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Java concepts 5th Edition Cay S. Horstmann Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Cay S. Horstmann
ISBN(s): 9780470105559, 0470105550
Edition: 5
File Details: PDF, 10.80 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
Java Concepts, 5th Edition

Java Concepts Page 1 of 4

Java Concepts, 5th Edition

Java Concepts
FIFTH EDITION

Cay Horstmann

SAN JOSE STATE UNIVERSITY

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

978-0-470-10555-9

Java Concepts Page 2 of 4

Java Concepts, 5th Edition
1
Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Using Objects

Chapter 3 Implementing Classes

Chapter 4 Fundamental Data Types

Chapter 5 Decisions 1
226
Chapter 6 Iteration

Chapter 7 Arrays and Array Lists

Chapter 8 Designing Classes

Chapter 9 Interfaces and Polymorphism

Chapter 10 Inheritance

Chapter 11 Input/Output and Exception Handling

Chapter 12 Object-Oriented Design 226

586
Chapter 13 Recursion 586
626
Chapter 14 Sorting and Searching

Chapter 15 An Introduction to Data Structures

Chapter 16 Advanced Data Structures 626

764
Chapter 17 Generic Programming

Java Concepts Page 3 of 4

Java Concepts, 5th Edition

Chapter 18 Graphical User Interfaces

Java Concepts Page 4 of 4

Java Concepts, 5th Edition

Chapter 1 Introduction

CHAPTER GOALS
• To understand the activity of programming

• To learn about the architecture of computers

• To learn about machine code and high-level programming languages

• To become familiar with your computing environment and your compiler

• To compile and run your first Java program

• To recognize syntax and logic errors

The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize you with the concept of programming. It
reviews the architecture of a computer and discusses the difference between machine
code and high-level programming languages. Finally, you will see how to compile
and run your first Java program, and how to diagnose errors that may occur when a
program is compiled or executed.
2
1.1 What Is Programming?
You have probably used a computer for work or fun. Many people use computers for
everyday tasks such as balancing a checkbook or writing a term paper. Computers are
good for such tasks. They can handle repetitive chores, such as totaling up numbers or
placing words on a page, without getting bored or exhausted. Computers also make
good game machines because they can play sequences of sounds and pictures,
involving the human user in the process.

The flexibility of a computer is quite an amazing phenomenon. The same machine can
balance your checkbook, print your term paper, and play a game. In contrast, other
machines carry out a much narrower range of tasks—a car drives and a toaster toasts.

To achieve this flexibility, the computer must be programmed to perform each task. A
computer itself is a machine that stores data (numbers, words, pictures), interacts with
devices (the monitor screen, the sound system, the printer), and executes programs.
Chapter 1 Introduction Page 1 of 43
Java Concepts, 5th Edition
Programs are sequences of instructions and decisions that the computer carries out to
achieve a task. One program balances checkbooks; a different program, perhaps
designed and constructed by a different company, processes words; and a third
program, probably from yet another company, plays a game.

A computer must be programmed to perform tasks. Different tasks require different

programs.

Today's computer programs are so sophisticated that it is hard to believe that they are
all composed of extremely primitive operations.

A computer program executes a sequence of very basic operations in rapid

succession.
2
3
A typical operation may be one of the following:

• Put a red dot onto this screen position.

• Send the letter A to the printer.

• Get a number from this location in memory.

• Add up two numbers.

• If this value is negative, continue the program at that instruction.

A computer program tells a computer, in minute detail, the sequence of steps that are
needed to complete a task. A program contains a huge number of simple operations,
and the computer executes them at great speed. The computer has no intelligence—it
simply executes instruction sequences that have been prepared in advance.

A computer program contains the instruction sequences for all tasks that it can
execute.

To use a computer, no knowledge of programming is required. When you write a term

paper with a word processor, that software package has been programmed by the
manufacturer and is ready for you to use. That is only to be expected—you can drive a
car without being a mechanic and toast bread without being an electrician.

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 2 of 43

Java Concepts, 5th Edition

A primary purpose of this book is to teach you how to design and implement computer
programs. You will learn how to formulate instructions for all tasks that your programs
need to execute.

Keep in mind that programming a sophisticated computer game or word processor

requires a team of many highly skilled programmers, graphic artists, and other
professionals. Your first programming efforts will be more mundane. The concepts
and skills you learn in this book form an important foundation, but you should not
expect to immediately produce professional software. A typical college program in
computer science or software engineering takes four years to complete; this book is
intended as an introductory course in such a program.

Many students find that there is an immense thrill even in simple programming tasks.
It is an amazing experience to see the computer carry out a task precisely and quickly
that would take you hours of drudgery.

SELF CHECK
1. What is required to play a music CD on a computer?

2. Why is a CD player less flexible than a computer?

3. Can a computer program develop the initiative to execute tasks in a better

way than its programmers envisioned?

1.2 The Anatomy of a Computer

To understand the programming process, you need to have a rudimentary
understanding of the building blocks that make up a computer. This section will
describe a personal computer. Larger computers have faster, larger, or more powerful
components, but they have fundamentally the same design. 3

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 3 of 43

Java Concepts, 5th Edition
3
4
Figure 1

Central Processing Unit

At the heart of the computer lies the central processing unit (CPU) (see Figure 1). It
consists of a single chip (integrated circuit) or a small number of chips. A computer
chip is a component with a plastic or metal housing, metal connectors, and inside
wiring made principally from silicon. For a CPU chip, the inside wiring is enormously
complicated. For example, the Pentium 4 chip (a popular CPU for personal computers
at the time of this writing) contains over 50 million structural elements called
transistors—the elements that enable electrical signals to control other electrical
signals, making automatic computing possible. The CPU locates and executes the
program instructions; it carries out arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division; and it fetches data from storage and input/output devices
and sends data back.

At the heart of the computer lies the central processing unit (CPU).

