} C Q 126 G ELECTRICAL MACHINES—UNIT 2 [7 \\4.2,, OPERATING PRINCIPLE te ‘n(lementary transformer consists of a soft iron or silicon steel core ae Twn g placed on it. The windings are insulated from both the core and each other. The core is built up of thin soft iron or silicon steel laminations to provide a path of low reluctance is the primary and iL : i indi Med } to the magnetic fux\(The winding connecte-to the supoly-m in is call Fi Y\.- the swinding connocta tothe lon circuit is called the se daz! The winding connected ) to higher voltage circuit is called the high-vollage (hv) winding while that connected to the 0 windings lower voltage circuit is called the low-voltage (lv) winding.(In_case of a step-up trans. former, low-voltage winding is the primary and high-voltage winding is the secondary) (while in case of a step-down transformer the high-voltage winding is the primary and low- — + voltage winding is the secondary) LAMIMATED STEFL CORE j ‘The action of a transformer is based on the principle that energy may be efficiently trans- p. ||. Rrrearyimatetion hoaronenoesrcatstosnother Ss ‘that boi ie sets of coils are on a common -~—- Taagnetic circuit. In a transformer, the coils and —e { } Magnetic circuit are all stationary with respect! aoe : to one another. The emfs are induced by the NOING variation in the magnitude of flux with time, a) illustrated in fig 4.1. Although in the actual construction the two Simple Transformer windings are usually wound one over the other, Fig. 4.1 on,opposite sides of the core, as in fig 4.1. When the primary winding is connected to an ac supply mains, a current flows through it?Since this winding links with an iron core, so current flowing through this winding produces an alternating flux ¢ in the core, Since this flux is alternating and links with the secondary winding also, so induces an emf in the secondary winding: The frequency of induced emf in secondary winding is the same as that of the flux or that of the supply voltage. The induced emf in the secondary winding enables it to deliver current to an external load connected across it. Thus the energy is transformed from primary winding \ \to the secondary winding by means of vlectro-magnetic induction without any change in frequey 1¢ flux ¢ of the iron core links not only with the secondary winding ‘but also | with the primary winding, so produces self induced emf in the primary winding. This | induced emf in the primary winding opposes the applied voltage and, therefore, sometimes \(_. it is kpown as back emf of the primary. In fact the induced emf in the primary winding limits the primary current in MUCH the same way that the back emf in a de motor limits the armature current! TRANSFORMER ON DC * ‘A transformer cannot operate on de supply and never be connected to a de source, If a rated de voltage is applied to the primary of a transformer, the flux produced in the transformer core will not vary but remain constant in magnitude. A. inl be induced in the secondary winding except at the mome watchin ae ‘he transformer is not capable of raising or Towering the de volige eee no self a induced emf in the primary winding, which is only possible with varying flux linkage, to oppose the applied voltage and since the resistance of primary winding is quite low - far the sake of simplicity, the figures for analysing transformer theory show the windings © scanned with OKEN Scannerx TRANSFORMERS O 127 O therefore, a Heavy current wi burning out of the primary do through the primary winding which may result in the - transformer.52 ing. This is the reason that de is never applied to a 4.4. IDEAL TRANSFORMER ‘or a better . Pe ocureeaming and an easier explanation of a practical transformer, certain former(A transformer basins hich ae close approximations for a practical trans ann ig FSTeTPed tee ee these deal properties is hypathetial (has no eal existence) ‘wansformer but some detaile pee Tt possesses certain essential features of a real step-by-step whi a aetails of minor significance are ignored which will be introduced rows) sing a transformer.“Phe idealizing assumptions made are as fol- Che ide QA winding resistance i.e, the primary and secondary windings have zero resist- ance. lt means that there is no ohmic power loss and no resistive voltage drop in an ideal transformer. erates 66 (No magnetic leakage i.e, there is no leakage flux and all the flux set up is confined . © core and Tinks both the windings. A GBNo iron loss i.e. hysteresis and eddy current losses in‘ transformer core are zero. viv) Zero-magnetizing current i.e. the.core has infinite permeability and zero reluctance c so that zero magnetizing current is required for establishing the requisite amount of flux in the core, From the above discussion an ideal transformer is nsists of t el inductive coils wound on a loss-free