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 Sports Performance
Measurement and Analytics
The Science of Assessing Performance,
Predicting Future Outcomes,
Interpreting Statistical Models,
and Evaluating the Market Value of Athletes

L ORENA M ARTIN
Publisher: Paul Boger
Editor-in-Chief: Amy Neidlinger
Executive Editor: Jeanne Glasser Levine
Cover Designer: Alan Clements
Managing Editor: Kristy Hart
Project Editor: Andy Beaster
Manufacturing Buyer: Dan Uhrig
Consulting Editor: Thomas W. Miller

c 2016 by Lorena Martin

Published by Pearson Education, Inc.
Old Tappan, New Jersey 07675

For information about buying this title in bulk quantities, or for special sales opportunities
(which may include electronic versions; custom cover designs; and content particular
to your business, training goals, marketing focus, or branding interests), please contact
our corporate sales department at [email protected] or (800) 382-3419.

For government sales inquiries, please contact [email protected].

For questions about sales outside the U.S., please contact [email protected].

Company and product names mentioned herein are the trademarks or registered
trademarks of their respective owners.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any
means, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

First Printing February 2016

ISBN-10: 0-13-419330-X
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-419330-4

Pearson Education LTD.

Pearson Education Australia PTY, Limited.
Pearson Education Singapore, Pte. Ltd.
Pearson Education Asia, Ltd.
Pearson Education Canada, Ltd.
Pearson Educación de Mexico, S.A. de C.V.
Pearson Education—Japan
Pearson Education Malaysia, Pte. Ltd.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015958702
Contents

Preface v

Figures ix

Tables xi

Exhibits xiii

1 Anatomy and Physiology 1

2 Assessing Physical Variables 15

3 Sport Psychological Measures 41

4 Selecting Statistical Models 53

5 Touchdown Analytics 69

6 Slam Dunk Analytics 95

7 Home Run Analytics 117

8 Golden Goal Analytics 137

9 Game, Set, Match Analytics 157

iii
iv Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

10 Performance and Market Value 173

Statistics Glossary 187

Football Glossary 193

Basketball Glossary 201

Baseball Glossary 209

Soccer Glossary 227

Tennis Glossary 241

Bibliography 247

Index 289
Preface

“Impossible is just a big word thrown around by small men who find it
easier to live in the world they’ve been given than to explore the power they
have to change it. Impossible is not a fact. It’s an opinion. Impossible is not
a declaration. It’s a dare. Impossible is potential. Impossible is temporary.
Impossible is nothing.”
—M UHAMMAD A LI

I have played sports my entire life. I began playing the sport of tennis at the
age of thirteen, too late in the eyes of many tennis experts to become a top
professional tennis player. I trained six hours a day from the first day that I
won a match against a boy at a neighborhood tennis court. In an instant, I
was addicted to the sport.
I dreamed of becoming a professional tennis player. I spent countless hours
on the court, skipping hangouts, holidays, and dates just to hit tennis balls.
I went on to play high school and college tennis. I dropped out of college
to play professional tennis. I worked for an airline so I could travel inex-
pensively to compete in professional tennis tournaments around the world.
Tournaments were (and still are) scattered across the globe, giving a person
of lower socioeconomic status a very slim chance of making it. Through
my tennis training and competition, I reached a Florida state ranking of
number three and a top 200 women’s professional ranking in the USA.
As an undergraduate, I majored in psychology. I wanted to learn about the
psychological and behavioral profiles of successful professional athletes. I
went on to get a master’s degree in psychology.