The computer keeps data and programs in storage. There are two kinds of storage.
Primary storage, also called random-access memory (RAM) or simply memory, is fast
but expensive; it is made from memory chips (see Figure 2). Primary storage has two
disadvantages. It is comparatively expensive, and it loses all its data when the power is
turned off. Secondary storage, usually a hard disk (see Figure 3), provides less

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 4 of 43

Java Concepts, 5th Edition
expensive storage that persists without electricity. A hard disk consists of rotating
platters, which are coated with a magnetic material, and read/write heads, which can
detect and change the patterns of varying magnetic flux on the platters. This is
essentially the same recording and playback process that is used in audio or video
tapes.

Data and programs are stored in primary storage (memory) and secondary storage
(such as a hard disk).

Some computers are self-contained units, whereas others are interconnected through
networks. Home computers are usually intermittently connected to the Internet via a
dialup or broadband connection. The computers in your computer lab are probably
permanently connected to a local area network. Through the network cabling, the 4
computer can read programs from central storage locations or send data to other 5
computers. For the user of a networked computer, it may not even be obvious which
data reside on the computer itself and which are transmitted through the network.

Figure 2

A Memory Module with Memory Chips

Most computers have removable storage devices that can access data or programs on
media such as floppy disks, tapes, or compact discs (CDs).
Chapter 1 Introduction Page 5 of 43
Java Concepts, 5th Edition

Figure 3

A Hard Disk.
5

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 6 of 43

Java Concepts, 5th Edition
5
6
Figure 4

A Motherboard

To interact with a human user, a computer requires other peripheral devices. The
computer transmits information to the user through a display screen, loudspeakers, and
printers. The user can enter information and directions to the computer by using a
keyboard or a pointing device such as a mouse.

The CPU, the RAM, and the electronics controlling the hard disk and other devices are
interconnected through a set of electrical lines called a bus. Data travel along the bus
from the system memory and peripheral devices to the CPU and back. Figure 4 shows
a motherboard, which contains the CPU, the RAM, and connectors to peripheral
devices.

Figure 5 gives a schematic overview of the architecture of a computer. Program

instructions and data (such as text, numbers, audio, or video) are stored on the hard
disk, on a CD, or on a network. When a program is started, it is brought into memory
where it can be read by the CPU. The CPU reads the program one instruction at a time.
As directed by these instructions, the CPU reads data, modifies it, and writes it back to
RAM or to secondary storage. Some program instructions will cause the CPU to

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 7 of 43

Java Concepts, 5th Edition
interact with the devices that control the display screen or the speaker. Because these
actions happen many times over and at great speed, the human user will perceive
images and sound. Similarly, the CPU can send instructions to a printer to mark the
paper with patterns of closely spaced dots, which a human recognizes as text
characters and pictures. Some program instructions read user input from the keyboard
or mouse. The program analyzes the nature of these inputs and then executes the next
appropriate instructions.

The CPU reads machine instructions from memory. The instructions direct it to
communicate with memory, secondary storage, and peripheral devices.
6
7
Figure 5

Schematic Diagram of a Computer

SELF CHECK
4. Where is a program stored when it is not currently running?

5. Which part of the computer carries out arithmetic operations, such as

addition and multiplication?

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 8 of 43

Java Concepts, 5th Edition

RANDOM FACT 1.1: The ENIAC and the Dawn of

Computing
The ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator and computer) was the first usable
electronic computer. It was designed by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly at the
University of Pennsylvania and was completed in 1946. Instead of transistors,
which were not invented until two years after it was built, the ENIAC contained
about 18,000 vacuum tubes in many cabinets housed in a large room (see The
ENIAC figure). Vacuum tubes burned out at the rate of several tubes per day. An
attendant with a shopping cart full of tubes constantly made the rounds and replaced
defective ones. The computer was programmed by connecting wires on panels.
Each wiring configuration would set up the computer for a particular problem. To
have the computer work on a different problem, the wires had to be replugged.

Work on the ENIAC was supported by the U.S. Navy, which was interested in
computations of ballistic tables that would give the trajectory of a projectile,
depending on the wind resistance, initial velocity, and atmospheric conditions. To 7
compute the trajectories, one must find the numerical solutions of certain 8
differential equations; hence the name “numerical integrator”. Before machines like
ENIAC were developed, humans did this kind of work, and until the 1950s the
word “computer” referred to these people. The ENIAC was later used for peaceful
purposes, such as the tabulation of U.S. census data.

The ENIAC

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 9 of 43

Java Concepts, 5th Edition

1.3 Translating Human-Readable Programs to Machine

Code
On the most basic level, computer instructions are extremely primitive. The processor
executes machine instructions. CPUs from different vendors, such as the Intel Pentium
or the Sun SPARC, have different sets of machine instructions. To enable Java
applications to run on multiple CPUs without modification, Java programs contain
machine instructions for a so-called “Java virtual machine” (JVM), an idealized CPU
that is simulated by a program run on the actual CPU. The difference between actual
and virtual machine instructions is not important—all you need to know is that
machine instructions are very simple, are encoded as numbers and stored in memory,
and can be executed very quickly.

Generally, machine code depends on the CPU type. However, the instruction set of
the Java virtual machine (JVM) can be executed on many CPUs.
8
9
A typical sequence of machine instructions is

1. Load the contents of memory location 40.

2. Load the value 100.

3. If the first value is greater than the second value, continue with the instruction
that is stored in memory location 240.

Actually, machine instructions are encoded as numbers so that they can be stored in
memory. On the Java virtual machine, this sequence of instruction is encoded as the
sequence of numbers
21 40
16 100
163 240

When the virtual machine fetches this sequence of numbers, it decodes them and
executes the associated sequence of commands.

How can you communicate the command sequence to the computer? The most direct
method is to place the actual numbers into the computer memory. This is, in fact, how

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 10 of 43

Java Concepts, 5th Edition
the very earliest computers worked. However, a long program is composed of
thousands of individual commands, and it is tedious and error-prone to look up the
numeric codes for all commands and manually place the codes into memory. As we
said before, computers are really good at automating tedious and error-prone activities,
and it did not take long for computer programmers to realize that computers could be
harnessed to help in the programming process.

Because machine instructions are encoded as numbers, it is difficult to write

programs in machine code.

