Steady Flow in Confined Aquifer

If there is steady movement of groundwater in confined aquifer , there will

be a linear gradient /slope to the potentiometric surface, whose two directional
projection is a straight line.

The quantity of flow per unit width

q = K * b * dh/dl

The hydraulic head at any

intermediate distance (a) between
h1 &h2

A confined aquifer is 33m thick and 7kms wide. Two observation wells are located
1.2 kms apart in the direction of flow. head in well 1 is 97.5m & well 2 is 89m.
K is 1.2m/day what is the daily flow of water through the aquifer? What is the
elevation of potentiometric surface at a point located 300 m away from borewell 1
Towards borewell 2.?

Steady Flow in Unconfined Aquifer

• In the case of unconfined aquifer, the W.T. is the upper boundary of flow. It
complicates the flow

• The saturated thickness in the right is h1-h2m less.

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 Means that the cross sectional area on the right hand side is less, hence the
Head must be more to keep the steady state.

Thus the gradient of W.T in unconfined flow is not constant. It increases in

the flow Direction.

This problem was solved by Dupit and his assumptions are called as Dupit
flow. So for W.T aquifers,

1.The hydraulic gradient is equal to the slope of the W.T

2.For small W.T. gradients, the stream lines are horizontal and the
equipotential lines are vertical.

From darcys law,

Q = - K *h*1 *dh/dl,
h is the saturated thickness.
At X =0, h = h1 and at X = L, h = h2.

Substituting the boundary conditions

for x & h we get,

2 2
h  h1 2  (h1  h2 ) x / L
This is called as Dupit equation of steady flow in
unconfined aquifer
If we consider small portion of the aquifer, with
hudraulic gradient h on side and Slope in x
direction, the flow in x direction per unit width is q’x.
From Darcys law. The flow in x direction through this
prism.

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 The discharge through the right face of the prism is q’ x + dx

As keeps changing from face to face,

Similarly, the rate of flow in y direction,

For a steady flow, any change in flow through the prism must be equal to gain or loss
Across the W.T. This could be due to recharge/E.T.

If the net loss or addition is w, then the volume will be w*dxdy

If we simplify the equation for dimensions,

If w = 0 then,

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If flow is one directional,

Integration of this equation will yield the expression,

At x = 0, h = h1;
x = L, h = h2

If w = 0

h22 =

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Using the given details, draw the hydraulic head–distance curve by
estimating the head at every 100m distance from h0 to hL.
h0 = 20m, hL =10m, K=50m/day, W= 0.1m/day, L = 1000m,
Aquifer top elevation 30m, aquifer bottom elevation is 0 m.

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 Dupitt Equation of Steady State Groundwater Flow
in unconfined Aquifer

What happens in a coastal systems, where fresh water comes in

contact with Saline water ??

Freshwater Saline water Relations

In coastal areas the saline water and
fresh water comes into contact.

The density of saline water(s)is higher

than the fresh water (f).

At coastal locations, the fresh water is

discharged near the coast and mix with
the saline G.W beneath ocean floor.

The mixture between fresh & saline

water may be gradational or sharp.
Accordingly, generates salinity gradient. There is ground water flow both in
fresh water and saline water column.
The question is at what depth the interface between the fresh and saline water
is there?
Ghyben-Herzberg Principle states that
Z(x,y) = (f / s - f ) * h (x,y)
Z = depth to interface, h(x,y) is the elevation of W.T (valid in static conditions)

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 Ghyben-Herzberg Relationship

Dupitt-Ghyben-Herzberg equation

EVALUATION OF HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES OF

AQUIFER SYSTEMS
THROUGH WELL TESTS

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“Well is a hydraulic structure, which when designed and constructed properly permit
To economical withdrawal of water from a water bearing formation”.

Static Water Level

It is the level at which water stands
Before pumping starts. Its W.T.

Piezometric surface :
the surface to which water will rise in
confined Aquifer

Pumping water Level:

Water level at a given rate of pumping

Drawdown:
SWL – PWL (H-h)

Residual Drawdown: (h + h )

Well Yield: LPM/ g/day

Specific Capacity: m 3/day/drawdown

Area of Influence:

Pre & post pumping W.T. contours Area of influence

While pumping, PL / WT is lowered.

Area of influence
Circle of influence
Radius of influence

As pumping proceeds, the radius of influence keep increasing, till a certain distance
Where balance is struck between the rate of discharge and recuperation. At this stage
The cone of depression stabilizes for the given rate of pumping

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Open well : They derive water from the formation nearest to surface. They have
large storage area (2 – 20m dia)

Tube well: (12-30 cm dia) passing through several water bearing and non water
bearing formations

Flow to a well:

No flow Head lowered Flow into well starts

Let us consider flow in a well sunk in

Confined
Homogenous
Isotropic aquifer with hydraulic conductivity ‘K’

Initially the PL is horizontal

As pumping starts @ Q m 3/day, head difference is

Generated between the well & surrounding aquifer.

Flow of water starts from aquifer to well and reduction in

PL propagates outwards.

Eventually, the PL is progressively reduced sloping

Towards the well.
Whether the hydraulic gradient would be constant ???
No!!!!!.