v
vi Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

After studying psychology, I wanted to obtain a deeper understanding of

the importance of physiology and physical fitness variables in sports, such
as muscular strength, power, endurance, anaerobic power, cardiorespira-
tory endurance, and flexibility. I felt it was essential to learn as much as
possible about the processes going on inside an elite athlete’s mind and
body. I earned a doctorate in exercise physiology from the University of
Miami and was recruited to conduct postdoctoral research in behavioral
medicine at the University of California, San Diego.
I have always been driven to learn about statistics, about what is and is not
being said by the numbers. I wanted to see which variables could be used to
predict sport performance and to answer a simple question: “What are the
qualities a person must have to become a world class athlete?” This ques-
tion and many more may be answered through research, measurement,
statistics, and analytics.
I went on to teach research methods and statistical design at Florida In-
ternational University. Later I joined Northwestern University, where I
currently teach introduction to statistical analysis as well as sports perfor-
mance analytics.
As a teacher of sports performance analytics, I tried to find a book that en-
compassed sports-relevant anatomy and physiology and described athletic
performance measures. I wanted a book that included statistical analyses
and models used in various individual and team sports, along with statis-
tics adopted by the sports industry. But I found no such book.
I chose to write this book to give athletes, coaches, and managers a better
understanding of measurement and analytics as they relate to sport per-
formance. To develop accurate measures, we need to know what we want
to measure and why. This book provides new insights into constructs and
variables that have often been neglected in sports to this day. It also reviews
fundamentals of sports anatomy and physiology, sport measurement, and
performance analytics.
This book serves many readers. People involved with sports, including
players, coaches, and trainers, will gain an appreciation for performance
measures and analytics. People involved with analytics will gain new in-
sights into sports performance and see what it takes to become a competi-
tive athlete. And students eager to learn about sports analytics will have a
 Preface vii

practical introduction to the field. Data sets and programs in the book are
available from the book’s website http://www.ftpress.com/martin/.
Many thanks to Thomas W. Miller, my consulting editor, for making this
book happen, as it would not have been possible to complete without him.
And special thanks go to my editor, Jeanne Glasser Levine, and publisher,
Pearson/FT Press, for giving me the opportunity to publish my first book.
Of course, any writing issues, errors, or items of unfinished business are
my responsibility alone.
I want to give a special thank you to my brother and professional tennis
player, Juan J. Martin Jr., who constantly provides me with insightful infor-
mation based on his experience in professional sports and exercise physiol-
ogy. I would also like to thank the Dallas Cowboys’ Director of Football Re-
search, Tom Robinson, for his instrumental remarks and comments. Thanks
to Roy Sanford, a lead faculty member in Northwestern University’s Mas-
ter’s Program in Predictive Analytics, who provided constructive critiques
on statistical methods. I want to thank my mother, Estela Martin, for being
there day and night and offering continued support. Tambien, gracias a mi
padre, Juan J. Martin Sr., for providing me with a sports-like motivation, im-
pelling me to complete this book. In addition, I would like to mention my
dogs, which are always there for me and brought a smile to my face while
working on this book.
Most of all, I want to thank God for making this possible.
Lorena Martin
San Diego, California
December 2015
This page intentionally left blank
Figures

5.1 Three-Cone Agility Drill by Player Position (NFL) 79

5.2 20-Yard Shuttle by Player Position (NFL) 79
5.3 Vertical Jump by Player Position (NFL) 80
5.4 40-Yard Dash by Player Position (NFL) 80
5.5 Broad Jump by Player Position (NFL) 81
5.6 Bench Press by Player Position (NFL) 81
6.1 Lane Agility Drill by Player Position (NBA) 104
6.2 Bench Press by Player Position (NBA) 104
6.3 Max Vertical Leap by Player Position (NBA) 105
6.4 Standing Vertical Leap by Player Position (NBA) 105
6.5 Three Quarter Sprint by Player Position (NBA) 106
6.6 Shuttle Run by Player Position (NBA) 106
6.7 Steals by Player Position (NBA) 107
6.8 Defensive Rebounds by Player Position (NBA) 107
6.9 Offensive Rebounds by Player Position (NBA) 108
6.10 Assists by Player Position (NBA) 108
6.11 Shooting Percentage by Player Position (NBA) 109
6.12 Player Efficiency Rating by Player Position (NBA) 109
7.1 Hits by Player Position (MLB) 126
7.2 RBIs by Player Position (MLB) 126
7.3 Runs by Player Position (MLB) 127
7.4 Home Runs by Player Position (MLB) 127
8.1 Number of Assists by Player Position (UEFA) 149
8.2 Number of Goals Scored by Player Position (UEFA) 149
8.3 Number of Passes Attempted by Player Position (UEFA) 150
8.4 Number of Passes Completed by Player Position (UEFA) 150
9.1 Professional Tennis Player Earnings by Nationality (ATP, WTA) 167
9.2 Professional Tennis Player Earnings by Rank and Sex (ATP, WTA) 168

