30-Jun-21

Zootoxins
• Poisonous animals are those whose tissues,
either in part or as a whole are toxic
Animal Toxins • They have no mechanism / structure for delivery
• The poisoning usually takes place through
ingestion
Dr Mazhar Ul Haq • Venomous animals are capable of producing a
poison in a highly developed secretory gland
Dr Asif Riaz
• They deliver toxin during biting or stinging act
•

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Venoms Properties
• Venoms contain proteins, amines, lipids, steroids, • The receptor sites have highly variable degree of
glucosides, aminopolysacchrides, quinones, free sensitivity
amino acids, 5-HT, histamine etc • There may be many receptor sites for complex
venoms
• Its bioavailability is determined by its • Distribution is affected by protein binding,
composition, molecular size, amount or variation in pH and membrane permeability
concentration gradient, solubility, degree of • Entry into target site is dependent on partition
ionization & rate of blood flow into the tissue properties of the toxin between the blood and
the particular tissue
• Venom is transmitted into vascular bed directly or
• They are metabolized in several & many tissues
indirectly through lymphatic channels through many ways
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Snakes Snake Venoms

• Among the more than 3500 species of snakes, • Snake venom can be defined as highly modified saliva
approx. 400 are sufficiently venomous to be that has undergone evolutionary adaptation to
immobilize the prey and aids its digestion by means of
dangerous the actions of protein-degrading enzymes
• Venomous species include Elapidae, • Venoms of snake are a complex mixture of proteins,
Hydrophiodae, Laticaudidae, Viperidae and peptides, inorganic cations
certain Colubridae • The venom composition of each snake is species-
• The most clinically important are specific with up to 25 variable toxic and nontoxic
compounds
Boomslang and bird snakes of Africa • Snake venoms were initially classified into three
Redneck keelback of Asia groups: cytotoxic, neurotoxic and coagulopathic

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Snake Venoms ……. Venom Enzymes

• Thrombin like enzymes are found in significant • They contain at least 25 enzymes
amount in the venoms
• Proteolytic enzymes catalyze the break down
• Snake venom polypeptides don’t have enzymatic
activity of tissue proteins & peptides
• They produce alteration in resistances of blood • There may be several proteolytic enzymes in a
vessels, changes in blood cells, changes in blood single venom
coagulation mechanisms and changes in cardiac • The crotalid venoms examined so far appear
or pulmonary dynamics
to be rich in proteolytic activity
• The course of poisoning is determined by the
kind & amount of venom injected, the site where • They are associated with marked tissue
it is injected destruction
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Enzymes of Snake Venoms Snake Venoms ……..

Proteolytic Enzymes Phosphomonoestrase • Venoms may have neurotoxic, myotoxic,
Arginine ester hydrolase Phosphodiestrase
procoagulant, anticoagulant, and/or hemolytic
Thrombin-like enzyme Acetylcholinestrase
properties
Collagenase RNAse
Hyaluronidase DNAse • Pronounced cardiovascular abnormalities have
Phospholipase A2 5-Nucleotidase been associated with envenomation by tiger and
Phospholipase B NAD-nucleotidase brown snakes
Phospholipase C L-Amino acid oxidase
• Fatal snakebites are more common in dogs than
Lactate dehydrogenase
in other domestic animals
• Owners should not spend time on first aid other
than to keep the animal quiet and limit its activity
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Facts Snakebite Treatment

• In 2017, World Health Assembly finally • General principles for snake bite are
included snakebite in the World Health  It is a medical emergency that requires an
Organization (WHO) list of Neglected Tropical immediate attention and exercise of considerable
Diseases judgment
 The only adequate antidote is a specific or
• In May 2019 the WHO launched the official polyspecific antivenom
snakebite envenoming road map with the  Not every bite by a venomous snake ends in an
ambition to reduce the number of deaths and envenomation
disabilities by 50% before 2030 (WHO 2019)  The incidence with the bites of cobras and
• Snakebite in livestock is also a major concern perhaps other elapids is probably higher

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Scorpions Ticks
• There are a few important scorpion species • Tick paralysis is a rapidly progressive motor paralysis
• The dangerous bark scorpion caused by a toxin in the tick's saliva that attacks the
• Many scorpions contain low molecular weight nervous system
proteins, peptides, amino acids, nucleotides & • Certain species of ticks are known to cause tick
salts among other components paralysis
• The neurotoxic fraction are generally classified on • The presence of a tick along with the sudden (within 12
the basis of their molecular size to 24 hours) appearance of leg weakness and/or
• Short chain toxins appear to affect potassium & difficulty breathing is diagnostic in animals
chloride channels • If the tick is not still attached, the presence of a tick
• Long chain toxins affect mainly sodium channels “crater” (a small hole surrounded by a slightly raised
and red area) can help confirm diagnosis

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Tick Paralysis Remedy

• Tick paralysis is caused by a toxin in saliva of at • Canine tick hyperimmune serum, also called tick
least 60 species of ticks antiserum (TAS), is the specific treatment for the
toxin that causes tick paralysis
• With respect to tick paralysis as opposed to tick
toxicosis, one must consider microbacterial • Animals treated with an antiserum did not
develop clinical disease
organisms transmitted by ticks that cause
neurologic disorders (Ricketsia) • Tick control products are available
• Additional measures include keeping the hair
• The ticks that cause paralysis in humans and short and routinely checking for ticks when dogs
domestic animals may be the same (Ixodes) have been outdoors in an area where ticks are
• It is the length of exposure to the feeding tick prevalent
that determines the degree of poisoning
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Antivenoms Antivenom …….

• Many toxins produce an antibody response • Antivenoms have been produced against most
• This response is essential in producing antisera medically important snake, spider, scorpion
• An antivenom consists of a venom specific and marine toxins
antisera or antibodies concentrated from
immune serum to the venom • They are available in several forms
• Animals immunized with venoms develop a • Monocolonic and/or polycolonic
variety of antibodies to the many antigens in the • Intact IgG antibodies or fragments of IgG such
venom as F(ab)2 and Fab
• Antibodies bind to the venom molecules,
rendering them ineffective • The risks of anaphylaxis should always be
considered
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Snake Toxins as Therapeutics,

Continued …….
Cosmetics & in Diagnostics
• The first drug derived from animal venoms • Snake toxins have been applied with great
approved by the FDA is Captopril, a potent success in diagnostics
inhibitor of the angiotensin converting enzyme
(ACE) used to treat hypertension and congestive • For example, the Textarin: Ecarin test is
heart failure commonly used to detect Lupus Anticoagulant
• More recently, an anti-platelet drug derived from (LA)
the venom was commercialized as Integrillin and • Snake toxins also have the potential to
is used to prevent acute cardiac ischemia
become novel painkillers
• A group of snake α-neurotoxins named Waglerins
from the viper was used in the development of • The toxin Crotalphine is able to induce
anti-wrinkle cosmetics (Syn-AKE) analgesia through modulation of κ-opioids
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