Math Olympiad Formula Sheet

Disclaimer: This is not a preparation handout, this is a formula sheet. Mugging it up will not help you clear Olympiad, it will make it actively wore.This is just to revise before the exam.

• A polynomial P (x) = an xn +
Pn
Algebra Pk=1 rk = −b a
n
k,l=1 = a
c
an−1 xn−1 · · · + a1 x + a0 is symmet-
• (a + b)n = n n

n−k k
a1 + a1 + (n − 1)d
P
k=0 k a b Pn −d ric if:
k,l,m = a = ·n
• 2 2
(x + y) = x + 2xy + y 2
.. an = a0 2
• (x − y)2 = x2 − 2xy + y 2 . an−1 = a1
Note: We are basically taking sum of ..
• (x + y)2 = (x − y)2 + 4xy . 2a1 + (n − 1)d
terms first one at a time, then two at a = ·n
• x2 − y 2 = (x − y)(x + y) an−k = ak 2
time(all possible pair of two terms) and
• (x + y + z)2 = x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2(xy + then three at a time(all possible triplets If it is of an even degree, it can be • The nth term in a GP is:
yz + zx) of three terms) and so on, till we reach solved with the following algorithm:
gn = g1 · rn−1
• (x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2 y + 3xy 2 + y 3 the product
• (x − y)3 = x3 − 3x2 y + 3xy 2 − y 3 • For any polynomial axn + bxn−1 + 1. Divide by xn/2 gn = gm · rn−m
• (x + y + z)3 − 3xyz = (x + y + z)(x2 + cxn−2 · · · = 0 and the roots being
2. Group xk with 1
xk
• Sum of first n terms of a GP is:
y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − xz) r1 , r2 , r3 . . . rn , we can say
axn + bxn−1 + cxn−2 · · · = 0 3. Make the substitution t = x + 1
rn − 1
• x3 − y 3 = (x − y)(x2 + xy + y 2 ) x
g1 ·
⇒ a(x−r1 )(x−r2 )(x−r3 ) . . . (x−rn ) = r−1
• x3 + y 3 = (x + y)(x2 − xy + y 2 ) 4. Solve the simplified polynomial.
0
•
n
x4 + 4y 4 = (x2 + 2y 2 + 2xy)(x2 + 2y 2 − • hen P (x) is divided by x−r the remain- • If the roots of polynomial P (x) = NOTE: rr−1 −1
may be replaced with
2xy) der is P (r) an xn + an−1 xn−1 · · · + a1 x + a0 1−r n
whenever convenient.
1−r
• If x + x1 = a then: • For P (x) = an xn + an−a xn−a + · · · + are r1 , r2 , . . . rn then the roots of • Sum of infinite terms of a converging
x2 + x12 = a2 − 2 a1 x + a0 with roots r1 , r2 , r3 . . . , rn , a0 xn + a1 xn−1 · · · + an−1 x + an are GP:
1
x3 + x13 = a3 − 3a Let: S1 = r1 + r2 + . . . rn , 1 , . . . r1n
r1 r2
x4 + x14 = (a2 − 2)2 − 2 • If the roots of polynomial P (x) = g1
S2 = r12 + r22 + . . . rn2
• If x − x1 = a then: .. an xn + an−1 xn−1 · · · + a1 x + a0 are 1−r
.
x2 + x12 = a2 + 2 r1 , r2 , . . . rn then the roots of an (x −
NOTE: This only holds for −1 ≥
Sk = r1k + r2k + . . . rnk k)n +an−1 (x−k)n−1 · · ·+a1 (x−k)+a0
x3 − x13 = a3 + 3a r ≥ 1, as other series diverge to
then the following will hold true:
x4 + x14 = (a2 + 2)2 + 2 are r1 + k, r2 + k, . . . rn + k
either ∞ or −∞
an S1 + an−1 = 0
• xn − y n = (x − y)(xn−1 + xn−2 y + · · · + • The nth theorem of an Arithmetic Se- n
an S2 + an−1 S1 + 2an−2 = 0 X n(n + 1)
xy n−2 + y n−1 .. quence is: • k=
2
NOTE: This happens for all natural . k=1
n
values of n and the sign in the second Basically what the theorem says is: an = a + (n − 1)d X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
• k2 =
bracket is all positive. 6
1. Start with a Sk value and multi- • Number of terms in an AP: k=1
• x2n+1 +y 2n+1 = (x+y)(x2n −x2n−1 y + ply by it by the leftmost polyno- n  2
an − a1
X 3 n(n + 1)
· · · − xy 2n−1 + y 2n ) mial coefficient. n= +2 • k =
2 2
NOTE: This only happens for odd pow- k=1
2. Then, multiply Sk−1 by the poly- n
ers, and the sign in second bracket al-
• Average of n terms of AP:
X
nomial’s coefficient right after it. • (2k − 1) = n2
ternates.
3. Continue doing so and summing k=1
• xy + kx + ly = C ⇒ (x + l)(y + k) = a1 + an n
the products until ak−i becomes X
C + kl
√ 0 in which case we simply add the
2 • 2k = n(n + 1)
−b± b2 −4ac k=1
• For ax2 + bx + c = 0 x = 2a
last term and stop • Sum of n terms of an AP: •
• For axn + bxn−1 + cxn−2 · · · = 0 and 4. Set your final sum of terms to be a1 + an x1 + x2 + . . . + xn √
the roots being r1 , r2 , r3 . . . rn , equal to 0 ·n ≥ n x1 · x2 · . . . · xn
2 n