ix
This page intentionally left blank
Tables

1.1 Types of Bones 2

1.2 Muscles in Sport 4
1.3 Characteristics of Fiber Types 5
1.4 Muscle Fiber Types and Sports 6
1.5 Rate/Capacity of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) 8
1.6 Primary Energy System Duration and Intensity 10
1.7 Limiting Factors for Energy Systems 10
1.8 Athletic Training and Energy Systems 11
1.9 Physiological Markers of Athletic Performance 12
2.1 Physical Measures and Fitness Models 16
2.2 Body Fat Percentage Categories 17
2.3 Body Mass Index (BMI) Categories 18
2.4 Body Density Equations Used to Calculate Body Fat Percentage 19
2.5 Repetition Maximum Coefficients 21
2.6 Repetition Maximum Values 21
2.7 Body Muscle Group Testing for Athletes (Part 1) 24
2.8 Body Muscle Group Testing for Athletes (Part 2) 25
2.9 Range of Motion of Select Single-Joint Movements in Degrees 27
2.10 ESPN’s List of Ranking Sports by Coordination 36
2.11 Sport-Specific Skills 38
3.1 Sport Psychological Measures and Factors 50
3.2 Desirable Attributes of Measurements 51
3.3 A Measurement Model for Sports Performance 52
4.1 Overview of Statistical Methods 56
4.2 Review of Statistical Tests and Models 68
5.1 Football Performance Measures 78
6.1 Basketball Performance Measures 103
7.1 Baseball Performance Measures 125

xi
xii Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

8.1 UEFA Champions League Tournament Phase Leading Scorers 146

8.2 UEFA Champions League Tournament Phase Leaders in Assists 147
8.3 Soccer Performance Measures 148
9.1 Tennis Performance Measures 164
9.2 Annual Cost for Playing Professional Tennis 165
9.3 Annual Expenses for the 100th-Ranked Tennis Player 165
9.4 U.S. Minority Group Income and Education 166
10.1 Salaries of Top MLB Players 179
10.2 Salaries of Top NBA Players 180
10.3 Salaries of Top NFL Players 181
10.4 Salaries of Top ATP Players 182
10.5 Salaries of Top WTA Players 183
10.6 Salaries of Top MLS Players 184
10.7 Salaries of Top FIFA Players 185
Exhibits

5.1 Analyzing NFL Combine Measures (R) 82

5.2 Analyzing NFL Game Time Performance Data (R) 92
6.1 Analyzing NBA Draft Data (R) 110
6.2 Analyzing NBA Game Time Performance Data (R) 114
7.1 Analyzing MLB Player Performance (R) 128
7.2 Analyzing MLB Game Time Batting Performance (R) 130
8.1 Analyzing UEFA Assists and Goals Scored (R) 151
8.2 Analyzing UEFA Passes Attempted and Completed (R) 154
9.1 Analyzing ATP and WTA Player Earnings by Country (R) 169
9.2 Analyzing ATP and WTA Player Earnings by Rank and Sex (R) 172

xiii
This page intentionally left blank
1
Anatomy and Physiology

“A muscle is like a car. If you want it to run well early in the morning, you
have to warm it up.”
—F LORENCE G RIFFITH J OYNER

Understanding the basics of anatomy and physiology is fundamental to ob-

taining a more comprehensive knowledge of what it means to be an athlete.
Let us start by answering the question, “What is an athlete?” We can think
of an athlete as a person who is skilled at a sport, trains, and possesses
physical attributes such as muscular strength, power, endurance, speed,
and agility, to name a few.
The physical attributes and variables of an athlete will be detailed and ex-
plained in chapter 2. This chapter focuses on the fundamental anatomy and
physiology of an athlete. The objective of this chapter is to help the sports
data analyst, as well as athletes themselves, understand the human body
and how its machinery functions during athletic events in order to compre-
hend how performance is affected by physiology. This chapter will open
your eyes to new ways of thinking about number crunching and sports an-
alytics. Knowledge of the main physiological mechanisms will make you a
more competitive and insightful sports data scientist.

1
2 Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

Table 1.1. Types of Bones

Type of Bone Example of Bone

Long bones Femur, Humerus, Tibia

Short bones Tarsals of the foot, Carpals of the hand and wrist
Flat bones Scapula, Sternum, Cranium
Irregular bones Vertebrae, Sacrum, Mandible
Sesamoid bones Knee Cap, there are four sesamoid bones in the hand,
there are two sesamoid bones in the foot