core. ‘ ‘EMF EQUATION em eh-an alternating (sinusoidal) voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, an alternating (sinusoidal) flux, as shown is fig 4.2, is’set up ih the iron core which links both the windings (primary and secondary windings). Let Onan and 7= Supply frequency in hertz. As illustrated in fig 4.2, the magnetic flux increases from zero'to its maximum value ¢,,9 in one-fourth of UK} Maximum value of flux in webers +fsecono ne Sinusoidal Variation of Flux With Time _ a cycle i.e. in 77 second. Tig te d max. = So average rate of change of flux, ¢ = fee = 4S bum Since average emf induced per turnin volts is equal to the average rate of change of So average emf induced per turn = 4f dso, volts ‘ ax gt inusoidally, so emf induced will be sinusoidal and form factor for $3 Since flax 6 varies si : < sinusoidal wave is 1.11 ie. the rms or effective valug is 1.11 times the average value, <= = RMS value of emf induced per turn = 1.11 x 4/ Oy, volts . If the number of turns on primary and secondary windings are N, and N, respectively, © then flux. es : © scanned with OKEN ScannerO 128 Q ELECTRICAL MACHINES—UNIT 2 4 RMS value of emf induced in primary, B, = EMF induced per turn x number of primary turns, LT AAAS agg * NEE 4441 Ni Goan YORE (4.2) 4.44 F Pug XN = 44d TONY Pex Om + Similarly rms value of emf induced in secon: Ih By = 4.44 f byax * No volts (4.3) ‘The abové relations for emf induced ia primary and secondary windings can be derived alternatively as below : The instantaneous value of sinusoidally varying flux may be given a5 cong 81 OF Instantaneous value of emf induced per turn = ait volts = © O;nqx C05 OF = © Omnax iD (=) volts It is clear from the above equation that the maximum value of emf induced per turn = 2nf ban volts 0 =26f Sina Lx 20 f bax = 4:44 f bmax Volts We Hence rms value of emf induced in primary, E, = 4.44/.N, max Volts and rms value of emf induced in secondary, E, = 4.44/ No imax Volts In an ideal transformer the voltage drops in primary and secondary windings are negligible, so EMF induced in primary winding, E \pplied voltage to primary, V, and terminal ‘voltage, V, = EMF induced in secondary, Ey Note: If B,,q, is the maximum allowable flux density in Wb/m? (or T) and a is the area of x-section of iron core in square metres, then in equations (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3), dinax 18 given as and rms value of emf induced per turn 4inax = Brag ® webers wf VOLTAGE AND CURRENT TRANSFORMATION RATIOS feferring to equation (4.1), it is clear that th&{volts per turn is exactly the same for both the primary and secondary windings i.e. in any transformer, the secondary and primary induced emfs are related to each. other by the ratio of the number of secondary and primary turns. Thus- Ay . ELE x5 ; w=e(4.4) ‘The same relationship can be derived by dividing equation (4.3) by equation (4.2) The constant K in equation (4.4) is called the voltage transformation ratio. eFor step-up transformer, V, > V, or voltage transformation ratio, K > 1. wt For step down transformer, V, < V, or voltage transformation ratio, K < 1 . a In an ideal transformer, the losses are negligible, so the volt-ampere input to the primary and volt-ampere output from secondary can be approximately equated i.e. Output VA = Input VA “ or Vo Iy= V1, L _Y, Nod . » s£RoM-RIMoL Ai LW 2 wok (4.5) © scanned with OKEN Scanner4.8. TRANSFORMER ON NO LOAD a ected to the source of ac supply and the sec- ondary is open, the transformer is said-to-be at no-load (there is no load on secondary). When the primary of a transformer is conn ~ Consider an ideal transformer whose secondary side is open and the primary winding is connected to a sinusoidal alternating voltage V,. The alternating voltage applied to the pri- mary winding will cause flow of alter- nating current in the primary wind- ing. Since the primary coil is purely inductive and there is no output (sec- ondary being open) the primary draws the magnetising current I,, only. The function of this current is merely to magnetize the core. If the transformer is truely ideal, the magnitude of I,, Jy "oy vy reemapey wa cuauge W 4% 55> OF VLD KVA or LDU VA Ans. ‘SECONDARY WINDING PRIMARY WINDING Transformer on No Load Fig. 4.3 be © scanned with OKEN ScannerSe SAPS SBSIONS (2-0), (4.4), (4.8), and (4.9) we conclude that @OAiduced emfs in primary and secondary windings, E, and E, lag behind the main flux > by a so these emfs (E, and E,) are in phase with each other, as shown in fig. 4.4 vectorially. | BG Applied voltage to the primary wind- ing leads the main flux by - and is — in phase opposition to the induced emf in the primary winding, as Vy=-& °e, E=V, shown in fig 4.4 vectorially. No-Load Phasor Diagram For An Ideal Transformer jit) Secondary voltage V, = E, as there Fig. 4.4 is no voltage drop in