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Chapter 11—Whigs and Democrats

MULTIPLE CHOICE

1. Under the "spoils system" Andrew Jackson

a. replaced nearly all executive appointees during his terms in office.
b. chose the best qualified for political positions, regardless of their political affiliation.
c. avoided selecting wealthy men for political office.
d. was decidedly partisan.
e. all of these choices
ANS: D DIF: 3 REF: p. 258
OBJ: A

2. Senator ____ proposed an amendment to Missouri's application for statehood that forbade slavery in
the state.
a. Martin Van Buren
b. David Wilmot
c. Henry Clay
d. Stephen Douglas
e. James Tallmadge
ANS: E DIF: 2 REF: p. 251
OBJ: F

3. The so-called Thomas Proviso stated that

a. slavery would be forever forbidden in the state of Missouri.
b. each slave would count as three-fifths of a white person for purposes of representation.
c. slavery would be outlawed in territories north of a line extending from the southern border
of Missouri to Spanish territory.
d. citizens of a territory could decide for themselves whether to permit slavery.
e. slavery would be forbidden throughout the Louisiana Territory.
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 252
OBJ: A

4. Which of the following was not a cause of the Panic of 1819?

a. recovery of European agriculture in the early nineteenth century
b. overexpansion of credit by American bankers
c. underproduction by American farmers
d. the hoarding of available specie by European nations
e. revolution and war had cut off the supply of precious metals from Peru and Mexico.
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 252
OBJ: A
5. The winner of the crowded presidential election of 1824 was
a. Henry Clay.
b. Andrew Jackson.
c. John Quincy Adams.
d. William Crawford.
e. James Monroe.
ANS: C DIF: 1 REF: p. 254
OBJ: F

6. The winner of the popular vote in the election of 1824, though not the victor in the election, was
a. Henry Clay.
b. Andrew Jackson.
c. John Quincy Adams.
d. William Crawford.
e. James Monroe
ANS: B DIF: 1 REF: p. 254
OBJ: F

7. The "corrupt bargain" of 1824 refers to the deal made between which two statesmen?
a. Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren
b. John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson
c. John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay
d. Henry Clay and Martin Van Buren
e. James Monroe and John Quincy Adams
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 254
OBJ: F

8. The Monroe Doctrine stated that

a. the United States opposed the independence of the new Latin American republics.
b. the United States was opposed to any further European attempt at colonization in the
Americas.
c. the United States could not colonize or annex new territory.
d. the United States would take control of the new Latin American republics.
e. Europe was opposed to any further U.S. expansion in Latin America.
ANS: B DIF: 2 REF: p. 255
OBJ: A

9. The author of the Monroe Doctrine was

a. James Monroe.
b. John Quincy Adams.
c. Martin Van Buren.
d. Henry Clay.
e. Andrew Jackson.
ANS: B DIF: 2 REF: p. 255
OBJ: F
10. John Quincy Adams's ambitious program for national development called for which of the following?
a. federal money for roads and canals
b. federal money for a national university
c. a high tariff
d. a national astronomical observatory
e. all of these choices
ANS: E DIF: 2 REF: p. 256
OBJ: F

11. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 stated that Native Americans
a. needed to be removed to west of the Mississippi River.
b. needed to be removed, but with no clear destination.
c. needed to be removed to reservations in Canada.
d. needed to be removed to California.
e. were entitled to remain on their ancestral lands.
ANS: A DIF: 1 REF: p. 259
OBJ: F

12. In ____, the Supreme Court argued that Georgia state law had no authority over the Indian nations
within the state's boundaries.
a. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia
b. Gibbons v. Ogden
c. Worcester v. Georgia
d. Jackson v. Georgia
e. Marbury v. Madison
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 259
OBJ: F

13. The Tariff of 1828 was known throughout the South as the tariff of
a. horror.
b. hope.
c. abominations.
d. dependence.
e. absurdity.
ANS: C DIF: 1 REF: p. 260
OBJ: F

14. The primary defender of the right of "nullification" was

a. Henry Clay.
b. Daniel Webster.
c. Martin Van Buren.
d. John C. Calhoun.
e. Andrew Jackson.
ANS: D DIF: 1 REF: p. 260
OBJ: F
15. The "Force Bill" refers to Andrew Jackson's attempt to
a. remove the Cherokee Indians.
b. reorganize his cabinet.
c. destroy the Second Bank of the United States.
d. impose martial law whenever he desired.
e. prevent South Carolina from nullifying the tariff
ANS: E DIF: 2 REF: p. 260
OBJ: F

16. The "Gag Rule" refers to the congressional attempt to avoid discussing which issue?
a. Indian removal
b. nullification
c. tariffs
d. slavery
e. Sunday mail deliveries
ANS: D DIF: 1 REF: p. 263
OBJ: F

17. Which of the following did Andrew Jackson hate most?

a. the Second Bank of the United States
b. the House of Representatives
c. the Senate
d. the Supreme Court
e. the Democratic party
ANS: A DIF: 1 REF: p. 263
OBJ: F

18. The president of the Second Bank of the United States was
a. Nicholas Biddle.
b. Amos Kendall.
c. Frank Blair, Jr.
d. Daniel Webster.
e. Henry Clay.
ANS: A DIF: 1 REF: p. 264
OBJ: F

19. The political party that emerged in the 1830s to oppose Andrew Jackson was the ____ Party.
a. Republican
b. Federalist
c. Whig
d. Know-Nothing
e. Socialist
ANS: C DIF: 1 REF: p. 264
OBJ: F
20. The issue that led to the final and complete break between Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun was
a. the tariff of 1830.
b. "nullification."
c. the Peggy Eaton affair.
d. Indian removal.
e. the Bank of the U.S.
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 262
OBJ: F

21. The treaty that acquired Florida for the United States was the
a. Rush-Bagot Treaty.
b. British-American Convention.
c. Adams-Onis Treaty.
d. Treaty of Paris
e. Treaty of Florida.
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 255
OBJ: F