Let us review the basic bone structure and anatomical information you
should be aware of. The human body is made up of 206 bones and more
than 430 skeletal muscles. The topic of anatomy alone could take several
books to do it justice. We will cover the part of human anatomy and physi-
ology most relevant to sports performance.
The study of bones is called osteology. Osteologists dedicate their lives to
understanding how bones function. Bones are responsible for providing
constant renewal of red and white blood cells, and are vital not only to our
organs, but to gaining a competitive edge in sports performance. There are
several types of bones: long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones,
and sesamoid bones. Long bones are associated with greater movement
due to the lever length, compared to short bones which have limited mo-
bility, but are known to be stronger. Please refer to table 1.1 for examples of
each type of bone.
The musculoskeletal system is integral to human movement, as it is com-
prised of ligaments that connect bone to bone and tendons that connect
muscles to bone. Consequently, when the muscle pulls on the bone, motion
occurs. Depending on the method of classification or grouping, estimates
of the number of muscles in the body range between 430 to over 900. In
fact, each skeletal muscle is considered an organ that contains muscle tis-
sue, connective tissue, nerves, and blood vessels. Much of the debate is a
matter of definition in terms of how the muscles are quantified.
 Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology 3

Like bones, muscles may be classified by type: smooth muscle is found

in the blood vessels and organs, cardiac muscle is found in the heart, and
skeletal muscle is abundant throughout the human body and is responsible
for our daily movement.
Upper body muscles and muscle groups to become familiar with include
the latissimus dorsi, trapezius, deltoids, rotator cuff, pectorals, biceps, tri-
ceps, and brachioradialis. Midsection muscles involved in sports perfor-
mance include the rectus abdominus, external and internal obliques, and
the transversus abdominis. Lower body muscles vital for many sports in-
clude the quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteus (maximus, minimus, medius),
gastrocnemius, and the soleus. Please refer to table 1.2 for the locations of
these muscles and their function in sports.
Many of you have heard of fast twitch and slow twitch muscle fibers. Most
people are only aware of two fiber types, fast and slow, or white and red.
However, it is much more accurate to say that there are hybrid fiber types
that lie within the spectrum of Type I and Type II muscle fibers. More re-
cently, the scientific field revealed three distinct categories of muscle fibers.
These are Type I, Type IIa, and Type IIx muscle fibers. Type I fibers are
commonly referred to as slow-twitch while both Type IIa and Type IIx are
recognized as fast-twitch muscle fibers.
To facilitate understanding, we will focus on the differences between Type
I and Type II because they are inherently different as they relate to the fol-
lowing characteristics: ability to utilize oxygen and glycogen as determined
by aerobic enzyme content, myoglobin content, capillary density, and mi-
tochondria size and density.
Typically, slow-twitch muscle fibers tend to be high in all the criteria men-
tioned above. In comparison, fast-twitch muscle fibers tend to be low in
these characteristics, while having greater nerve conduction velocity, speed
of muscle contractility, anaerobic enzyme content, and power output. Fast
twitch fibers are known to have high glycolytic activity, meaning they uti-
lize glycogen (the storage form of glucose, which many call sugar) at high
levels, whereas slow-twitch muscle fibers rely on their oxidative capacity.
Please refer to table 1.3 for additional muscle fiber type characteristics.
4 Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

Table 1.2. Muscles in Sport

Name of Muscle Location of Muscle Function in Sport

Upper Body Muscles
Latissimus dorsi located in the posterior part of the body, involved in extension and adduction of the shoulder
largest muscle group in the upper body, as well as pulling motions; relevant for all sports
also called the back
Rhomboids located in the upper back underneath the involved in retraction of shoulder blades
trapezius and consists of two muscles; relevant for all sports
rhomboid major and minor
Trapezius located above and superficial to rhomboids involved in distributing loads away from the neck
extends from shoulders to neck muscles and keeping the shoulders stabilized
Deltoids commonly referred to as the shoulders involved in throwing motions
used extensively in overhead athletes
Rotator Cuff located in the shoulder area deep under the involved in throwing motions; quarterbacks,
deltoids, muscles that hold the shoulder in place pitchers, and tennis players when serving
Pectorals commonly referred to as the chest involved in chest press strength, and abduction of
includes pectoralis major and minor the shoulder and pushing movements
Biceps located in anterior part of the arm and called involved in swinging motion; tennis players
biceps because of the two heads of the muscle forehand and baseball swings; also involved in
bending of the elbow and for picking up motions
Triceps located in posterior part of the arm and called extension of elbow; used to straighten the elbow;
triceps because of the three heads of the muscle used in stiff-arm movement in football players