secondary. The instantaneous value of applied voltage, induced emfs, current, in case of an ideal transformer, are illustrated by sit 4.5. However, when a varying flux is set up in magnetic material, there will be power loss, called the iron or core loss. So the input current to the primary under no-load condition has also to supply the hysteresis and eddy current losses (iron losses) occuring in the core in addition to small amount of copper loss occuring in primary winding (no copper loss occurs in secondary winding on open circuit or on no-load). Hence, the no-load primary | current Ip does not lag behind applied voltage V, by 90° but lags behind V, by angle $5 | < 90° Input power on no-load, P, = Vj1y cos by under no-load conditions. flux and magnetising inusoidal waves in fig where cos 9 is the primary power factor © scanned with OKEN Scannerff TRANSFORMERS © 163 g gu.i7, TRANSFORMER LOSSES _ “Iron or Core Losses, Iron loss is caused. by the alte . consists of hysteresis and eddy current loss y the alternating flux in the core and fa) Hystoresis Loss. The core of a_transformer is subjected to an al fag force and for each cycle of emf a hysteresis loop is traced sit Th nk TP second is given by the equi e per Hysteresis loss, P, where fis the supply frequency in Hz, 0 i hysteresis coefficient, B,,,, is poak value of flux density in the core and x lies and 2.5 depending upon the material and is often taken as 1.6._ <{t) Eddy Current Loss. We have seen that whenever the flux linkage with a closed electric circuit changes, an emf is induced in the circuit and a current flows, the value of [J which depends on the emf around the circuit and the resistance of the circuit. It is not necessary that the circuit be a wire and that the flux passes entirely through it. If a solid block of metal is traversed by a varying flux, metallic circuits in the block itself, which are linked by the flux, will carry current(If the magnetic circuit is made up of iron and if the flux in the circuit is_variable, currents will be induced by induction in. ron cireuit Jf All such currents are known as eddy curre ‘The eddy current loss is given by equation PLS K, Bad? f28 v watts - For expressing the core loss im-terms of voltage, frequency ete., substitute from trans- - v 4 vv : er ee Noes = fon . fore eraf equation Qnas ™ Z7zpH % Baax = “SY = Tappa in expressions for hyster esis loss and eddy current loss respectively. Thus we get eo ott oe 9 tor (ratrsa) "= (eatma) +» or Py a V8 f''"* ~ for a given transformer v (volume of eore),N and a are constant Jk means that hysteresis lass dopends on both the applied voltage and its frequency. The eddy current loss is given as 2 x. Ay ® ( : a) ‘ “7 or Pav ‘y for a given transformer uf, Nand a ave-éonstant, ‘The eddy current loss, is, therefore, proportional to the square of applied voltage and ig independent of frequency. ‘According to equations (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3), for any given valtage (@ B,.. /), if / decreases B,,,, increases ‘yee and if f increases B,,,, decreases correspond- ingly. Henee eddy eurrent Ic ny given voltage, is independent of frequency. In above discussion, appli€d voltage V is taken almost equal to the induced emf given by thg referred equations. Copper or Ohmic Losses. These losses occur duo to ohmic resistance of the trans- former'windings. If 1, and I, are the primary and secondary currents respectively and Ry154 Q ELECTRICAL MACHINES—UNIT 2 . ne and R, are the respective resistances. of prion v0 eo ae fie saree asses ovcuring in primary.and secondary windings will be | ect pee fia will be (7 R, +1,” Ro), These losses vary as. the square of the logy current or kVA. For example if the copper losses at full Yoad are P. then copper lossen a é " ® fe js tery ti one-half or one-third of full load will be (4) P, or () Pete. fo B_serostly "Josses ar ns ivalent resistance R,, Geter Copper losses are determined on thé basis of constant equival 00 Roy mined from the short.reut toot (rfor Art 418.) and then corrected to 75°C (ee th standard operating temperature of electrical machines is taken 75°C). ag Extimple 4.28, A 1000 V, 60 Hz supply to a transformer results in 650 W hysteresis loss and 409 eddy current loss. If both the applied voltage and frequency are doubled, find the now core loys, Solution: At 1000 V, 50 Hz Hysteresis loss, P,, 650 W Eddy current loss, P, = 400 W In a transformer, since induced emf, which is nearly equal to the applied voltage, is given B= 4.44 $0 /N , When applied voltage (i.e. E) and f both are doubled, d,,, and hence B,,,, will remain u changed and # = 850% 2= 1,300 W » Of, Bg, emaining consta A aS Bidy current loss, P, = R,x() = 400 x 9° ~ 1,600 w.- P, @/?, Bug, remaining conste Total core losses = F,, + Q 2 = 1,800 + 1,600 = 2.900 WAns .f 418, TESTING OF TRANSFORMERS © scanned wit