In the mid-1950s, high-level programming languages began to appear. In these

languages, the programmer expresses the idea behind the task that needs to be
performed, and a special computer program, called a compiler, translates the
high-level description into machine instructions for a particular processor.

High-level languages allow you to describe tasks at a higher conceptual level than
machine code.

For example, in Java, the high-level programming language that you will use in this
book, you might give the following instruction:
if (intRate > 100)
System.out.println("Interest rate error");

This means, “If the interest rate is over 100, display an error message”. It is then the
job of the compiler program to look at the sequence of characters if (intRate >
100) and translate that into
21 40 16 100 163 240 . . .

Compilers are quite sophisticated programs. They translate logical statements, such as
the if statement, into sequences of computations, tests, and jumps. They assign
memory locations for variables—items of information identified by symbolic names—
like intRate. In this course, we will generally take the existence of a compiler for
granted. If you decide to become a professional computer scientist, you may well learn
more about compiler-writing techniques later in your studies.

Chapter 1 Introduction Page 11 of 43

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
thus killing the occupant and securing two bows and five arrows, as
represented in the left-hand group. The right-hand figure of that
group shows the hand raised in the attitude of making the gesture
for kill.

Fig. 95.—Petroglyphs in Wind river valley, Wyoming.

The Blackfeet, according to the interpreters, were the only Indians in

the locality mentioned who constructed log houses, and therefore
the drawing becomes additionally interesting, as an attempt appears
to have been made to illustrate the crossing of the logs at the
corners, the gesture for which (log house) is as follows:
Both hands are held edgewise before the body, palms facing, spread
the fingers, and place those of one hand into the spaces between
those of the other, so that the tips of each protrude about an inch
beyond.
Another and more important petroglyph was discovered on Little
Popo-Agie, northwestern Wyoming, by members of Capt. Jones’s
party in 1873. The glyphs are upon a nearly vertical wall of the
yellow sandstone in the rear of Murphy’s ranch, and appear to be of
some antiquity. Further remarks, with specimens of the characters,
are presented below in this paper. (See Fig. 1091.)
Dr. William H. Corbusier, U. S. Army, in a letter to the writer,
mentions the discovery of drawings on a sandstone rock near the
headwaters of Sage creek, in the vicinity of Fort Washakie,
Wyoming, and gives a copy which is presented as Fig. 96. Dr.
Corbusier remarks that neither the Shoshoni nor the Arapaho
Indians know who made the drawings. The two chief figures appear
to be those of the human form, with the hands and arms partly
uplifted the whole being inclosed above and on either side by an
irregular line.

Fig. 96.—Petroglyph near Sage creek, Wyoming.

The method of grouping, together with various accompanying

appendages, as irregular lines, spirals, etc., observed in Dr.
Corbusier’s drawing, show great similarity to the Algonquian type,
and resemble some engravings found near the Wind river
mountains, which were the work of Blackfeet (Satsika) Indians, who,
in comparatively recent times, occupied portions of the country in
question, and probably also sketched the designs near Fort
Washakie.
Fig. 97 is also reported from the same locality.
 Fig. 97.—Petroglyph near Sage
creek, Wyoming.

SECTION 3.
MEXICO.

No adequate attention can be given in the present paper to the

distribution and description of the petroglyphs of Mexico. In fact very
little accurate information is accessible regarding them. The
distinguished explorer, Mr. A. Bandelier, in a conversation mentioned
that he had sketched but not published two petroglyphs in Sonora.
One, very large and interesting, was at Cara Pintada, 3 miles
southwest of Huassavas, and a smaller one was at Las Flechas, 1
mile west of Huassavas. He also sketched one in Chihuahua on the
trail from Casas Grandes to the Cerro de Montezuma. From the
accounts of persons met in his Mexican travels he gave it as his
opinion that a large number of petroglyphs still remained in the
region of the Sierra Madre.
The following mention of the paintings of the ancient inhabitants of
Lower California is translated from an anonymous account, in
Documentos para la Historia de Mexico (a), purporting to have been
written in 1790:
Throughout civilized California, from south to north, and
especially in the caves and smooth rocks, there remain
various rude paintings. Notwithstanding their
disproportion and lack of art, the representations of men,
fish, bows and arrows, can be distinguished and with
them different kind of strokes, something like characters.
The colors of these paintings are of four kinds; yellow, a
reddish color, green and black. The greater part of them
are painted in high places, and from this it is inferred by
some that the old tradition is true, that there were giants
among the ancient Californians. Be this as it may, in the
Mission of Santiago, which is at the south, was discovered
on a smooth rock of great height, a row of hands stamped
in red. On the high cliffs facing the shore are seen fish
painted in various shapes and sizes, bows, arrows, and
some unknown characters. In other parts are Indians
armed with bows and arrows, and various kinds of insects,
snakes, and mice, with lines and characters of other
forms. On a flat rock about 2 yards in length were
stamped insignia or escutcheons of rank and inscriptions
of various characters.
Towards Purmo, about 30 leagues beyond the Mission of
Santiago del Sur, is a bluff 8 yards in height and on the
center of it is seen an inscription which resembles Gothic
letters interspersed with Hebrew and Chaldean characters
[?].
Though the Californian Indians have often been asked
concerning the significance of the figures, lines, and
characters, no satisfactory answer has been obtained. The
most that has been established by their information is that
the paintings were their predecessors, and that they are
absolutely ignorant of the signification of them. It is
 evident that the paintings and drawings of the Californians
are significant symbols and landmarks by which they
intended to leave to posterity the memory, either of their
establishment in this country, or of certain wars or political
or natural triumphs. These pictures are not like those of
the Mexicans, but might have the same purpose.
Several petroglyphs in Sonora are described and illustrated infra in
Chapter xx on Special Comparisons. The following copies of
petroglyphs are presented here as specimens and are markedly
different from those in the northwestern states of Mexico, which
represent the Aztec culture.
The description of Fig. 98 is extracted from Viages de Guillelmo
Dupaix (a):
 Fig. 98.—Petroglyphs in Mexico.