22. Jacksonian Democrats viewed the "American System" as

a. the most efficient approach to solving the nation's economic and political problems.
b. an unconstitutional violation of local, state, and citizen rights.
c. a means of reducing sectional tensions and calming the fears of southern slave owners.
d. a tax-reform policy that would benefit honest citizens and impoverished politicians.
e. socialism.
ANS: B DIF: 3 REF: p. 264
OBJ: A

23. In the Missouri Compromise,

a. slavery was outlawed in the Louisiana territory.
b. the morality of slavery was not addressed.
c. Missouri was admitted to the union as a free state.
d. citizens could decide for themselves whether to permit slavery.
e. the entry of Maine to the union was delayed five years.
ANS: B DIF: 2 REF: p. 252
OBJ: F

24. Andrew Jackson's popularity was

a. confined to remote areas of the South.
b. a result of his reputation for calm and peaceful resolution of problems.
c. based in part on his image as a forceful and exciting military hero.
d. dependent upon his avoidance of partisan political disputes.
e. destroyed when he vetoed the Bank.
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 253
OBJ: F
25. All of the following statements regarding John Quincy Adams are true except he
a. was the son of Federalist President John Adams.
b. served with distinction as secretary of state for James Monroe.
c. negotiated the treaty by which the United States acquired Florida.
d. opposed federal support for internal improvements.
e. supported a strong national government.
ANS: D DIF: 3 REF: p. 253
OBJ: F

26. The Democratic Party

a. supported both agrarian democratic principles and the continuation of southern slavery.
b. favored strict limitations on voting rights.
c. was similar in policy and constituencies to the Federalist Party.
d. was almost destroyed by the election of 1828.
e. was organized to oppose Andrew Jackson.
ANS: A DIF: 2 REF: p. 256
OBJ: F

27. The election of 1828 was

a. one of the dullest and most uninteresting campaigns in U.S. history.
b. noteworthy because of the civility and lofty intellectual tone of its political debates.
c. the first election that included a popular vote for presidential electors.
d. decided by the House of Representatives.
e. marred by a smear campaign that turned Andrew Jackson's private life into a public issue.
ANS: E DIF: 3 REF: p. 256
OBJ: A

28. The phrase "the spoils system" referred to

a. corrupt politicians who spoiled the public image of national office holders.
b. the government agency set up to regulate garbage collection and disposal.
c. Andrew Jackson's use of presidential appointive powers to reward his supporters with
government jobs.
d. Martin Van Buren's efforts to ruin the relationship between Jackson and John C. Calhoun.
e. the bargain made between Clay and Adams in the election of 1824.
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 258
OBJ: F

29. Andrew Jackson's Indian policy

a. protected the sovereign rights of Indian nations within their own territories.
b. openly violated Supreme Court rulings by allowing state governments to encroach on
Indian land.
c. increased the size of Indian reservations as a reward for tribal support in the War of 1812.
d. terminated the reservations and assimilated Indians into white society.
e. was based on the assumption that all Indians would ultimately have to be killed.
ANS: B DIF: 3 REF: p. 259
OBJ: F
30. Southern states opposed the tariff of 1828 because it
a. unfairly taxed southern agricultural products.
b. lowered the price of most manufactured goods.
c. violated the states' constitutional right to control intrastate trade.
d. benefited northern and western farmers at the expense of export-driven southern
producers.
e. benefited British merchants at their expense.
ANS: D DIF: 3 REF: p. 260
OBJ: F

31. In response to the nullification crisis, Andrew Jackson

a. asserted the inviolability of the union and of federal control of tariffs and other matters of
foreign policy.
b. defended the states' rights position that states were the ultimate judges of constitutional
principles.
c. challenged John C. Calhoun to a duel.
d. demanded that Congress enact an even higher new tariff.
e. became best friends with Calhoun.
ANS: A DIF: 2 REF: p. 261
OBJ: F

32. The relationship between Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun was ruined by all except which of the
following?
a. Calhoun's support of the concepts of nullification and secession
b. a letter revealing that Calhoun had criticized Jackson's invasion of Florida in 1818
c. Calhoun's participation in the dirty political campaign of 1818
d. Floride Calhoun's rude treatment of the Eatons
e. Calhoun's vote against Van Buren's diplomatic appointment.
ANS: C DIF: 3 REF: p. 260-267
OBJ: F

33. Andrew Jackson criticized the Bank because he believed that it

a. benefited northern and foreign investors at the expense of southern and western farmers.
b. was too liberal with its loan policies.
c. did not exercise enough centralized control over the monetary system.
d. charged excessive interest rates.
e. benefited plantation owners more than small farmers.
ANS: A DIF: 3 REF: p. 264
OBJ: A

34. The political party system that emerged in 1840 included

a. a regional alignment in which the South voted for the Democrats and the North voted for
the Whigs.
b. the destruction of the two-party system and the emergence of numerous independent
parties.
c. increased public interest in politics as indicated by extremely high voter turnout.
d. increasingly unstable, unpredictable, and violent political contests.
e. no national political party.
ANS: C DIF: 3 REF: p. 267
OBJ: A
35. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court from 1801-1835 was
a. John Jay.
b. John Marshall.
c. John Calhoun.
d. Henry Clay.
e. James Monroe.
ANS: B DIF: 3 REF: p. 250
OBJ: F

36. The Dartmouth College versus Woodward case protected, by extension, which of the following?
a. canal companies
b. state's rights
c. large farmers
d. artisans
e. slaveholders
ANS: A DIF: 2 REF: p. 251
OBJ: F

37. Martin Van Buren's plan to develop an independent financial system to avoid the federal government's
dependence on banks was known as
a. the Third Bank of the United States.
b. the independent treasury.
c. the Federal Reserve system.
d. the "minitreasury."
e. reform banks.
ANS: B DIF: 2 REF: p. 266
OBJ: F

38. The election of 1840 pitted which two candidates against each other?
a. Andrew Jackson and Henry Clay
b. Martin Van Buren and Henry Clay
c. Martin Van Buren and William Henry Harrison
d. Henry Clay and John Tyler
e. Andrew Jackson and John Quincy Adams
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 266
OBJ: F