1. As the water flows, it will be flowing throw

successively Smaller area.
As per Darcy Law

Q = K2r1bi1 = K2r2bi2

2 r1b, 2 r1b = area;

i 1r 1 = i 2r 2
i1 = hydraulic gradient at r1 and
i2 = hydraulic gradient at r2
So i1 must be greater than i2 so as to maintain Q

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 2. Further as the water enters the well, the flow becomes turbulent and has
to negotiate with the screening.

Drawdown = Aquifer loss + Well loss

The ratio of aquifer loss to total drawdown is a

measure of Efficiency of the well.

Generally we pump the well at different rates

& measure the draw down & yield at each
rate.

The yield depression curve would be a straight line if it follows

Darcy’s law. But due to extra energy dissipation it will be a curve.

Characteristics of cone of depression:

Initial stage Development of Cone Stabilization of cone

A steady state is reached for the given rate of pumping with a characteristic radius of
influence and cone of depression.

For the given aquifer the cone of

depression is a function of what ???

Pumping rate,
Pumping duration,
aquifer characteristics,
slope of the W.T.,
Recharge within cone of depression

Lesser the T, the deeper the cone

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Equilibrium well equations

In the area of influence the discharge

at any distance ‘r’ can be given as:

Q = -2 rbKdh/dr

r=w h=w
(Q/ 2  Kb)  dr/r =  -dh
r=0 h=0

Boundary conditions
h= hw at r =rw
h=ho at r = ro

For a general case the well penetrating an extensive

aquifer, there is no external limit for ‘r’ and for any
given value of ‘r’

What is Kb ???

This is called as Theim Equation

Pumping must continue at a uniform rate for sufficient time to approach steady state
Condition.
The observation wells should be located close enough to pumping well.
Assumptions:
Aquifer is isotropic & Steady state is reached.
Uniform thickness
Infinite areal extent
Well penetrates the entire aquifer
Laminar flow exisits.

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 Procedure:
1. Check for steady state
On a simple logarithmic paper drawdown –time graph of each observation
well is plotted. ( Drawdown-vertical-linear & time-horizontal-log). Draw the
time-drawdown curve through best fit. If all best fit lines run parallel in the latter part
of time, mean the flow is steady state. Then we can use Theim eqn.

2. Plot the steady state draw down of each

observation well against the distance ‘r’.
Draw the best fit straight line, called distance
draw down curve. Find out the slope of
The curve ‘s’
The T can be found from the equation:

A well in a confined aquifer is pumped at a constant rate of 1500lpm. The drawdown

Were measured in the piezometers after 60minutes of pumping. The results are below:
Distance of piezometer from the centre of pumping well (m) 3 9 40 90

Drawdown (m) 6.5 4.75 3.0 1.5

is known as the equation of unsteady ground-water flow

if the porous medium is isotropic with respect to hydraulic conductivity.

If it is steady state flow what will happen ??

Though K & T can be found out from Theim steady state equation, the field
conditions may be such that, considerable time is required to reach steady state
flow and hence, aquifer properties will have to be found out under unsteady
state-flow.

Radial Flow:
Jacob, 1940 expressed the unsteady flow into a well using radial co-ordinates as:

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 Theis (1935) obtained the solution for this equation based on the analogy between
groundwater flow and heat conduction, and for boundary conditions h = ho before
pumping, and h h0 as r  as pumping begins

This is called as Theis equation.

The non-equilibrium equation permits determination of hydraulic constants S and T by
means of pumping tests of wells. The equation is widely applied in practice

(1) a value of S can be determined, (2) only one observation well is required, (3)
a shorter period of pumping is generally necessary, and (4) no assumption of steady
state flow conditions is required.

Theis Type Curves

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 Theis Type curve between 1/u & w(u)
Pump test plot between h0- h & t

Both plot need to be in the same scale

Match the Type curve with the pump test plots by sliding the test plots on type
curves, Maintaining the axes parallel.

From this, for any arbitrary point of match one can find W(u), 1/u, t, h0-h

By substituting these variables in the Theis equation, one can find T & S

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Compute the aquifer parameters S and T using the Theis curve matching technique
from the following information obtained in a pump test

t(mins) 26.3 33.3 50 100 166.6 250 454.5

drawdown 0.16 0.22 0.34 0.57 0.8 1 1.25

s(m)
Given, Q = 3600m 3/day, distance from pumping and observation well – 250m

Cooper & Jacob Method

For small values of ‘r’ and large values of ‘t’, higher values of infinite series
in Theis equation is small and can be neglected.

Drawdown for any heads s1

and s2 and corresponding t1
and t2 will be

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Typically project the s – t plot until it intercepts the x-axis to arrive at to

At t = to

OR

A production well penetrating fully into a confined aquifer of thickness 9.15

m discharges at 3000 m3/day. An observation well is located at a distance
of 395 m from the production well and the following time-drawdown data
were observed.

Compute the aquifer parameters, T, S, and K by Cooper-Jacob Method.

Drawdow 0.065 0.15 0.21 0.275 0.3265 0.4275 0.4925

n (m)
Time 20 34 50 76 105 200 300
(min)

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