolute pressure, ju = = 546.3 Pan Volume of air, ¥; = V. Absolute temperature of air. T= 21 + 273 = 204°K On the top of the mountain: Absolute pressure of air, p= 47.22 + p Since the tire did not expand. volume of air, V2 = V Absolute temperature of air, Ti = 5+ 273 = 278 °K py t 7 Ty 1 SA6.3(V) _ (47.22-+ pw 284 278 47.224 p= 51657 P= 469.35 kPa UID MECHANICS CHAFTERTWO gg A HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostatics {Supplementary Problems Problem 2 ~ 46 . , ‘A weather report indicates the barometric pressure is 28.54 inches of mercury. pounds per square inch? What is the atmospheric pressure in Pera Arts: 14.02 psi Problem 2-47 7 The tube shown is filled with oil. Determine the pressure heads at B and Cin meters of water. Problem 2-48, For the tank shown in the figure, compute the pressure at points B, C, D, and E in kPa. the unit weight of air. Me Neti Ans. po =4.9; pe po = 4.9; pe = 21.64 70 _ principles ot terete 035m — 020m 4 Problem 2-50 A glass 12.cm tall filled with water is inverted. The bottom. i . is the pressure at the closed end? Barometric pressure is 101.325 ie Wratis Ans: 100.15 kPaa Problem 2-52 In Figure 13, in which fluid will a pressure of 700 kPa first be achieved? Ans: glycerin Bes 90a FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTERTWO 7g ‘4 HYDRAULICS Principles of Hydrostaties fe evoRAUE CS Prablem 2-52 ‘A cylindrical tank contains water at a height of 55 mm, as shown. Inside is a vall open cylindrical tank containing cleaning fluid (s.g. = 0.8) at a height h. The pressure pp = 13.4 kPa gage and pic = 13.42 kPa gage. Assume the cleaning fluid is prevented from moving to the top of the tank. Use unit weight of water = 9.79 KN/a. {@) Determine the pressure ps in kPa, (b) the value of hin tm, and (6) the value of y in millimeters. ‘Ans: {a) 12.88; (B) 10.2; (c) 101 Problem 2 53 A differential manometer shown is measuring the difference in pressure two water pipes, The indicating liquid is mercury (specific gravity = 13.6), Inis 675 mm, hua is 225 min, and hy is 300 mm. What is the pressure differential between the two pipes. A ie ns: 89.22 72 « CHAPTERTWO FLUID MECHANICS. TUnD MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE 7-3 Principles of Hydrostatics & HYDRAULICS 4 HYDRAULICS ‘Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces Problem 2-54 A force of 460 N is exerted on lever AB as shown. The end B is connected toa ¢ ha ter 3 piston which fits into a cylinder having a diameter of 60 mm. What force Fo acts on the larger piston, if the volume between C and D is filled with water? Ans: 15.83 KN Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces TOTAL HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON PLANE SURFACES 1 the pressure over a plane area is uniform, as in the case of a horizontal surface submerged in a liquid or a plane surface inside a gas chamber, the (otal hydrostatic Force (or total pressure) is given by: L FepA a1 Problem 2-55. where p is the uniform pressure and A is the area. An open tube open tube is attached to a tank as shown. If water rises to a ancl i height of 800 mum in the tube, what are the pressures pa and po of the air above Jn the case of an inclined or vertical plane submerged in a liquid, the total water? Neglect capillary effects in the tube. pressure can be found by the following formula: Ans: pa = 3.92 KPa; ps = 4.90 kPa guid surface $ Figure 3 = 1; Forces on an incined plane 74 «CHAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces &: HYDRAULICS Consider the plane surface shown inclined at an angle @ with the horizontal To get the total force F, consider a differential clement of atea dA. ‘Since thas ] Fem ey Factor of safety against overturning, Fo: SS = BM Fog TA >I where: = coefficient of friction between the base of the dam and the foundation. Foundation Pressure Fores B/6 + From combined axial and bending stress formul By 4 By eB/2) B B12 MuID MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE 7 A nivpRAULics Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces a tng Bet Bo BP Bg, 3-14 By (14.8 3 : (12%) wnerees /6 ute: Use (+) to get the stress at point where Ry is nearest, In the diagram shown above, use (+) to get gr and () to get gu. A negative stress indicates pressive stress and a positive stress indicates tensile stress. ‘nce soil cannot carry any tensile stress, the result of Bq. 3- 14 is invalid if the nivess is positive. This will happen if ¢ > B/6, Should this happen, Eq. 3 - 15 will be used. when e> B/6 afd an3% Ry V(0)(99(0) Rewer E Bq.3-15 FLUID MECHANICS (CHAPTER THREE 88 HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces BUOYANCY ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE A principle discovered by the Greek scientist Archimedes that states that “any body immersed ina fluid is acted upon ty an uproard force (buoyant force} equal to the weight of the displaced fluid’. This principle, also known as the lavo of lupdrostatics, applies to both floating and submerged bodies, and to ail fluids. Consider the body shown in Figure 3-9 immersed in a fluid of unit weighty. The horizontal components of the force acting on the body are all in equilibrium, since the vertical projection of the body in opposite sides is the same. The upper face of the body is subject to a vertical downward force which is equal to the weight of the fluid above it, and the lower face is subject to an upward force equal to the weight of real or imaginary liquid above it. ‘The net upward force acting on the body is the buoyems force. BF = FF, Figure 3 - 9: Forces acting on a submerged body BF=Fr-Fy ‘1Vols) - ¥(Voh) BF = y(Vol - Voh) BP=yVo Fg. 3-16 Se HUI MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE gq A HYDRAULICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surtaces where: ‘y= unit weight of the fluid Vp= volume displaced. Volume of the body below the liquid surface {iv solve problems in buoyancy, identify the forces acting aad apply conditions of static syuititrivom: EFu=0 BFveo =M=0 lor homogeneous solid body of volume V “floating” in a homogeneous fluid at nest sp.grofliquid ” ~ Yuyua ofbody jy. Teoty yy ¥q.3-17 I the body of height H has a constant horizontal cross-sectional area such as vertical cylinders, blocks, ete. be fbody 5. Thody pp sp.grofliquid §— Yigua Fq.3-18 Ti the body is of uniform vertical cross-sectional area A, the area submerged A, A Bq. 3-19 90 CHAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces & HYDRAULICS ‘STATICAL STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES A floating body is acted upon by two equal opposing forces. These are, the body's weight W (acting at ils center of gravity) and its buoyant force BF (acting at the center of buoyancy that is located at the center of gravity of the displaced liquid). When these forces are collinear as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (@), it floats in an upright position. However, when the body tilts due to wind or wave action, the center of buoyancy shifts to its new position as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (b) and the two forces, which are no longer collinear, produces a couple equal to W(q). The body will not overturn if this couple makes the body rotate towards its original position as shown in Figure 3 - 10 (b), and will overturn if the situation is as shown in Figure 3-10 (¢) ‘The point of intersection between the axis of the body and the line of action of the buoyant force is called the mefacenfer. The distance from the metacenter (M) to the center of gravity (G) of the body is called the metacentric height (MG). It can be seen that a body is stable if M is above G as shown in Figure 3 = 10 (b), and unstable if M is below G as shown in Figure 3-10 (). IF M coincides with G, the body is said to be just stable, Figure 3 ~ 10 (2): Upright postion Figure 3- 10 (b): Stable postion CHAPTERTHREE gy Ce etice Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces A FVORAULICS Figure 3 = 10: Forces on a floating body RIGHTING MOMENT AND OVERTURNING MOMENT ‘RM or OM= We) 3-20 ELEMENTS OF A FLOATING BODY: W = weight of the body BE= acgent force (always equal to W for a floating body) G = center of