39. Who of the following was not a Whig candidate for president in 1836?
a. Henry Clay
b. Daniel Webster
c. Hugh Lawson White
d. William Henry Harrison
e. none of these choices
ANS: A DIF: 1 REF: p. 265
OBJ: F
40. In 1824 Andrew Jackson believed that the American republic
a. had failed.
b. needed to be governed by the educated elite.
c. had proven to be a stunning success.
d. should follow the British parliamentary model.
e. was in danger.
ANS: E DIF: 3 REF: p. 255
OBJ: A

41. John Quincy Adam's presidency was marked by

a. lower taxes.
b. limited government.
c. incredible relationship with Congress.
d. ridicule by journalists.
e. ethical fortitude.
ANS: D DIF: 2 REF: p. 256
OBJ: F

42. Andrew Jackson's inaugural address proposed all of the following except
a. civil service reform.
b. retiring the national debt.
c. removal of Indians from eastern states to western reservations.
d. respect for states' rights.
e. caution with regard to the tariff.
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 257
OBJ: F

43. Andrew Jackson blamed which of the following for the death of his wife Rachel?
a. his political enemies
b. himself
c. John Calhoun
d. the press
e. none of these choices
ANS: A DIF: 3 REF: p. 257
OBJ: F

44. Andrew Jackson's base of support was

a. in the north.
b. in the west.
c. in the South.
d. in Tennessee only.
e. none of these choices
ANS: C DIF: 3 REF: p. 258
OBJ: A
45. Voter turnout in the election of 1828 was ____ that of 1824.
a. one-quarter
b. one-half
c. triple
d. double
e. ten times
ANS: D DIF: 3 REF: p. 257
OBJ: F

46. Voter turnout in the election of 1840 was ____ percent of the eligible voters.
a. 78
b. 69
c. 81
d. 75
e. 50
ANS: A DIF: 1 REF: p. 267
OBJ: F

47. Newspaper estimates put the number of citizens who came to Washington to witness Andrew
Jackson's inauguration at
a. 1,000 to 2,000.
b. 5,000 to 10,000.
c. 15,000 to 20,000.
d. 25,000 to 30,000.
e. 35,000 to 40,000
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 257
OBJ: F

48. Which of the following states did not extend its control over Indian lands and deny federal
jurisdiction?
a. Florida
b. Georgia
c. Alabama
d. Mississippi
e. none of these choices
ANS: A DIF: 2 REF: p. 259
OBJ: F

49. Which of the following did not occur during Andrew Jackson's first term as president?
a. the controversy over the spoils system
b. the nullification crisis
c. the struggle over Indian removal
d. the veto of the Bank bill
e. the creation of the Whig Party
ANS: E DIF: 3 REF: p. 258-263
OBJ: F
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 50. The free state admitted to the Union as part of the Missouri Compromise was
a. Illinois.
b. Iowa.
c. Maine.
d. Ohio.
e. Missouri.
ANS: C DIF: 2 REF: p. 252
OBJ: F

TRUE/FALSE

1. Jacksonian democracy can best be understood as the inheritance of the old Hamiltonian emphasis on
federal power.

ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: p. 248

OBJ: A

2. The victor of the 1828 presidential election was John Quincy Adams.

ANS: F DIF: 3 REF: p. 257

OBJ: F

3. The "Trail of Tears" refers to the removal of the Cherokee Indians to the Indian Territory (Oklahoma).

ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: p. 259

OBJ: F

4. The postal campaign was halted by a federal censorship law.

ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: p. 263

OBJ: F

5. The man most responsible for resolving the "nullification" crisis of 1830 was John C. Calhoun.

ANS: F DIF: 3 REF: p. 260

OBJ: F

6. An important component of Andrew Jackson's vision for America was to use federal money to build
large transportation systems throughout the United States.

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 264-265

OBJ: A

7. The Missouri Compromise allowed Missouri to enter the union, but forbade slavery in any state carved
out of the Louisiana Territory north of Missouri.

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 252

OBJ: F
 8. Andrew Jackson supported evangelicals' efforts in 1828 and 1829 to stop movement of the mail on
Sundays.

ANS: F DIF: 3 REF: p. 262

OBJ: F

9. Many northerners opposed the admission of Missouri to the Union because they feared it would
increase the power of the slave states in Congress.

ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: p. 252

OBJ: F

10. The Panic of 1819 was the first nationwide failure of the market economy.

ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: p. 253

OBJ: F

11. In the election of 1824, Martin Van Buren was the only candidate for the vice presidency.

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 253

OBJ: F

12. Andrew Jackson believed that his wife's death was caused by the campaign tactics of his political
opponents.

ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: p. 257

OBJ: F

13. In perhaps the best example of the corruption of the spoils system, Andrew Jackson's appointed
collector of the Port of New York, Samuel Swarthout, stole over $1 million and fled to Europe.

ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: p. 258

OBJ: F

14. The first presidential election in which national, not sectional, alignments determined the outcome was
the election of 1840.

ANS: T DIF: 3 REF: p. 267

OBJ: F

15. Democrats feared that an activist federal government might threaten the slaveholding South.

ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: p. 248

OBJ: F

16. The Sioux participated in the "Trail of Tears."

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 259

OBJ: F

17. The Whig Party supported a strong national government.

ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: p. 248

OBJ: A
18. Voting on the Tallmadge amendments was starkly sectional.

ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: p. 252

OBJ: F

19. Andrew Jackson supported the protest against the tariff passed in 1828.

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 260

OBJ: F

20. Thomas Jefferson was deeply concerned about the implications of the Missouri Compromise.

ANS: T DIF: 3 REF: p. 253

OBJ: A

21. European demand for American agriculture increased after the Napoleonic wars.

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 252

OBJ: A

22. South Carolina opposed the Tariffs of 1828 and 1832 but never attempted to nullify them.

ANS: F DIF: 3 REF: p. 260

OBJ: F

23. By 1820, many Republicans were calling for a Jeffersonian revival that would limit governmental
power and guarantee southern rights within the Union.