Brachioradialis and forearm muscles utilized in sports using the wrist

Pronator Teres

Core and Midsection Muscles

Rectus Abdominus located in the anterior part of the body utilized for flexion of the spine
under the abdomen and core stabilization; relevant for all sports

External Obliques located above and superficial to the internal utilized for sideways bending and rotation of the
obliques on each side of the trunk torso; integral for tennis strokes
Internal Obliques located underneath the external abdominal utilized for flexion of the spine, sideways bending,
oblique on each side of the trunk trunk rotation and compression of the abdomen;
relevant for all sports
Transversus Abdominis located in the deepest layer of abdominal muscles utilized for respiration and core stabilization;
that wraps around the torso relevant for all sports

Lower Body Muscles

Quadriceps located in anterior part of thigh consisting of four responsible for extension of the knee; major source
muscles of strength for soccer players; relevant for all sports

Hamstrings located in posterior part of thigh consisting of responsible for flexion and bending of the knee;
three muscles relevant for all sports

Gluteus Maximus, Gluteus located in the area usually called the buttocks utilized in explosive first step movements;
Medius, and Gluteus Minimus integral for lower body strength and power

Gastrocnemius located in the lower leg area and typically referred utilized in jumping and tip-toe motions including
to as part of the calf muscle being on the ball of your feet

Soleus located in the lower leg area and typically referred utilized in jumping and tip-toe motions including
to as part of the calf muscle being on the ball of your feet
 Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology 5

Table 1.3. Characteristics of Fiber Types

Characteristics Type I Type IIa Type IIx

Motor neuron size Small Large Large
Nerve conduction velocity Slow Fast Fast
Contraction speed Slow Fast Fast
Relaxation speed Slow Fast Fast
Fatigue resistance High Intermediate/Low Low
Force production Low Intermediate High
Power output Low Intermediate/High High
Endurance High Intermediate/Low Low
Aerobic enzyme content High Intermediate/Low Low
Anaerobic enzyme content Low High High
Capillary density High Intermediate Low
Myoglobin content High Low Low
Mitochondria size/density High Intermediate Low
Fiber diameter Small Intermediate Large
Color Red White/Red White

Adapted from Baechle and Earle (2008).

6 Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

Table 1.4. Muscle Fiber Types and Sports

Sport Type I Contribution Type II Contribution
100 meter sprint Low High
800 meter sprint High High
Marathon High Low
Soccer High High
American Football Wide Receiver and Linemen Low High
Basketball Low High
Baseball Pitcher Low High
Tennis High High

Adapted from Baechle and Earle (2008).

It is evident that anatomy and physiology play a major role in sports perfor-
mance. A sprinter may benefit from a greater number of fast twitch muscle
fibers, whereas a long-distance runner will benefit much more from having
a greater distribution of slow twitch muscle fibers. Refer to table 1.4 for
Type I and Type II muscle fiber contribution in a variety of sports.
In addition to the controversy over the number of muscle fiber types, there
also remains the question of whether one can train and modify one’s own
fiber type through conditioning. Several animal studies have shown that
enzymes that would otherwise be dormant are activated through physical
training, implying that there is a possibility of changing the fiber type to a
certain degree.
Now that we have the basics of the skeletal and muscular system, let us
consider the physiology of sports performance. First, we must realize that
human metabolism includes both anabolic and catabolic processes that are
ongoing in our bodies. Anabolic processes involve the synthesis of larger
molecules from smaller molecules. Conversely, catabolic processes involve
the breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones, and are associated
with the release of energy. Energy released in a biological reaction is quan-
tified by the amount of heat that is generated. The amount of heat required
to raise one kilogram of water one degree Celsius is called a kilocalorie.
This corresponds to the energy found in food that is broken down within
our bodies and stored in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
 Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology 7