Going from the town of Tlalmanalco to that of

Mecamecan, at a distance of a league to the east of the
latter and in the confines of the estate of Señor Don José
Tepatolco, is an isolated rock of granitic stone artificially
cut into a conical form with a series of six steps cut in the
solid rock itself on the eastern side, the summit forming a
platform or horizontal section suitable for the purpose of
observing the stars at all points of the compass. It is,
therefore, most evident that this ancient monument or
observatory was employed solely for astronomical
observations, and it is further proved by various
hieroglyphs cut in the south side of the cone; but the
most interesting feature of this side is the figure of a man
standing upright and in profile directing his gaze to the
east with the arms raised, holding in the hands a tube or
species of optical instrument. Beneath his feet is seen a
carved frieze with six compartments or squares and other
symbols of a celestial nature are engraved on their
surfaces, evidently the product of observation and
calculation. Some of them have connection with those
found symmetrically arranged in circles on the ancient
Mexican calendar, exposed in this capital to general
admiration. In front of the observer is a rabbit seated and
confronted by two parallel rows of numerical figures; lastly
two other symbols relating to the same science are seen
at the back.
Prof. Daniel G. Brinton (a), gives an account of the illustration here
produced on Pl. xiv A, which may be thus condensed:
 BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY TENTH ANNUAL
REPORT PL. XIV
THE STONE OF THE GIANTS, MEXICO.

The “Stone of the Giants” at Escamela near the city of

Orizaba, Mexico, has been the subject of much discussion.
Father Damaso Sotomayor sees in the inscribed figures a
mystical allusion to the coming of Christ to the Gentiles
and to the occurrences supposed in Hebrew myth to have
taken place in the Garden of Eden. This stone was
examined by Capt. Dupaix in the year 1808 and is figured
in the illustrations to his voluminous narrative. The figure
he gives [now presented as B on Pl. XIV] is, however, so
erroneous that it yields but a faint idea of the real
character and meaning of the drawing. It omits the
ornament on the breast and also the lines along the right
of the giant’s face, which as I shall show are distinctive
traits. It gives him a girdle where none is delineated, and
the relative size and proportions of all the three figures
are quite distorted.
The rock on which the inscription is found is roughly
triangular in shape, presenting a nearly straight border of
30 feet on each side. It is hard and uniform in texture and
of a dark color. The length or height of the principal figure
is 27 feet, and the incised lines which designate the
various objects are deeply and clearly cut.
I now approach the decipherment of the inscriptions. Any
one versed in the signs of the Mexican calendar will at
once perceive that it contains the date of a certain year
and day. On the left of the giant is seen a rabbit
surrounded with ten circular depressions. These
depressions are the well-known Aztec marks for numerals,
and the rabbit represents one of the four astronomic signs
by which they adjusted their chronologic cycles of fifty-
two years. The stone bears a carefully dated record, with
year and day clearly set forth. The year is represented to
the left of the figure and is that numbered “ten” under the
sign of the rabbit; the day of the year is number “one”
under the sign of the fish.
These precise dates recurred once, and only once, every
fifty-two years, and had recurred only once between the
year of our era, 1450, and the Spanish conquest of Mexico
in 1519-’20. Within the period named the year “ten rabbit”
of the Aztec calendar corresponded with the year 1502 of
the Gregorian calendar. It is more difficult to fix the day,
but it is, I think, safe to say that, according to the most
probable computations, the day, “one fish,” occurred in
the first month of the year 1502, which month coincided
in whole or in part with our February.
Such is the date on the inscription. Now, what is intimated
to have occurred on that date? The clew to this is
furnished by the figure of the giant. It represents an ogre
of horrid mien with a death’s-head grin and formidable
teeth, his hair wild and long, the locks falling down upon
the neck. Suspended on the breast as an ornament is the
bone of a human lower jaw, with its incisor teeth. The left
leg is thrown forward as in the act of walking, and the
arms are uplifted, the hands open, and the fingers
extended as at the moment of seizing the prey or the
victim. The lines about the umbilicus represent the knot of
the girdle which supported the maxtli or breechcloth.
There is no doubt as to which personage of the Aztec
pantheon this fear-inspiring figure represents. It is
Tzontemoc Mictlantecutli, “the Lord of the Realm of the
Dead, He of the Falling Hair,” the dread god of death and
the dead. His distinctive marks are there, the death’s-
head, the falling hair, the jaw bone, the terrible aspect,
the giant size.
We possess several chronicles of the empire before Cortes
destroyed it, written in the hieroglyphs which the inventive
genius of the natives had devised. Taking two of these
chronicles, one known as the Codex Telleriano-Remensis,
the other as the Codex Vaticanus, I turn to the year
numbered “ten” under the sign of the rabbit and I find
that both present the same record which I copy in the
following figure.
 Fig. 99.—The Emperor Ahuitzotzin.

The figure so copied is entitled “Extract from the Vatican Codex,”