ANS: T DIF: 3 REF: p. 253

OBJ: A

24. Andrew Jackson believed that the republic was safe only when governed by the will of the majority.

ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: p. 255

OBJ: A

25. The Democratic Party was born when Andrew Jackson was elected in 1828.

ANS: F DIF: 3 REF: p. 256

OBJ: A

26. The Democratic Party linked popular democracy with the defense of southern slavery.

ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: p. 256

OBJ: A

27. John C. Calhoun did not wish to stay on as vice president as the election of 1828 approached.

ANS: F DIF: 3 REF: p. 256

OBJ: F
28. John Quincy Adams did extensive campaigning in the election of 1828.

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 256

OBJ: F

29. The presidential campaign of 1828 was run cleanly and was free of dirty tricks or slanderous
accusations.

ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: p. 256

OBJ: F

30. Vice President John C. Calhoun and Secretary of State Martin Van Buren had the same position on the
right of states to secede.

ANS: F DIF: 3 REF: p. 262

OBJ: A

31. Andrew Jackson supported the Civilized Tribes against state governments that wanted to seize control
of their lands.

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 259

OBJ: A

32. Jackson was never able to sign the tariff of 1828 into law.

ANS: F DIF: 3 REF: p. 259

OBJ: A

33. Jackson's veto message surprised the Bank of the United States' supporters.

ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: p. 265

OBJ: F

34. The Bank and Jackson's veto message were the principal issues in the election of 1832.

ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: p. 265

OBJ: F

35. Slaveholding Missouri was the first new state to be carved out of the Louisiana Purchase.

ANS: T DIF: 2 REF: p. 251

OBJ: F

36. In 1819, the North held a majority in the House of Representatives.

ANS: T DIF: 1 REF: p. 252

OBJ: F

37. It was not clear until the last minute that the election of 1828 would be between John Quincy Adams
and Andrew Jackson.

ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: p. 254

OBJ: F
 38. Martin Van Buren was a Democrat from South Carolina.

ANS: F DIF: 1 REF: p. 253

OBJ: F

39. The Panic of 1819 had no impact on Philadelphia.

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 253

OBJ: A

40. Many Americans were grateful to the Bank of the United States for its assertive and positive response
to the Panic of 1819 that mitigated the damage of the economic downturn.

ANS: F DIF: 2 REF: p. 253

OBJ: A

COMPLETION

1. Andrew Jackson is considered responsible for instituting the so-called ____________________, which
allowed the winners of elections to promote loyal supporters to high office.

ANS: spoils system

DIF: 2 REF: p. 258 OBJ: F

2. The author of the pro-nullification tract Exposition and Protest was ____________________.

ANS: John C. Calhoun

DIF: 3 REF: p. 260 OBJ: F

3. The man who received the most popular votes in the election of 1824 was ____________________.

ANS: Andrew Jackson

DIF: 2 REF: p. 254 OBJ: F

4. The attempt to silence anti-slavery petitions in Congress was known as the ____________________
rule.

ANS: gag

DIF: 1 REF: p. 263 OBJ: F

5. Critics of Martin Van Buren poked fun at him by calling him "Martin Van ____________________."

ANS: ruin

DIF: 1 REF: p. 266 OBJ: F

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Rom. 7:23—‘I see a different law in my members, warring against
the law of my mind, and bringing me into captivity under the law of
sin which is in my members.’ But as Aristotle does not explain the
cause, so he suggests no cure. Revelation alone can account for the
disease, or point out the remedy.”

Wuttke, Christian Ethics, 1:102—“Aristotle makes the significant and

almost surprising observation, that the character which has become
evil by guilt can just as little be thrown off again at mere volition, as
the person who has made himself sick by his own fault can become
well again at mere volition; once become evil or sick, it stands no
longer within his discretion to cease to be so; a stone, when once
cast, cannot be caught back from its flight; and so is it with the
character that has become evil.” He does not tell “how a reformation
in character is possible,—moreover, he does not concede to evil any
other than an individual effect,—knows nothing of any natural
solidarity of evil in self-propagating, morally degenerated races”
(Nic. Eth., 3:6, 7; 5:12; 7:2, 3; 10:10). The good nature, he says, “is
evidently not within our power, but is by some kind of divine
causality conferred upon the truly happy.”

Plato speaks of “that blind, many-headed wild beast of all that is evil
within thee.”He repudiates the idea that men are naturally good, and
says that, if this were true, all that would be needed to make them
holy would be to shut them up, from their earliest years, so that
they might not be corrupted by others. Republic, 4 (Jowett's
translation, 11:276)—“There is a rising up of part of the soul against
the whole of the soul.”Meno, 89—“The cause of corruption is from
our parents, so that we never relinquish their evil way, or escape the
blemish of their evil habit.” Horace, Ep., 1:10—“Naturam expellas
furca, tamen usque recurret.” Latin proverb: “Nemo repente fuit
turpissimus.”Pascal: “We are born unrighteous; for each one tends
to himself, and the bent toward self is the beginning of all disorder.”
Kant, in his Metaphysical Principles of Human Morals, speaks of “the
indwelling of an evil principle side by side with the good one, or the
radical evil of human nature,” and of “the contest between the good
and the evil principles for the control of man.” “Hegel, pantheist as
he was, declared that original sin is the nature of every man,—every
man begins with it” (H. B. Smith).