In the body, energy systems are responsible for providing the ATP (energy)
that is utilized under varying intensities and durations of sport perfor-
mance. There are three main energy systems at play during sports perfor-
mance. They are the phosphagen (ATP-PCr) system, the glycolytic system,
and the oxidative phosphorylation system. All three systems are constantly
at work and interacting with each other, functioning on some level as they
are not “all or nothing” systems. The predominance of one system is largely
determined by the intensity and duration of the sporting activity, as well as
the substrate (food source) that the athlete has consumed. Substrate uti-
lization is a fancy term for the food that is being consumed by the athlete.
Correspondingly, these three energy systems are also sometimes referred to
as bioenergetics systems.
The athlete’s ability to perform is based on his or her muscles’ capacity
to function and depends on the oxygen or glucose (substrate) availability.
What does this mean? Well, if an athlete is sprinting, muscles within the
body do not necessarily have the time required to be able to utilize oxygen,
as a body at rest does. This causes the body to shift into an anaerobic state
in which it can extract energy in the form of ATP, without the use of oxy-
gen. However, when the human machine is running at a slower pace, the
standard metabolic processes that utilize oxygen are allowed to occur in the
mitochondria (the engine of the cell). Some might say that the human body
is inherently intelligent and can be compared to a computer, in that after
the program is built and algorithm established, it knows what to do on its
own.
To simplify, the three energy systems will be referred to as the phosphagen,
glycolytic, and oxidative systems. These systems produce ATP and replen-
ish ATP stores within the human body. The body naturally stores ATP suf-
ficient for basic cellular functions, not the amount necessary for sports. The
phosphagen system utilizes an enzyme, creatine kinase, to maintain ATP
levels during intense, explosive movements of short duration, allowing for
the release of one mole of ATP or the equivalent of 0.6 kilocalories. The
phosphagen system is heavily involved in sports that consist of high inten-
sity, short-term explosive movements. This system is used in all sports at
the point of initiation of activity—at the shift from sedentary to active.
8 Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

Table 1.5. Rate/ Capacity of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

Energy System Rate of ATP production Capacity of ATP production

Phosphagen 1 5
Fast Glycolysis 2 4
Slow Glycolysis 3 3
Oxidation of Carbohydrates 4 2
Oxidation of Fats and Proteins 5 1

Note: 1 = fastest/greatest; 5 = slowest/least

Adapted from Baechle and Earle (2008).

The glycolytic system is responsible for controlling glycolysis (breakdown

of glycogen) for energy production, as well as the onset of lactate formation.
Glycolysis is the term for the processes that break down glycogen stored
in the muscles to glucose, ultimately yielding ATP. Remarkably, intensity
and duration of the sport also dictates the type of glycolysis that occurs.
There are two possible pathways: The shorter path, termed anaerobic (fast)
glycolysis, consists of fewer steps that lead to lactate; the other path, aero-
bic (slow) glycolysis, has a longer trajectory and yields two to three moles
of ATP or the equivalent of 1.2 to 1.8 kilocalories. Aerobic glycolysis is a
slower process. It requires sufficient quantities of oxygen to operate, com-
pared to anaerobic glycolysis which can function with limited amounts of
oxygen.
Finally, the oxidative system is responsible for breaking down glycogen,
fat, and protein. It is also responsible for producing ATP when the body is
at rest or during long lasting, low intensity sporting activities. It is a com-
monly held belief that when training at low intensity, the body utilizes more
fat than other sources (carbohydrates or protein) of energy. This concept is
the result of a simplified interpretation of this third system.
The oxidative system’s primary source of fuel is fat, since it initiates the
release of triglycerides from fat cells. This leads to the roaming of free fatty
acids in the blood, which are transported to the muscle fibers for oxidation
(burned for energy). The breakdown of fat to glucose is called lipolysis and
yields between thirty-six to forty moles of ATP or the equivalent of 21.6 to
24 kilocalories.
 Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology 9

Additionally, this system is able to oxidize protein, however, protein is not

its favored source of fuel. The mechanism of breaking down protein into en-
ergy is less than efficient. Proteolysis requires several steps to break down
protein into amino acids, and eventually converts the products to glucose
through another process called gluconeogenesis. A greater span of time is
needed to synthesize ATP. Therefore, fat and carbohydrate are the preferred
fuels for sport, because they yield energy at a much faster rate over longer
periods. Please refer to table 1.5 for the rate and capacity of ATP production
for each energy system.
The athlete’s predominant energy system differs not only by sport, but also
by player position or style of play within a particular sport. For instance,
when a tennis player sprints to hit a forehand, a basketball player jumps
explosively to slam dunk, a baseball player sprints to get on base, a quar-
terback throws the football, or a striker shoots to score a goal, their bodies
are using the phosphagen system as the primary energy mechanism. If, on
the other hand, a wide receiver is sprinting down the field for more than
six seconds, his body has shifted from using the phosphagen system to a
hybrid state consisting of both the phosphagen and glycolytic (anaerobic
glycolysis) systems.
A soccer midfielder running non-stop, back and forth at a fast pace for the
duration of one to two minutes is in a true state of anaerobic glycolysis.
If the soccer player were to continue running for a longer period of time,
ranging from two to three minutes, they are likely to be in a hybrid state
of fast glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation. Finally, a long distance
runner who runs for prolonged periods of time at a slower rate is using
the oxidative system as the primary mechanism for producing ATP. Refer
to table 1.6 for the ranges of intensity and duration typical of each energy
system.
In summary, the phosphagen energy system primarily supplies ATP for
high-intensity activities of short duration. The glycolytic system is asso-
ciated with moderate- to high-intensity activities of short to medium du-
ration. And the oxidative system is the primary system at work during
low-intensity activities of long duration.
10 Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