which is a slight error. It is a copy from the Codex Telleriano-
Remensis, Kingsborough, i, Pt. 4, p. 23, year 1502, which is here
reproduced as Fig. 99. The record in the Vatican Codex,
Kingsborough, ii, p. 130, differs in some unimportant details. It may
also be noted that in the text relating to the Codex Telleriano-
Remensis, Kingsborough, vi, p. 141, the word Ahuitzotl is given as
“the name of an aquatic animal famous in Mexican mythology.” The
present opportunity is embraced to recognize the acumen displayed
by Prof. Brinton in his interpretation of the petroglyph. He proceeds
as follows:
The sign of the year (the rabbit) is shown merely by his
head for brevity. The ten dots, which give its number, are
 beside it. Immediately beneath is a curious quadruped,
with what are intended as water-drops dripping from him.
The animal is the hedgehog, and the figure is to be
constructed iconomatically; that is, it must be read as a
rebus through the medium of the Nahuatl language. In
that language water is atl, in composition a, and
hedgehog is uitzotl. Combine these and you get ahuitzotl,
or, with the reverential termination, ahuitzotzin. This was
the name of the ruler or emperor, if you allow the word, of
ancient Mexico before the accession to the throne of that
Montezuma whom the Spanish conquistador, Cortes, put
to death.
Returning to the page from the chronicle, we observe that
the hieroglyph of Ahuitzotzin is placed immediately over a
corpse swathed in its mummy cloths, as was the custom
of interment with the highest classes in Mexico. This
signifies that the death of Ahuitzotzin took place in that
year. Adjacent to it is the figure of his successor, his name
iconomatically represented by the headdress of the
nobles, the tecuhtli, giving the middle syllables of “Mo-
tecuh-zoma.” No doubt is left that La Piedra de los
Gigantes of Escamela is a necrologic tablet
commemorating the death of the Emperor Ahuitzotzin,
some time in February, 1502.
Mr. Eugène Boban (a) mentions manuscript copies, dating from the
beginning of the century, of various sculptured stones in Mexico.
These sculpturings represent native ideographic characters, among
them the teocalli, the tepetl, the sign ollin, etc.
On several of the plates which compose this collection are notes
indicating the place where the monument, fragment, or ruin is
found, from which the characters are copied; for example, one of
them bears the note: “de la calle Rl de la villa de Cuernabaca.”
Several others bear annotations which show that they have been
copied in the cemetery, in the streets of that town, or in its environs.
Aside from these notes the plates are not accompanied by any
information which could give a trace of the person who drew them,
or the purpose for which they were intended.
The same author (b) describes a large sculptured stone of Mexico,
the designs on which have been reproduced in paintings on
deerskin. After giving a detailed description of the copied MS. he
speaks of the stone as follows:
We deem it of interest to give some notes concerning the
famous cylindrical stone, both sculptured and painted,
known by the name Teocuauhxicalli (the sacred drinking
vase of the eagles) on which are found the themes of all
the designs which have been above described. This stone,
buried at the time of the Spanish Conquest, was
discovered in the first half of this century at the close of a
series of excavations made in the soil of the Place
d’Armes, Mexico. The director of the national museum,
who was then M. Rafael Gondra, contented himself with
taking the dimensions and making a hurried sketch of it. It
was then reinterred, as the necessary funds were lacking
to exhume it entirely and transport it to the museum.
The name Teocuauhxicalli is composed of: Teotl, god;
cuauhili, eagle, and xicalli, hemispherical vase formed
from the half of a gourd. It may be translated by, “The
vase of god and the eagles,” or, rather, “The sacred
drinking cup of the eagles.”
“The Mexican monarch Axayacatl, jealous of his
predecessor Motecuhzoma I, took down the
Teocuauhxicalli which was in the upper part of the Great
Temple of Mexico, and replaced it by another, sculptured
by his order;” so says the eminent Mexican archæologist
and historian, Don Manuel Orozco y Berra, in his excellent
work, Historia Antigua y de la Conquesta de Mexico (t. iii,
p. 348). This monument was also dedicated to the god of
war, Huitzilopochtli.
 According to Duran and Tezozomoc, those stones on
which gods were represented were designated by the
name Teocuauhxicalli; i. e., divine cuauhxicalli. They
belonged to the class of painted stones, for they were
covered with several colors.
Orozco y Berra adds the following: “It is evident that the
figures sculptured and painted do not represent armed
warriors preparing for combat. On the contrary, we see
that they represent gods. Among them is found
Huitzilopochtli (god of war) with his arms and attributes,
having before him another deity or high priest who holds
in his hands the emblems of the holocaust.
“The figures of the upper part are not fighting and could
not have known how to fight, if we judge by their
positions; the chest is turned back, the face raised toward
the sky, in which appears an object which resembles the
astronomical sign cipactli.
“Everywhere on the surface of this stone are noticed
symbols, birds, quadrupeds, fantastic reptiles, signs of the
sun, days, months, and a quantity of objects whose
character is imitated in manuscripts and rituals. There can
be no doubt that we are in the presence of a monument
devoted to the gods and bearing legends relative to their
worship. M. the minister of Fomento, D. Vicente Rivera
Palacio, in 1877 made several attempts at excavation in
the Plaza Mayor of Mexico, to recover this important
monument, but all search remained unfruitful.”
This stone is supposed to be buried beneath the Place
d’Armes at Mexico.
Mexican petroglyphs are also discussed and figured by Chavero (a).
It would seem from these and other descriptions of and allusions to
petroglyphs in Mexico, that at the time of the Spanish conquest they
were extant in large numbers, though now seldom found. Perhaps
the Spaniards destroyed them in the same spirit which led them to
burn up many of the Mexican pictographs on paper and other
substances.
A number of illustrations of the Mexican pictographic writings are
given below under various headings.

SECTION 4.
WEST INDIES.

The valuable paper of A. L. Pinart (a), giving a description of the

petroglyphs found by him in the Greater and Lesser Antilles, is
received too late for reproduction of the illustrations. He explored a
number of the groups of the West Indies with varying success, but
found that the island of Puerto Rico was the one which now
furnishes the greatest amount of evidence of development in the
pictographic art. His marks translated with condensation appear
below.

PUERTO RICO.