Shakespeare, Timon of Athens, 4:3—“All is oblique: There's nothing

level in our cursed natures, But direct villainy.” All's Well, 4:3—“As
we are in ourselves, how weak we are! Merely our own traitors.”
Measure for Measure, 1:2—“Our natures do pursue, Like rats that
ravin down their proper bane, A thirsty evil, and when we drink, we
die.” Hamlet, 3:1—“Virtue cannot so inoculate our old stock, but we
shall relish of it.” Love's Labor Lost, 1:1—“Every man with his affects
is born, Not by might mastered, but by special grace.” Winter's Tale,
1:2—“We should have answered Heaven boldly, Not guilty; the
imposition cleared Hereditary ours”—that is, provided our hereditary
connection with Adam had not made us guilty. On the theology of
Shakespeare, see A. H. Strong, Great Poets, 196-211—“If any think
it irrational to believe in man's depravity, guilt, and need of
supernatural redemption, they must also be prepared to say that
Shakespeare did not understand human nature.”
S. T. Coleridge, Omniana, at the end: “It is a fundamental article of
Christianity that I am a fallen creature ... that an evil ground existed
in my will, previously to any act or assignable moment of time in my
consciousness; I am born a child of wrath. This fearful mystery I
pretend not to understand. I cannot even conceive the possibility of
it; but I know that it is so, ... and what is real must be possible.” A
sceptic who gave his children no religious training, with the view of
letting them each in mature years choose a faith for himself,
reproved Coleridge for letting his garden run to weeds; but Coleridge
replied, that he did not think it right to prejudice the soil in favor of
roses and strawberries. Van Oosterzee: Rain and sunshine make
weeds grow more quickly, but could not draw them out of the soil if
the seeds did not lie there already; so evil education and example
draw out sin, but do not implant it. Tennyson, Two Voices: “He finds
a baseness in his blood, At such strange war with what is good, He
cannot do the thing he would.” Robert Browning, Gold Hair: a
Legend of Pornic: “The faith that launched point-blank her dart At
the head of a lie—taught Original Sin, The corruption of Man's
Heart.” Taine, Ancien Régime: “Savage, brigand and madman each
of us harbors, in repose or manacled, but always living, in the
recesses of his own heart.” Alexander Maclaren: “A great mass of
knotted weeds growing in a stagnant pool is dragged toward you as
you drag one filament.” Draw out one sin, and it brings with it the
whole matted nature of sin.

Chief Justice Thompson, of Pennsylvania: “If those who preach had

been lawyers previous to entering the ministry, they would know and
say far more about the depravity [pg 582]of the human heart
than they do. The old doctrine of total depravity is the only thing
that can explain the falsehoods, the dishonesties, the licentiousness,
and the murders which are so rife in the world. Education,
refinement, and even a high order of talent, cannot overcome the
inclination to evil which exists in the heart, and has taken possession
of the very fibres of our nature.” See Edwards, Original Sin, in
Works, 2:309-510; Julius Müller, Doct. Sin, 2:259-307; Hodge, Syst.
Theol., 2:231-238; Shedd, Discourses and Essays, 226-236.

Section IV.—Origin Of Sin In The Personal Act Of

Adam.

With regard to the origin of this sinful nature which is

common to the race, and which is the occasion of all
actual transgressions, reason affords no light. The
Scriptures, however, refer the origin of this nature to
that free act of our first parents by which they turned
away from God, corrupted themselves, and brought
themselves under the penalties of the law.

Chandler, Spirit of Man, 76—“It is vain to attempt to sever the moral

life of Christianity from the historical fact in which it is rooted. We
may cordially assent to the assertion that the whole value of
historical events is in their ideal significance. But in many cases, part
of that which the idea signifies is the fact that it has been exhibited
in history. The value and interest of the conquest of Greece over
Persia lie in the significant idea of freedom and intelligence
triumphing over despotic force; but surely a part, and a very
important part, of the idea, is the fact that this triumph was won in a
historical past, and the encouragement for the present which rests
upon that fact. So too, the value of Christ's resurrection lies in its
immense moral significance as a principle of life; but an essential
part of that very significance is the fact that the principle was
actually realized by One in whom mankind was summed up and
expressed, and by whom, therefore, the power of realizing it is
conferred on all who receive him.”

As it is important for us to know that redemption is not only ideal

but actual, so it is important for us to know that sin is not an
inevitable accompaniment of human nature, but that it had a
historical beginning. Yet no a priori theory should prejudice our
examination of the facts. We would preface our consideration of the
Scriptural account, therefore, by stating that our view of inspiration
would permit us to regard that account as inspired, even if it were
mythical or allegorical. As God can use all methods of literary
composition, so he can use all methods of instructing mankind that
are consistent with essential truth. George Adam Smith observes
that the myths and legends of primitive folk-lore are the intellectual
equivalents of later philosophies and theories of the universe, and
that “at no time has revelation refused to employ such human
conceptions for the investiture and conveyance of the higher spiritual
truths.” Sylvester Burnham: “Fiction and myth have not yet lost their
value for the moral and religious teacher. What a knowledge of his
own nature has shown man to be good for his own use, God surely
may also have found to be good for his use. Nor would it of
necessity affect the value of the Bible if the writer, in using for his
purpose myth or fiction, supposed that he was using history. Only
when the value of the truth of the teaching depends upon the
historicity of the alleged fact, does it become impossible to use myth
or fiction for the purpose of teaching.” See vol. 1, page 241 of this
work, with quotations from Denney, Studies in Theology, 218, and
Gore, in Lux Mundi, 356. Euripides: “Thou God of all! infuse light
into the souls of men, whereby they may be enabled to know what
is the root from which all their evils spring, and by what means they
may avoid them!”

I. The Scriptural Account of the Temptation and Fall

in Genesis 3:1-7.

1. Its general, character not mythical or allegorical,

but historical.

We adopt this view for the following reasons:—(a)

There is no intimation in the account itself that it is
not historical. (b) As a part of a [pg 583] historical
book, the presumption is that it is itself historical. (c)
The later Scripture writers refer to it as a veritable
history even in its details. (d) Particular features of
the narrative, such as the placing of our first parents
in a garden and the speaking of the tempter through
a serpent-form, are incidents suitable to man's
condition of innocent but untried childhood. (e) This
view that the narrative is historical does not forbid
our assuming that the trees of life and of knowledge
were symbols of spiritual truths, while at the same
time they were outward realities.