Table 1.6. Primary Energy System Duration and Intensity

Duration Intensity Primary Energy System

0-6 seconds Extremely High Phosphagen
6-30 seconds Very High Phosphagen and Fast Glycolysis
30 seconds to 2 minutes High Fast Glycolysis
2-3 minutes Moderate Fast Glycolysis and Oxidative System
>3 minutes Low Oxidative System

Adapted from Baechle and Earle (2008).

Table 1.7. Limiting Factors for Energy Systems

ATP and
Creatine Muscle Liver
Degree of Exercise Phosphate Glycogen Glycogen Fat Stores Lower pH
Light (Marathon) 1 5 4-5 2-3 1
Moderate (1,500 m run) 1-2 3 2 1-2 2-3
Heavy (400 m run) 3 3 1 1 4-5
Very intense (discus) 2-3 1 1 1 1
Very intense and Repetitive Motions 4-5 4-5 1-2 1-2 4-5
Note: 1 = Least Probable Limiting Factor; 5= Most Probable Limiting Factor

Adapted from Baechle and Earle (2008).

Table 1.7 describes the limiting factors of the bioenergetics systems. It shows
how athletes, depending on the sport they play, involuntarily utilize bioen-
ergetics systems. If we take a look at the discus thrower, it is important for
their performance to have enough ATP and creatine phosphate in order to
throw the discus in a powerful manner. On the other hand, if we take a
look at marathon runners, they are much more limited by the amounts of
glycogen (large amounts of glucose grouped together) stored in the muscles
and liver because of its role in glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation.
Thereby, if they are limited in muscle or liver glycogen their performance
will be hindered greatly.
Table 1.8 describes the primary system that will be utilized by percent max-
imum power and duration of exercise (sport). With this information we can
learn to train our bodies to utilize different systems. For example, if you are
an athlete that wants to improve utilization of the phosphagen system, then
you would train one time (sprint) at 90 percent intensity for five seconds in
 Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology 11

Table 1.8. Athletic Training and Energy Systems

Percent Range of
Maximum Primary System Typical Work-to-rest
Power Utilized Exercise Time Period Ratios
90-100 Phosphagen 5-10 seconds 1:12 to 1:20
75-90 Fast Glycolysis 15-30 seconds 1:3 to 1:5
30-75 Fast Glycolysis and Oxidative 1-3 minutes 1:3 to 1:4
20-30 Oxidative > 3 minutes 1:1 to 1:3

Adapted from Baechle and Earle (2008).

duration at a work to rest ratio of one to twenty, meaning you would rest
(5 × 20) 100 seconds, or a minute forty. If however, you would want to im-
prove your cardiorespiratory endurance, you would train at 20–30 percent
for longer duration at a work to rest ratio of one to three at most.
Table 1.9 details physiological markers of performance outcomes. It is well
documented in the literature that testosterone, growth hormone, and IGF-1
are strongly related to muscle mass development and maintenance as well
as bone density. Lactate levels are commonly used to assess whether the
athlete is fatigued. Training that requires high level of technique or skill
should not be performed since coordination is significantly decreased and
risk of injury is increased when high amounts of lactate are present in the
blood. Additionally, the hormone cortisol is known to be extremely ele-
vated when an athlete is overtraining causing inflammation and stress in
the body, which chronically, may lead to injury.
More recently there has been extensive research on delaying aging. Telom-
eres are located at the end of our chromosomes within our DNA. You may
ask, “Why is this relevant to sport?” Professional athletes are interested in
prolonging their athletic careers and since telomeres have been shown to be
strongly related to physical aging, this is a relevant marker of having an ex-
tended athletic career. Many studies have already shown that longer telom-
eres are associated with healthier and longer lifespans in both animal and
human models. A newer method of assessing aging is Methylome analysis.
It has been shown to have an even stronger correlation to physical aging
than telomere length. It is now recognized as a measure of biological age
and can have major implications for injury prevention and the extension of
athletic careers.
12 Sports Performance Measurement and Analytics