The first petroglyph to be mentioned is found at la Cueva

del Islote, on Punta Braba, about 5 leagues east from
Arecibo and on the north side of the island of Puerto Rico.
The grotto is found in an immense blackish mass of
igneous rock, forming a point projecting into the sea,
which beats furiously against it; it communicates with the
sea at the foot, and the water entering this passage,
which is quite narrow, produces a terrific roaring followed
soon after by veritable thunder claps. The people of the
neighborhood have a superstitious fear of it, and it is only
with great difficulty that anyone can be found to
accompany one there. The entrance on the land side is
toward the east—a yawning crevasse, filled partly with
rubbish and partly by the stunted vegetation of the coast.
On penetrating to the interior we find, after following a
short but wide passage, a pyriform chamber 20 meters in
diameter. In the ceiling a very narrow crack admits a ray
of light which, reflected in the water of the sea, filling the
bottom of the cave, produces a bluish twilight.
Notwithstanding this twilight, we are obliged to carry
torches to distinguish objects. All around us, but especially
over the point where the sea enters in, are to be seen the
inscriptions represented here. The incisions are very deep,
and the edges are generally dulled by the blows of the
hammer; in certain spots, toward the lower part of the
grotto, several inscriptions are partially effaced by the
action of the sea, but those of the upper part are in a
remarkable state of preservation. Beneath certain principal
figures of the groups are little circular basin-like
depressions cut in the rock with a trench running down
toward the bottom.
I will not attempt here to give a formal explanation of
these inscriptions, but may we not regard the spot in
which they are found as having served for a rendezvous
for the ancient Borrinqueños where they performed their
sacrifices or the ceremonies of their religion? On the other
hand, the appearance of these inscriptions is very peculiar.
One of them might be considered a representation of
those little figurines and statuettes of stone found in
Mexico, in Mixteca, and in the country to the south. In
another a head is curiously decorated with a diadem of
feathers, and apparently represents one presiding at a
feast served in the small circular basin set before him. The
most noticeable thing in this group of inscriptions is the
frequency of the grinning faces in a circle, often alone,
often accompanied by two others placed at the sides,
which are universally met with in every inscription found
in the Greater and Lesser Antilles. The same may be said
of the human figure apparently swaddled in cloths like a
very young infant, the head and body more or less
decorated, which is also very frequently found.
Following these petroglyphs of Islote, we present a list of
others discovered at Puerto Rico, hastily describing them
and giving a particular description only of those which are
of the greatest interest.
In the above-mentioned grotto of Cueva de los Archillas,
near the village of Ciales, we observed the curious figures
bearing traces of a crown and peculiar ear ornaments. In
la Cueva de los Conejos, some distance from Arecibo, on
the road from Utauado, we found a figure partly incised
and partly painted in a dark red; it is very artistically
fashioned, and represents the famous “guava,” the
monster spider of the Greater Antilles, of which the
natives have a great dread. It is probable that the ancient
Borrinqueños also considered it with a certain awe, and
we find images of the same animal in la Cueva del Templo
on the coast of Haiti, at Santo Domingo. A solitary rock of
a reddish color, in a field of the hacienda of Don Pedro
Pavez at la Carolina, a short distance from the Rio Pedras,
bears a series of grimacing faces in circles. On a granitic
rock of large dimensions, superimposed on a heap of
rocks of the same character, in the midst of a grove of
Indian trees and at the entrance of the Cano del Indio into
Rio la Ceiba, near Fajardo, on the east side, are found
three swaddled human figures, the heads decorated with
various ornaments. On a black rock in the Rio Arriba, one
of the branches of the Rio de la Ceiba, is a petroglyph
which presents but little that is of interest.
On the Loma Muñoz, near the Rio Arriba above
mentioned, and on the summit of the hill, stands a dark
rock with smooth face protected by another mass of rock,
 forming a sort of shelter on which is an inscription
composed of a number of incised grinning faces. At the
confluence of the Rio Blanco and the Rio de la Ceiba, in
the district of Fajardo, is a series of violent rapids formed
by immense rocks of a granitic character, on which are cut
a large number of other grimacing faces and also some
swaddled figures, and other incisions which are not of
interest.

BAHAMA ISLANDS.

Lady Edith Blake, wife of Sir Henry Arthur Blake, formerly governor
of the Bahama islands, has kindly furnished the following information
and sketches (Figs. 100, 101, and 102), relating to petroglyphs in
the Bahama islands. Lady Blake says:
The carvings are on the walls of an “Indian hole,” also
called Hartford cave, in the northern shore of a small
island in Rum Cay, one of the Bahama group. Rum Cay
measures 5 miles from north to south and about 8 or 9
from east to west. It lies 20 miles northwest of Watlings
island, the San Salvador of Columbus.
The cave is situated on the seashore about a mile and a
half from the western point of the island to the eastward
of a bluff, close to which is a “puffing hole,” through which
the waves blow when the seas roll in from the north. The
cave is semicircular in shape and about 20 yards in depth,
and is partially filled with debris of rocks, earth, and sand.
 Fig. 100.—Petroglyphs in the Bahamas.

Like all rocks of which the Bahamas are formed, those in

Hartford cave are a mixture of coral, detritus, and shell,
very rough and full of cracks and indentations, and in this
cave, from the constant damp of filtration and spray, the
walls were coated with a deposit of lime and salt, so that
it would be impossible to say if the carvings had been
colored. If ever they had been, any traces of coloring
must long have disappeared. Besides the markings copied
there were others scattered over the walls of the cave,
most of which were circles apparently resembling human
faces. Unfortunately, we neglected to measure the
carvings, but I should judge the circles or faces to be 10
inches or more across, while others of the figures must
have been a foot and a half in length, and the markings
must have been nearly half an inch in depth, cut into the
face of the rock, and seemed to us such as might have
been made with a sharp stone implement. Although we
visited numerous caves in the various islands of the
Bahamas, in no other did we find any appearance of
markings or carvings on the walls, nor could we hear of
any reported to have such markings.
 Fig. 101.—Petroglyphs in the Bahamas.

The absence of any traces of carvings in other caves

whose situation was better adapted for the preservation of
markings, had such ever existed, and the proof that their
contents afforded that most of those caves had been
known to the Lucayans and used by them as burying
places or otherwise, and the close proximity of Hartford
cave to the sea, taken in connection with the great
number of markings on its walls, led me to think that
possibly this cave had been the resort of the marauding
tribes whom the Lucayans gave Columbus to understand
were their enemies, and who were in the habit of making
war upon them; and if so, the Caribs, or whatever tribe it
may have been, had left these rock markings as
mementos of their various expeditions and guides to
succeeding ones.
 Fig. 102.—Petroglyphs in the Bahamas.

The above-mentioned petroglyphs bear a remarkable similarity to

those in British Guiana figured and described below, and the
authorship would seem to relate to the same group of natives, the
Caribs.

GUADELOUPE.