See John 8:44—“Ye are of your father the devil, and the lusts of
your father it is your will to do. He was a murderer from the
beginning, and standeth not in the truth, because there is no truth in
him. When he speaketh a lie, he speaketh of his own: for he is a liar
and the father thereof”; 2 Cor. 11:3—“the serpent beguiled Eve in
his craftiness”; Rev. 20:2—“the dragon, the old serpent, which is the
Devil and Satan.” H. B. Smith, System, 261—“If Christ's temptation
and victory over Satan were historical events, there seems to be no
ground for supposing that the first temptation was not a historical
event.” We believe in the unity and sufficiency of Scripture. We
moreover regard the testimony of Christ and the apostles as
conclusive with regard to the historicity of the account in Genesis.
We assume a divine superintendence in the choice of material by its
author, and the fulfilment to the apostles of Christ's promise that
they should be guided into the truth. Paul's doctrine of sin is so
manifestly based upon the historical character of the Genesis story,
that the denial of the one must naturally lead to the denial of the
other. John Milton writes, in his Areopagitica: “It was from out of the
rind of one apple tasted that the knowledge of good and evil, as two
twins cleaving together, leaped forth into the world. And perhaps this
is that doom which Adam fell into, that is to say, of knowing good by
evil.” He should have learned to know evil as God knows it—as a
thing possible, hateful, and forever rejected. He actually learned to
know evil as Satan knows it—by making it actual and matter of bitter
experience.

Infantile and innocent man found his fit place and work in a garden.
The language of appearances is doubtless used. Satan might enter
into a brute-form, and might appear to speak through it. In all
languages, the stories of brutes speaking show that such a
temptation is congruous with the condition of early man. Asiatic
myths agree in representing the serpent as the emblem of the spirit
of evil. The tree of the knowledge of good and evil was the symbol
of God's right of eminent domain, and indicated that all belonged to
him. It is not necessary to suppose that it was known by this name
before the Fall. By means of it man came to know good, by the loss
of it; to know evil, by bitter experience; C. H. M.: “To know good,
without the power to do it; to know evil, without the power to avoid
it.” Bible Com., 1:40—The tree of life was symbol of the fact that
“life is to be sought, not from within, from himself, in his own
powers or faculties; but from that which is without him, even from
him who hath life in himself.”

As the water of baptism and the bread of the Lord's supper, though
themselves common things, are symbolic of the greatest truths, so
the tree of knowledge and the tree of life were sacramental.
McIlvaine, Wisdom of Holy Scripture, 99-141—“The two trees
represented good and evil. The prohibition of the latter was a
declaration that man of himself could not distinguish between good
and evil, and must trust divine guidance. Satan urged man to discern
between good and evil by his own wisdom, and so become
independent of God. Sin is the attempt of the creature to exercise
God's attribute of discerning and choosing between good and evil by
his own wisdom. It is therefore self-conceit, self-trust, self-assertion,
the preference of his own wisdom and will to the wisdom and will of
God.” McIlvaine refers to Lord Bacon, Works, 1:82, 162. See also
Pope, Theology, 2:10, 11; Boston Lectures for 1871:80, 81.

Griffith-Jones, Ascent through Christ, 142, on the tree of the

knowledge of good and evil—“When for the first time man stood
face to face with definite conscious temptation to do that which he
knew to be wrong, he held in his hand the fruit of that tree, and his
destiny as a moral being hung trembling in the balance. And when
for the first time he succumbed to temptation and faint dawnings of
remorse visited his heart, at that moment he was banished from the
Eden of innocence, in which his nature had hitherto dwelt, and he
was driven forth from the presence of the Lord.” With the first sin,
was started another and a downward course of development. For
the mythical or allegorical explanation of the narrative, see also
Hase, Hutterus Redivivus, 164, 165, and Nitzsch, Christian Doctrine,
218.
[pg 584]

2. The course of the temptation, and the resulting

fall.

The stages of the temptation appear to have been as

follows:

(a) An appeal on the part of Satan to innocent

appetites, together with an implied suggestion that
God was arbitrarily withholding the means of their
gratification (Gen. 3:1). The first sin was in Eve's
isolating herself and choosing to seek her own
pleasure without regard to God's will. This initial
selfishness it was, which led her to listen to the
tempter instead of rebuking him or flying from him,
and to exaggerate the divine command in her
response (Gen. 3:3).

Gen. 3:1—“Yea, hath God said, Ye shall not eat of any tree of the
garden?” Satan emphasizes the limitation, but is silent with regard
to the generous permission—“Of every tree of the garden [but one]
thou mayest freely eat” (2:16). C. H. M., in loco: “To admit the
question ‘hath God said?’is already positive infidelity. To add to God's
word is as bad as to take from it. ‘Hath God said?’ is quickly
followed by ‘Ye shall not surely die.’ Questioning whether God has
spoken, results in open contradiction of what God has said. Eve
suffered God's word to be contradicted by a creature, only because
she had abjured its authority over her conscience and heart.” The
command was simply: “thou shalt not eat of it” (Gen. 2:17). In her
rising dislike to the authority she had renounced, she exaggerates
the command into: “Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it”
(Gen. 3:3). Here is already self-isolation, instead of love. Matheson,
Messages of the Old Religions, 318—“Ere ever the human soul
disobeyed, it had learned to distrust.... Before it violated the existing
law, it had come to think of the Lawgiver as one who was jealous of
his creatures.” Dr. C. H. Parkhurst: “The first question ever asked in
human history was asked by the devil, and the interrogation point
still has in it the trail of the serpent.”