1
 The equality holds, if and only if, x1 = Number Theory • The product of GCD and LCM of two ϕ(n) using the formula
x2 = x3 · · · = xn numbers is equal to the product of the
• The number of factors of a number n if
    
two numbers: 1 1 1
• ϕ(n) = n 1 − 1− ··· 1 − .
it can be written as: gcd m, n · lcmm, n = m · n p1 p2 pm
pq11 ∗ pq22 ∗ · · · ∗ pqnn
• If two numbers have a common factor
X X
ax1 1 ax2 2 . . . axnn ≥ ay11 ay22 . . . aynn
where p1 , p2 . . . pn are prime is: ϕn represents the number of integers in
sym sym c, then:
(q1 + 1) ∗ (q2 + 1) ∗ · · · ∗ (qn + 1) the range {1, 2, 3 · · · , n} which are rel-
gcd(ac, bc) = c · gcd a, b
If x1 , x2 , x3 . . . xn ≻ y1 , y2 , y3 . . . yn • The sum of the divisors, or σ1 (n), is atively prime to n
• gcd x, y = gcd x, y − kx
given by • If a is an integer and m is a posi-
• If an inequality has the condition abc = • Integer solutions to the equation ax +
1, one can also sometimes use the σ1 (n) = (1 + p1 + p21 + · · · pq11 )(1 + p2 + tive integer relatively prime to a, then
q
p22 +· · ·+pq22 ) · · · (1+pk +p2k +· · ·+pkk ). by = c will only exist if and only if aϕ(m) ≡ 1 (mod m).
substitution (a, b, c) = (x/y, y/z, z/x) gcd(a, b) divides c.
which will transform it into a homoge- • The product of factors of a number n • If integer p > 1 , then (p − 1)! + 1 is
where it has f factors (this can be cal- • Reflexivity: a ≡ a (mod n) divisible by p if and only if p is prime.
neous inequality automatically.
culated using the number of factors for- Symmetry: a ≡ b (mod n) if and Essentially, (p−1)! = −1 (mod ()p) for
• Sometimes an inequality will refer to f only if b ≡ a (mod n)
mula) is n 2 prime p.
the a, b, c as the sides of a triangle. In Transitivity: If a ≡ b (mod n) and
that case, one can replace (a, b, c) = • 2: Last digit is even • If a positive number x satisfies the sys-
b ≡ c (mod n), then a ≡ c (mod n)
(y + z, z + x, x + y) where x, y, z > 0 tem of congruences:
• 3: Sum of digits is divisible by 3 Compatibility with Translation:
are real numbers. a + k ≡ b + k (mod n) for any inte-
• 4: Last 2 digits are divisible by 4 x ≡ a1 (mod n1 )
• for all non-negative a, b, c ∈ R and ger k
• 5: Last digit is 0 or 5 x ≡ a2 (mod n2 )
r > 0: Compatibility with Scaling: ka ≡
• 6: Divisible by 2 and 3 kb (mod n) for any integer k ..
X r 2
a (a + bc) ≥
X r+1
• 7: Take the last digit, double it, and .
a (b + c) We can also state it as: ka ≡ kb
cyc cyc subtract from the rest. If the result is (mod kn) for any integer k x ≡ ak (mod nk )
divisible by 7, then the number is di- Compatibility with Exponentia-
The four equality cases occur when a = visible by 7 tion: ak ≡ bk (mod n) for any non- where all ni are relatively prime, then
b = c or when two of a, b, c are equal x has a unique solution modulo n1 · n2 ·
• 8: Last 3 digits are divisible by 8 negative integer k
and the third is 0. n3 . . . nk .
• 9: Sum of digits is divisible by 9 • To calculate large digit(s) of a number
• for any list of reals a1 , a2 , . . . , an and ab , a strategy that may work is to just • For f : R → R such that:
• 10: Last digit is 0
b1 , b 2 , . . . , b n , look for a pattern by computing the
• 11: Calculate the sum of odd digits (O) f (x) + f (y) = f (x + y)
first few values of ab and then seeing
2digits (E). If |O − E| is divis-
(a21 +a22 +· · ·+a2n )(b21 +b22 +· · ·+b2n ) ≥ (a1 b1 +a2 b2 +· ·and
·+aeven
n bn ) , that the pattern will repeat for large
ible by 11, then the number is divisible
values of b. where f (x) is continuous if and only if
by 11
• Compatibility with Addition: a1 + f (x) = kx
• 12: Divisible by 3 and 4
a2 ≡ b1 + b2 (mod n) Compatibil- • For f : R → R such that:
• for any list of reals a1 , a2 , . . . , an and • 15: Divisible by 3 and 5 ity with Subtraction: a1 − a2 ≡
b1 , b 2 , . . . , b n : • The divisibility test for p ∗ q is the com- b1 − b2 (mod n) Compatibility with f (x · y) = f (x) + f (y)
bined test of p and q if gcd p, q = 1 Multiplication: a1 · a2 ≡ b1 · b2
a21 a22 a2 (a1 + a2 + · · · + an )2 (mod n) Compatibility with Poly-
+ +· · ·+ n ≥ . • Legendre’s Formula states that
b1 b2 bn b1 + b2 + · · · + bn nomial Evaluation: p(a) ≡ p(b) where f (x) is continuous if and only if
∞  (mod n), for any polynomial p(x) with f (x) = k log x
•