In the Guesde collection of antiquities, described in the Smithsonian

report for 1884, p. 834, Fig. 208, here reproduced as Fig. 103, is an
inscribed slab found in Guadeloupe. It weighs several tons and it is
impossible to remove it. In the vicinity are to be seen many other
rocks bearing inscriptions, but this is the most elaborate of the
group.
The inscriptions may be compared with those from Guiana presented
in this work.
 Fig. 103.—Petroglyph in Guadeloupe.

ARUBA.

Pinart (b) gives the following account, translated and condensed:

The island of Aruba forms one of the group of the islands
of Curaçao, on the north coast of Venezuela. This group
consists of three principal islands, Curaçao, Buen Ayre,
Aruba, and some isolated rocks. It belongs to Holland.
Aruba is the most western island of the group and is
situated opposite the peninsula of Paraguana, on the
mainland. The distance between the two is about 10
leagues, and from the island the shores of the continent
can be seen very distinctly.
These islands, at the time of the discovery by the
Spaniards, were inhabited by an Indian race which has left
numerous traces of its occupancy; pottery, stone objects,
petroglyphs, etc., are met with in large numbers in Aruba
and in a less quantity on Buen Ayre and Curaçao. * * *
These petroglyphs are quite different in character from
those which I have recently described in a brief study of
the Greater and Lesser Antilles, and their appearance
brings to mind those found in Orinoco, in Venezuela, in
the peninsula of Paraguana, on the border of the
Magdalena river, and as far as Chiriqui. They differ from
these, however, in several respects, and especially in that
they are almost always multi-colored. The colors usually
employed are red, blue, a yellowish white, and black.
They are, moreover, painted and not cut in the rock. They
show the same degree of variance as I have already
noticed in North America—in Sonora, Arizona, and
Chihuahua—between the petroglyphs which I have
designated as Pimos, which are always incised, and those
in the mountains which I designated as Comanche, and
which are always painted and in many colors. The
petroglyphs are, as has already been said, very numerous
on the island of Aruba. I have personal knowledge of
thirty, but, according to my friend Père van Kolwsjk, there
must be more than fifty. The most important groups are
as follows:
(1) Avikok. An enormous dark rock forms the summit of a
wooded knob, and in this rock are two large cavities, one
above the other, on the walls of which are the petroglyphs
represented.
(2) Fontein. On the border of a fresh-water lagoon, a
short distance from the northeast part of the island, near
the sea, is a grotto of coralline origin, whose walls are of
remarkable whiteness. This grotto is composed of a
principal passage, quite wide, cut off toward the lower
end by a row of stalactites and stalagmites, which, joining
together, form a curious grimacing figure. On the wall to
the left, as we look toward the bottom of the grotto, are
found some petroglyphs. They are well preserved, thanks
to their situation and the shelter from inclement weather,
and they show no indication of painting, being distinctly
traced on the walls.
(3) Chiribana. On some granitic spurs of a hill of the same
name are found curious petroglyphs.
(4) At Lero de Wajukan, near Avikok, and at the foot of a
hill, petroglyphs are found on some blocks of granite. I
notice specially the human figure which in the original is
outlined in red and bears on the shoulder a hatchet of the
Carib type with a haft.
(5) At Ayo I discovered petroglyphs with figures in blue
and red.
(6) At Woeboeri inscriptions are found on the wall of an
immense mass of granite.
(7) Some petroglyphs on the walls of a grotto at Karasito.
 CHAPTER III.
PETROGLYPHS IN CENTRAL AND SOUTH
AMERICA.

Some writers have endeavored to draw definite ethnic distinctions

between the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North America and those
farther south. The opinions and theories which have favored such
discriminations have originated in error and ignorance. Until lately
there has been but scanty scientific investigation of the peoples of
Central and South America and but a limited exploration of the
regions now or formerly occupied by them. The latest opinion of the
best ethnologists is that no sufficient reason can be shown for
separate racial classification of the aborigines of the three Americas.
The examples of petroglyphs now presented from Central and South
America, all of which are selected as typical, show remarkable
similarity to some of those above illustrated and described,
especially to those in California, New Mexico, and Arizona. This topic
is further discussed under the heading of Special Comparison,
Chapter xx, infra.

SECTION I.
PETROGLYPHS IN CENTRAL AMERICA.

NICARAGUA.

Dr. J. F. Bransford (a) gives the following account:

 On a hillside on the southern end of the island of
Ometepec, Nicaragua, about 1½ miles east of Point San
Ramon, are many irregular blocks of basalt with marks
and figures cut on them. The hillside faces east, and is
about half a mile from the lake. There were similar
markings on many of the shore rocks, which, in May, were
partially covered with water, notwithstanding that that was
about the driest season. These markings were excavated
about half an inch in depth and a little more in width.
Human faces and spiral lines predominated. There was
also a crown, a representation of a monkey, and many
irregular figures.
Several illustrations from these rocks are presented, infra, in Figs.
1102 and 1103, and one is reproduced in this connection as Fig.
104.

Fig. 104.—Petroglyphs in Nicaragua.

 GUATEMALA.

The following extract is taken from the work of Dr. S. Habel (a):
Santa Lucia is a village in the Republic of Guatemala, in
the Department of Esquintla, near the base of the Volcano
del Fuego, at the commencement of the inclined plane
which extends from the mountain range to the coast of
the Pacific Ocean. * * *
The sculptured slabs are in the vicinity of the village. The
greater number of them form an extended heap,
rendering it probable that there are others hidden from
view that more extended researches would reveal. * * *
All the sculptures, with the exception of three statues, are
in low relief, nearly all being in cavo-relievo, that is,
surrounded by a raised border, the height of which
indicates the elevation of the relief. The same kind of relief
was practiced by the ancient Assyrians and Egyptians.
In seven instances the sculpture represents a person
adoring a deity of a different theological conception in
each case. One of these seems to represent the sun,
another the moon, while in the remaining five it is
impossible to define their character. All these deities are
represented by a human figure, of which only the head,
arms, and breast are correctly portrayed, proving that the
religious conceptions had risen to anthropomorphism,
while the idols of the nations of Central America and
Mexico, which have previously come to our knowledge,
are represented by disfigured human forms or grotesque
images.
Four of the other sculptures represent allegorical subjects;
two of them the myth of the griffin, the bird of the sun.
The slabs on which the low reliefs are sculptured are of
various sizes; the greater number of these, like those
 representing the deities, are 12 feet in length, 3 feet in
width, and 2 feet in thickness. Nine feet of the upper part
of these stones are occupied by the sculptures, while the
lower 3 feet appear to have served as a base.
Several illustrations of these rock sculptures are presented, infra, as
Figs. 1235 and 1236. It is evident that these very large slabs
received their markings when they were in the locality in which they
are now found so can be classed geographically.