(b) A denial of the veracity of God, on the part of the

tempter, with a charge against the Almighty of
jealousy and fraud in keeping his creatures in a
position of ignorance and dependence (Gen. 3:4, 5).
This was followed, on the part of the woman, by
positive unbelief, and by a conscious and
presumptuous cherishing of desire for the forbidden
fruit, as a means of independence and knowledge.
Thus unbelief, pride, and lust all sprang from the
self-isolating, self-seeking spirit, and fastened upon
the means of gratifying it (Gen. 3:6).
Gen. 3:4, 5—“And the serpent said unto the woman, Ye shall not
surely die: for God doth know that in the day ye eat thereof, then
your eyes shall be opened, and ye shall be as God, knowing good
and evil”; 3:6—“And when the woman saw that the tree was good
for food, and that it was a delight to the eyes, and that the tree was
to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof, and did
eat; and she gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat”—
so “taking the word of a Professor of Lying, that he does not lie”
(John Henry Newman). Hooker, Eccl. Polity, book I—“To live by one
man's will became the cause of all men's misery.” Godet on John 1:4
—“In the words ‘life’ and ‘light’ it is natural to see an allusion to the
tree of life and to that of knowledge. After having eaten of the
former, man would have been called to feed on the second. John
initiates us into the real essence of these primordial and mysterious
facts and gives us in this verse, as it were, the philosophy of
Paradise.” Obedience is the way to knowledge, and the sin of
Paradise was the seeking of light without life; cf. John 7:17—“If any
man willeth to do his will, he shall know of the teaching, whether it
is of God, or whether I speak from myself.”

(c) The tempter needed no longer to urge his suit.

Having poisoned the fountain, the stream would
naturally be evil. Since the heart and its desires had
become corrupt, the inward disposition manifested
itself in act (Gen. 3:6—“did eat; and she gave also
unto her husband with her” = who had been with
her, and had shared her choice and longing). Thus
man fell inwardly, before the outward act of eating
the forbidden fruit,—fell in that one fundamental
determination whereby he made supreme choice of
self instead of God. This sin of the inmost nature
gave rise to sins of the [pg 585] desires, and sins of
the desires led to the outward act of transgression
(James 1:15).

James 1:15—“Then the lust, when it hath conceived, beareth sin.”

Baird, Elohim Revealed, 888—“The law of God had already been
violated; man was fallen before the fruit had been plucked, or the
rebellion had been thus signalized. The law required not only
outward obedience but fealty of the heart, and this was withdrawn
before any outward token indicated the change.” Would he part
company with God, or with his wife? When the Indian asked the
missionary where his ancestors were, and was told that they were in
hell, he replied that he would go with his ancestors. He preferred
hell with his tribe to heaven with God. Sapphira, in like manner, had
opportunity given her to part company with her husband, but she
preferred him to God; Acts 5:7-11.

Philippi, Glaubenslehre: “So man became like God, a setter of law to

himself. Man's self-elevation to godhood was his fall. God's self-
humiliation to manhood was man's restoration and elevation.... Gen.
3:22—‘The man has become as one of us’ in his condition of self-
centered activity,—thereby losing all real likeness to God, which
consists in having the same aim with God himself. De te fabula
narratur; it is the condition, not of one alone, but of all the race.” Sin
once brought into being is self-propagating; its seed is in itself: the
centuries of misery and crime that have followed have only shown
what endless possibilities of evil were wrapped up in that single sin.
Keble: “'Twas but a little drop of sin We saw this morning enter in,
And lo, at eventide a world is drowned!” Farrar, Fall of Man: “The
guilty wish of one woman has swollen into the irremediable
corruption of a world.” See Oehler, O.T. Theology, 1:231; Müller,
Doct. Sin, 2:381-385; Edwards, on Original Sin, part 4, chap. 2;
Shedd, Dogm. Theol., 2:168-180.

II. Difficulties connected with the Fall considered as

the personal Act of Adam.

1. How could a holy being fall?

Here we must acknowledge that we cannot

understand how the first unholy emotion could have
found lodgment in a mind that was set supremely
upon God, nor how temptation could have overcome
a soul in which there were no unholy propensities to
which it could appeal. The mere power of choice
does not explain the fact of an unholy choice. The
fact of natural desire for sensuous and intellectual
gratification does not explain how this desire came to
be inordinate. Nor does it throw light upon the
matter, to resolve this fall into a deception of our first
parents by Satan. Their yielding to such deception
presupposes distrust of God and alienation from him.
Satan's fall, moreover, since it must have been
uncaused by temptation from without, is more
difficult to explain than Adam's fall.

We may distinguish six incorrect explanations of the origin of sin: 1.

Emmons: Sin is due to God's efficiency—God wrought the sin in
man's heart. This is the “exercise system,” and is essentially
pantheistic. 2. Edwards: Sin is due to God's providence—God caused
the sin indirectly by presenting motives. This explanation has all the
difficulties of determinism. 3. Augustine: Sin is the result of God's
withdrawal from man's soul. But inevitable sin is not sin, and the
blame of it rests on God who withdrew the grace needed for
obedience, 4. Pfleiderer: The fall results from man's already existing
sinfulness. The fault then belongs, not to man, but to God who
made man sinful. 5. Hadley: Sin is due to man's moral insanity. But
such concreated ethical defect would render sin impossible. Insanity
is the effect of sin, but not its cause. 6. Newman: Sin is due to man's
weakness. It is a negative, not a positive, thing, an incident of
finiteness. But conscience and Scripture testify that it is positive as
well as negative, opposition to God as well as non-conformity to
God.
Emmons was really a pantheist: “Since God,” he says, “works in all
men both to will and to do of his good pleasure, it is as easy to
account for the first offence of Adam as for any other sin.... There is
no difficulty respecting the fall of Adam from his [pg 586]original
state of perfection and purity into a state of sin and guilt, which is in
any way peculiar.... It is as consistent with the moral rectitude of the
Deity to produce sinful as holy exercises in the minds of men. He
puts forth a positive influence to make moral agents act, in every
instance of their conduct, as he pleases.... There is but one
satisfactory answer to the question Whence came evil? and that is:
It came from the great first Cause of all things”; see Nathaniel
Emmons, Works, 2:683.