X n n − Sp (n)
ep (n!) = = integer coefficients • For f : R → R such that:
r i=1
pi p−1
a21 + a22 + . . . + a2n a1 + a2 + . . . + an • If p is prime and does not divide a,
≥ f (x + y) = f (x) · f (y)
n n where p is a prime and ep (n!) is the ex- then ap ≡ a (mod p), which can also
√
≥ n a1 · a2 · . . . · an ponent of p in the prime factorization be written as: ap−1 ≡ 1 (mod p)
n of n! and Sp (n) is the sum of the digits • Given the general prime factorization where f (x) is continuous and non-zero
≥ 1
a1
+ a2 + . . . + a1n
1 of n when written in base p of n = pe11 pe22 · · · pemm , one can compute if and only if f (x) = ax where a = f (1)

2
• For f : R → R such that: • A∪B∪C = A+B+C −A∩B−B∩
C −C ∩A+A∩B∩C
• Pn
Pn
f (x · y) = f (x) · f (y)
S
i=1 Ai = i=1 |Ai | −
P i<j |A i ∩ Aj | +

where f (x) is continuous and non zero i<j<k |Ai ∩ Aj ∩ Ak | − · · · +

n−1
if and only if f (x) = xk (−1) |A1 ∩ · · · ∩ An |
• For any two relatively prime positive • we can say that n objects can be put
(n+k−1)!
integers m, n, the greatest integer that in k distinguishable bins in n!∗(k−1)! =
n+k−1


cannot be written in the form am + bn

n
for nonnegative integers a, b is mn − • n0 + n1 + n2 . . . n = 2n




n
m − n. • 0 ∗ r−0 + 1 ∗ r−1 · · · + r−1
m

n

m

n

m


∗
A consequence of the theorem is that n

m

n

m+n


+ r ∗ 0 = r
there are exactly (m−1)(n−1)
2
positive 1
• nk + k+1 n
= n+1




integers which cannot be expressed in k+1

• kk + k+1 + · · · + nk = n+1





the form am + bn. k k+1
• 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 15 . . . is the fibonacci se-
quence.
PnC • 1, 1, 2, 5, 14, 42 . . . are the catlan num-
• The number of ways to arrange n ob- bers which are formed by Cn =
1 2n


jects is n! n+1 n
• E(x1 + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn ) = E(x1 ) +
• The number of ways of arranging n ob-
E(x2 ) + E(x3 ) + · · · + E(xn )
jects in a circle where rotations of the
same arrangement are not considered
distinct is (n − 1)! Geometry
• The number of ways of arranging n ob-
jects in a circle where rotations of the (Write your own notes here)
same arrangement are not considered
distinct and reflections of the same ar-
rangement are not considered distinct
is (n−1)!
2
• The number of ways to arrange a to-
tal objects if k, l, m, n, . . . are identical
a!
= k!l!m!n!...
• Number of ways of choosing k objects
from

n, where order doesn’t matter is
n n!
k
= k!(n−k)!

• Notice that nk = k−n n

as ways of
choosing k things to be selected is the
same as choosing n − k things to not be
selected.
• The number of subsets of a set of size
n is 2n .
• Probability = Number of desired outcomes
Total number of outcomes
• A∪B =A+B−A∩B