SECTION 2.
SOUTH AMERICA.

Alexander von Humboldt (a) gives general remarks, now condensed,

upon petroglyphs in South America:
In the interior of South America, between the second and
fourth degrees of north latitude, a forest-covered plain is
inclosed by four rivers, the Orinoco, the Atabapo, the Rio
Negro, and the Cassiquiare. In this district are found rocks
of granite and of syenite, covered with colossal symbolical
figures of crocodiles and tigers, and drawings of
household utensils, and of the sun and moon. The tribes
nearest to its boundaries are wandering naked savages, in
the lowest stages of human existence, and far removed
from any thoughts of carving hieroglyphics on rocks. One
may trace in South America an entire zone, extending
through more than 8° of longitude, of rocks so
ornamented, viz, from the Rupuniri, Essequibo, and the
mountains of Pacaraima, to the banks of the Orinoco and
of the Yupura. These carvings may belong to very
different epochs, for Sir Robert Schomburgk even found
on the Rio Negro representations of a Spanish galiot,
which must have been of a later date than the beginning
of the sixteenth century; and this in a wilderness where
the natives were probably as rude then as at the present
time. Some miles from Encaramada there rises in the
middle of the savannah the rock Tepu-Mereme, or painted
rock. It shows several figures of animals and symbolical
outlines which resemble much those observed by us at
some distance above Encaramada, near Caycara. Rocks
thus marked are found between the Cassiquiare and the
Atabapo and, what is particularly remarkable, 560
geographical miles farther to the east, in the solitudes of
Parime. Nicholas Hortsmann found on the banks of the
Rupunuri, at the spot where the river winding between the
Macarana mountains forms several small cascades, and
before arriving at the district immediately surrounding lake
Amucu, “rocks covered with figures,” or, as he says in
Portuguese, “de varias letras.” We were shown at the rock
of Culimacari, on the banks of the Cassiquiare, signs
which were called characters, arranged in lines, but they
were only ill-shaped figures of heavenly bodies, boa-
serpents, and the utensils employed in preparing manioc
meal. I have never found among these painted rocks
(piedras pintadas) any symmetrical arrangement or any
regular even-spaced characters. I am therefore disposed
to think that the word “letras,” in Hortsmann’s journal,
must not be taken in the strictest sense.
Schomburgk saw and described other petroglyphs on the
banks of the Essequibo, near the cascade of Warraputa.
Neither promises nor threats could prevail on the Indians
to give a single blow with a hammer to these rocks, the
venerable monuments of the superior mental cultivation of
their predecessors. They regard them as the work of the
Great Spirit, and the different tribes whom we met with,
though living at a great distance, were nevertheless
acquainted with them. Terror was painted on the faces of
my Indian companions, who appeared to expect every
moment that the fire of heaven would fall on my head. I
 saw clearly that my endeavors to detach a portion of the
rock would be fruitless, and I contented myself with
bringing away a complete drawing of these memorials.
Even the veneration everywhere testified by the Indians of
the present day for these rude sculptures of their
predecessors show that they have no idea of the
execution of similar works. There is another circumstance
which should be mentioned. Between Encaramada and
Caycara, on the banks of the Orinoco, a number of these
hieroglyphical figures are sculptured on the face of
precipices at a height which could now be reached only by
means of extraordinarily high scaffolding. If one asks the
natives how these figures have been cut, they answer,
laughing, as if it were a fact of which none but a white
man could be ignorant, that “in the days of the great
waters their fathers went in canoes at that height.”

UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA.

Mr. W. H. Holmes (b), of the Bureau of Ethnology, gives this account

of petroglyphs in the province of Chiriqui, state of Panama:
Pictured rocks.—Our accounts of these objects are very
meager. The only one definitely described is the “piedra
pintal.” A few of the figures engraved upon it are given by
Seemann, from whom the following paragraph is quoted:
“At Caldera, a few leagues (north) from the town of David,
lies a granite block known to the country people as the
piedra pintal or painted stone. It is 15 feet high, nearly 50
feet in circumference, and flat on the top. Every part,
especially the eastern side, is covered with figures. One
represents a radiant sun; it is followed by a series of
heads, all with some variations, scorpions, and fantastic
figures. The top and the other side have signs of a circular
and oval form, crossed by lines. The sculpture is ascribed
 to the Dorachos (or Dorasques), but to what purpose the
stone was applied no historical account or tradition
reveals.”
These inscriptions are irregularly placed and much
scattered. They are thought to have been originally nearly
an inch deep, but in places are almost effaced by
weathering, thus giving a suggestion of great antiquity.
Tracings of these figures made recently by Mr. A. L. Pinart
show decided differences in detail, and Mr. McNiel gives
still another transcription.
In Fig. 105 Mr. McNiel’s sketch of the southwest face of the rock is
presented.

Fig. 105.—Petroglyphs in Colombia.

Other illustrations from Colombia appear as Figs. 151 and 1166,

infra.

GUIANA.

The name of Guiana has been applied to the territory between the
rivers Amazon, Orinoco, Negro, and Cassiquiare. It was once divided
into the French, British, Dutch, Portuguese, and Spanish Guianas.
The Portuguese Guiana now belongs to Brazil and Spanish Guiana is
part of Venezuela. Many petroglyphs have been found in the several
Guianas. They appear throughout the whole of the part belonging to
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