Table 1.9. Physiological Markers of Athletic Performance

Physiological Performance
Outcomes Markers

Muscle mass development and Testosterone, growth

maintenance hormone, IGF-1
Bone density Testosterone, estrogen
Fatigue Lactate levels
Overtraining Cortisol
Cellular aging Telomere length and
Methylome assessment
Heart function Heart rate, stroke volume,
heart rate variability, cardiac
output, and blood pressure
Aerobic threshold Aerobic enzyme content,
VO2 max
Anaerobic threshold Respiratory rate

Heart function is important to athletic performance. The ability of the heart

to distribute blood and oxygen to the muscles is fundamental for optimal
performance. Heart rate is commonly used to assess intensity. For instance,
many strength and conditioning experts utilize heart rate zones as indica-
tors of exercise intensity (training). It is important to assess heart function-
ality by not only measuring heart rate, but also stroke volume, heart rate
variability, and cardiac output.
Anaerobic and aerobic thresholds are also important to assess. Based on
the sport, it is recommended that respiratory rate and VO2 max be ex-
amined. Respiratory rate assessment is especially relevant for sprinters,
whereas VO2 max would be most appropriate for marathoners.
In order to obtain an accurate predictive model of sport performance, it is
important to include cardiovascular physiological measures, such as heart
rate, resting heart rate, heart rate variability, stoke volume, cardiac out-
 Chapter 1. Anatomy and Physiology 13

put, and blood pressure. It is also important to include measures of lactate

threshold, insulin and glucose levels, a vision assessment, and markers of
cellular aging. Physiological variables reflect the internal state of the body
and yield a picture of the body’s engine and how and why it runs the way
it does.
Now you can begin to see the whole picture and conduct more relevant
exploratory analyses. Knowledge of anatomy and physiology will make
you a more marketable and competitive sports data analyst against those
who only see the numbers, whether those numbers come from a laboratory
setting, training facility, or wearable technology in the field. Wearable tech-
nology provides measurements related to anatomy and physiology, as well
as physical measures discussed in chapter 2.
This chapter drew on various sources in anatomy and physiology, includ-
ing Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning (Baechle and Earle 2008)
and the Laboratory Manual for Exercise Physiology (Haff and Dumke 2012).
Those who want to pursue these subjects further may want to consult Tan-
ner, Gore, et al. (2013) and Sherwood (2015) as well.
This page intentionally left blank
2
Assessing Physical Variables

“The five Ss of sports training are: stamina, speed, strength, skill, and spirit;
but the greatest of these is spirit.”
—K EN D OHERTY

As a sports performance analyst, you will serve your clients best if you
are aware of the measurement methods for physical performance variables.
This chapter focuses on physical variables: body composition, muscular
strength, power and endurance, flexibility, balance, anaerobic power, aero-
bic power, reaction time, agility, and level of sport-specific skill.
Years ago physicality measures were associated with only five fundamen-
tals of fitness: muscular strength, muscular endurance, flexibility, cardiores-
piratory fitness, and body composition. These measures were used to assess
fitness across the general population.
More recently, exercise physiologists and fitness experts have come to agree
that other factors, such as muscular power, coordination, balance, and anaer-
obic power should be included, so that physicality is measured as accu-
rately as possible. This is not a novel idea.

15
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with Unrelated Content
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LOG LOOPHOLE.
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Sandbag Loophole.

FASCINE STOCKADE.
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Breastwork.
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Palisades.
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Fascine Trestle.

Withe.
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Hurdle.
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Revetments.
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Lunette.

Field-works.
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Field-works.
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Bastioned Fort.
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MAGAZINE.
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Shoulder Caponniere.

Plan of
MAGAZINE
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Lunette (Defence of Bridge.)

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The Excavations supply Earth for the Gun Bank and Banquettes in
front of them: the earth for ordinary Parapet in front of Crest
comes from Ditch.

Keep.
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Gun Bank.

Keep.
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Field Casemate.
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MAGAZINE IN A TRAVERSE.
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Caponniere.

Gadling.
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Gauntlet.

Gorget.
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Grenade and Fuse.

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Marocain. Indien.
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Gladiator.
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Collar of Garter.
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Haversack.
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Gong.
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Herisson.
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Manoeuvring Handspike.
PLATE 10.