gravity of the body 7 Bo center of buoyancy in the uptight position (centroid of the displaced liquid) Bo' = center of buoyancy in the tilted position Vp = volume displaced ‘Mi = metacenter, de point of intersection between the line of action of the buoyant force and the axis of the body ¢# center of gravity of the wedges (immersion and emersion) 5 horizontal distance between the cg’s of the wed ges = volume of the wedge of immersion = angle of tilting MBo = distance from M to Bo (GBo = distance from G to Bo MG = metacentric height, distance from M toG 92 CHAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces Metacentric height, MG = MB, & GB, Use (+ if Gis above Bo Use (+) if Gis below Bo Note: Mis always above 8, VALUE OF MB, The stability of the body depends on the amount of the righting moment ‘which in turn is dependent on the metacentric height MG. When the body tilts, the center of buoyancy shifts to a new position (Bo’). This shifting also causes the wedge vo’ to shift to a new position 2, The moment due to the shifting of the buoyant force BF(:) is must equal to moment due to wedge shift F(5). FL MECHAN CHAPTER THREE RAUCS Total Hydrostatic Force anSurtaces 93 & HYDRAULICS Moment due to shifting of BF = moment due to shifting of wedge BF (2) =F (s) BE=yVo Fryp z= MBo sin® 7 VoMBosinO=yos Vosind INITIAL VALUE OF MB, For small values of 8, (8 = 0 or @ = 0): Wedge, volume = v Figure 3 - 28: Rectangular body Consider a body in the shape of a rectangular parallelepiped length L as shown in Figure 3 - 11; Volume of wedge, v = ¥5(B/2){(B/2) tan 6]L ‘Volume of wedge, w= $25? tan 0 For small values of ,s% $B 94 SHAPTER THREE FLUID MECHANICS Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces & HYDRAULICS ps MB, = Pe Tine LB? tandx2B MB, = Hesham 8 But for small values of @, sin 0 » tan 6 But 4 LB" is the moment of inertia of the watetline section, 1 + Bg. 3223 Note: This forma can be applied to any section, Since the metacentric height MG is dependent with MB. the stability of a floating body therefore depends on the moment of inertia of the waterline section. It can also be seen that the hody is more stable in pitching than in rolling because the momtent of inertia in pitching is greater than that in rolling, MOMENT ‘The righting of overturning moment on a floating body is: RM or OM = Wa= W (MG sin 0) 3-24 CHAPTER THREE Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces « 11 UID MECHANICS 1. HYDRAULICS: FOR RECTANGULAR SECTION BOL ‘where Lis the length perpendicular to the igure Ye(B/2)[(B/2) tan OU v= PLB tand Centroid of triangle, ¥ i ge tee tts rom geometry, = = 72778. 5 = 22 (8/2)s000+ (B/2)c050 9) = B (Lreos*e oat) 3 Ae 96 CHAPTER THREE Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces Gee? ono fees 3\ cose EDijsino £B* sin@ | 1h c0s?6 24 cosi" “cos6, BDLsin® BP 1+ cos7@ BaD cosa 2 MO. 35 (—he=t] AD \ cos? 6 ts, ne gp Gero +) FLUID MECHANICS & HYDRAULICS MB, = but sect@ = 1+ tan2@ oe, - 2 (Be = 5 (0 + tant) +3] s Bt (2, tan2@ Me, = 2 (2+ tanto) = Bi (2, tanto Tap 2 re) Sl ] FLUID MECHANICS CHAPTER THREE & HYDRAULICS 97 ‘Total Hydrostatic Force on Surfaces Consider a pipe of diameter D and thickness f be subjected to a net pressure 1p. Yo determine the tangential stress in the pipe wall, let us cut a section of length - along the diameter. The forces acting on this section are the total pressure F due to Ue internal pressure and this is to be vesisted by T which is the total stress of the pipe wall. Applying equilibrium condition; Fu =0) For F = pA=pDs T=StAwn T=Sr(sxd) pDs=2x[Sr(ex 0) Tangential stress, S¢= 2D . Bg.3-26 STRESS ON THIN-WALLED PRESSURE VESSELS ‘THIN-WALLED CYLINDRICAL TANK A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile forces, which resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and transverse sections. To detenmine the longitudinal stress, let us cut the eylinder across its length as shown, (EFn=0) Fat Fepa Pep yD T=S,Avat Avat™ 2DE T= S.xDt p ED = Sent Longitudinal stress; $1 = 2 p= internal pressure — external pressure

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