Jonathan Edwards also denied power to the contrary even in Adam's

first sin. God did not immediately cause that sin. But God was active
in the region of motives though his action was not seen. Freedom of
the Will, 161—“It was fitting that the transaction should so take
place that it might not appear to be from God as the apparent
fountain.” Yet “God may actually in his providence so dispose and
permit things that the event may be certainly and infallibly
connected with such disposal and permission”; see Allen, Jonathan
Edwards, 304. Encyc. Britannica, 7:690—“According to Edwards,
Adam had two principles,—natural and supernatural. When Adam
sinned, the supernatural or divine principle was withdrawn from him,
and thus his nature became corrupt without God infusing any evil
thing into it. His posterity came into being entirely under the
government of natural and inferior principles. But this solves the
difficulty of making God the author of sin only at the expense of
denying to sin any real existence, and also destroys Edwards's
essential distinction between natural and moral ability.” Edwards on
Trinity, Fisher's edition, 44—“The sun does not cause darkness and
cold, when these follow infallibly upon the withdrawal of his beams.
God's disposing the result is not a positive exertion on his part.”
Shedd, Dogm. Theol., 2:50—“God did not withdraw the common
supporting grace of his Spirit from Adam until after transgression.”
To us Adam's act was irrational, but not impossible; to a determinist
like Edwards, who held that men simply act out their characters,
Adam's act should have been not only irrational, but impossible.
Edwards nowhere shows how, according to his principles, a holy
being could possibly fall.

Pfleiderer, Grundriss, 123—“The account of the fall is the first

appearance of an already existing sinfulness, and a typical example
of the way in which every individual becomes sinful. Original sin is
simply the universality and originality of sin. There is no such thing
as indeterminism. The will can lift itself from natural unfreedom, the
unfreedom of the natural impulses, to real spiritual freedom, only by
distinguishing itself from the law which sets before it its true end of
being. The opposition of nature to the law reveals an original nature
power which precedes all free self-determination. Sin is the evil bent
of lawless self-willed selfishness.” Pfleiderer appears to make this
sinfulness concreated, and guiltless, because proceeding from God.
Hill, Genetic Philosophy, 288—“The wide discrepancy between
precept and practice gives rise to the theological conception of sin,
which, in low types of religion, is as often a violation of some trivial
prescription as it is of an ethical principle. The presence of sin,
contrasted with a state of innocence, occasions the idea of a fall, or
lapse from a sinless condition. This is not incompatible with man's
derivation from an animal ancestry, which prior to the rise of self-
consciousness may be regarded as having been in a state of moral
innocence, the sense and reality of sin being impossible to the
animal.... The existence of sin, both as an inherent disposition, and
as a perverted form of action, may be explained as a survival of
animal propensity in human life.... Sin is the disturbance of higher
life by the intrusion of lower.”

Professor James Hadley: “Every man is more or less insane.” We

prefer to say: Every man, so far as he is apart from God, is morally
insane. But we must not make sin the result of insanity. Insanity is
the result of sin. Insanity, moreover, is a physical disease,—sin is a
perversion of the will. John Henry Newman, Idea of a University, 60
—“Evil has no substance of its own, but is only the defect, excess,
perversion or corruption of that which has substance.” Augustine
seems at times to favor this view. He maintains that evil has no
origin, inasmuch as it is negative, not positive; that it is merely
defect or failure. He illustrates it by the damaged state of a
discordant harp; see Moule, Outlines of Theology, 171. So too A. A.
Hodge, Popular Lectures, 190, tells us that Adam's will was like a
violin in tune, which through mere inattention and neglect got out of
tune at last. But here, too, we must say with E. G. Robinson, Christ.
Theology, 124—“Sin explained is sin defended.” All these
explanations fail to explain, and throw the blame of sin upon God, as
directly or indirectly its cause.
But sin is an existing fact. God cannot be its author,
either by creating man's nature so that sin was a
necessary incident of its development, or by
withdrawing a supernatural grace which was
necessary to keep man holy. [pg 587] Reason,
therefore, has no other recourse than to accept the
Scripture doctrine that sin originated in man's free
act of revolt from God—the act of a will which,
though inclined toward God, was not yet confirmed
in virtue and was still capable of a contrary choice.
The original possession of such power to the
contrary seems to be the necessary condition of
probation and moral development. Yet the exercise
of this power in a sinful direction can never be
explained upon grounds of reason, since sin is
essentially unreason. It is an act of wicked
arbitrariness, the only motive of which is the desire
to depart from God and to render self supreme.

Sin is a “mystery of lawlessness” (2 Thess. 2:7), at the beginning, as

well as at the end. Neander, Planting and Training, 388—“Whoever
explains sin nullifies it.” Man's power at the beginning to choose evil
does not prove that, now that he has fallen, he has equal power of
himself permanently to choose good. Because man has power to
cast himself from the top of a precipice to the bottom, it does not
follow that he has equal power to transport himself from the bottom
to the top.
Man fell by wilful resistance to the inworking God. Christ is in all men
as he was in Adam, and all good impulses are due to him. Since the
Holy Spirit is the Christ within, all men are the subjects of his
striving. He does not withdraw from them except upon, and in
consequence of, their withdrawing from him. John Milton makes the
Almighty say of Adam's sin: “Whose fault? Whose but his own?
Ingrate, he had of me All he could have; I made him just and right,
Sufficient to have stood, though free to fall. Such I created all the
Etherial Powers, And Spirits, both them who stood and them who
failed; Freely they stood who stood, and fell who failed.” The word
“cussedness”has become an apt word here. The Standard Dictionary
defines it as “1. Cursedness, meanness, perverseness; 2. resolute
courage, endurance: ‘Jim Bludsoe's voice was heard, And they all
had trust in his cussedness And knowed he would keep his
word.’ ”(John Hay, Jim Bludsoe, stanza 6). Not the last, but the first,
of these definitions best describes the first sin. The most thorough
and satisfactory treatment of the fall of man in connection with the
doctrine of evolution is found in Griffith-Jones, Ascent through
Christ, 73-240.

Hodge, Essays and Reviews, 30—“There is a broad difference

between the commencement of holiness and the commencement of
sin, and more is necessary for the former than for the latter. An act
of obedience, if it is performed under the mere impulse of self-love,
is virtually no act of obedience. It is not performed with any
intention to obey, for that is holy, and cannot, according to the
theory, precede the act. But an act of disobedience, performed from
the desire of happiness, is rebellion. The cases are surely different.
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