Unique Contributions of Ancient India to Mathematics

Introduction
Ancient India's contributions to mathematics are, not only original but are also admirable in
that sense that they have had an almost radical effect on the development of modern
mathematics. Indians pioneered a lot of avenues in mathematics, right from the concept of
zero to infinite series, and their work remains influential in the development of
contemporary science and mathematics. In what follows, let's discuss some unique
contributions from ancient Indian mathematics that were really ahead of their times.

1. Shunya Concept

The first people to treat zero as a number and symbol in conjunction with its specific
mathematical properties were the ancient Indians. Brahmagupta in the 7th century CE and
others gave the rules for arithmetic operations with zero, such as addition and subtraction.
These have become the basis on which modern number systems and computational

methods have developed.

Source: "The Crest of the Peacock" by George Gheverghese Joseph

2. Katapayadi System

Another numeral notation system called Katapayadi system assigns numbers to the Sanskrit
Alphabets. Using this system, many complicated mathematical formulas and astronomical
constant values were encoded into verses so that mathematical information would be more
easily attainable and memorable.
Reference: Vedic Mathematics by Bharati Krishna Tirthaji

3. The Chakravala Method for Solving Quadratic Equations

An ingenious algorithm by Bhaskara II, the Chakravala method is aimed toward finding
integer solutions for quadratic indeterminate equations of type Nx^2 + 1 = y^2. This cyclic
method stands out as probably the most advanced for solving what Europeans would
eventually call Pell's equation.

Source: Bhaskara and His Contributions to Mathematics and Astronomy by T.S. Bhanu
Murthy

4. Infinite Series for Trigonometric Functions

The Kerala School of Mathematics, led by the individual Madhava of Sangamagrama, was
one of the earliest to apply infinite series in approximating trigonometric functions such as
sine, cosine, and arctangent. This was some 300 years ahead of comparable work in Europe
by Newton and Leibniz, thus providing an early very rich calculus development.

Source: Mathematics in India by Kim Plofker

5. Application of Big Numbers and Classification of Infinity

Indian scholars had dealt with numbers as large as they are imaginable today and also
distinctive types of infinity, quite unlike other antiquities. For example, the Jain
mathematicians defined different types of infinity and understood that infinite sets could be
divergent long before modern set theory was developed.

Reference: The Art of Mathematics in Ancient India by T.R.N. Rao

6. Meru Prastara: Indian Pascal's Triangle

Pascal's Triangle, as a combinatorial construct, was described in India by Pingala as Meru

Prastara, around the 2nd century BCE. This triangular arrangement was used for various
purposes like finding binomial coefficients and arranging poetic meters in the language of
Sanskrit.

Source: Pingala's Prosody and Mathematics by Satya Prakash

7. Fibonacci in Ancient Indian Manuscripts

This sequence, known as the Fibonacci sequence was long known to Indian mathematicians
such as Virahanka and Gopala, but reached Europe for the first time in the 13th century
through Fibonacci. They used it for analyzing long and short syllables in Sanskrit prosody.

Reference: Indian Mathematics: Engaging With the World From Ancient to Modern Times
by C.K. Raju

8. Zero
Ancient Indian mathematicians, specially Brahmagupta, codified rules for zero as a number
in its own right, treating it as something with its own properties in arithmetic. For example,
treating zero as a number and giving it its own properties in arithmetic transformed the
very meaning of zero as a numerical digit. So this concept of zero as a numerical digit
transformed math enormously, effectively aiding the development of the decimal place-
value system.

Source: "The Crest of the Peacock" by George Gheverghese Joseph

9. Decimal Number System

India discovered the base-10 positional numeral system currently in use globally. The
concept allowed massive numbers to be notated using only ten symbols (0-9) and greatly
simplified arithmetic operations and formulas.

10. Expansion of Trigonometric Functions

The Kerala School of Mathematics developed series expansions for trigonometric functions,
such as sine and cosine, that included infinite series. These developments had occurred two
centuries before comparable work was developed in Europe. Calculus was later developed.

11. Quadratic Formula

Indian mathematics does contain solutions by Brahmagupta to quadratic equations. The

method for obtaining solutions allowed for either positive roots or negative roots. Such
solutions are a base from which algebra develops.

12. Fibonacci Sequence

In India, these numbers are called 'Virahanka numbers.' A series that followed this sequence
appeared in works associated with patterns of long and short syllables in Sanskrit poetry.
The use of the sequence in ancient Indian texts predates the work of Fibonacci in Europe.

13. Algebra (Vedic Mathematics)

Vedic mathematics is found in ancient texts of Indians and deals with algebraic methods and
techniques that allow fast mental calculations, commenting on issues related to linear,
quadratic equations; and it was applied to actual mathematical problems.

14. Calculus

The Kerala School has made important contributions toward the development of calculus
with infinite series expansions of trigonometric functions and π. Many of Madhava's
methods are similar to integral calculus as well and antedate the Europeans' works by a few
hundred years.

15. Permutation and Combinations

Ancient Indian mathematicians had done many pieces of research on combinatorial
techniques used to arrange elements. Such methods were encountered in some pieces of
work such as Pingal's Chandas Shastra, which was written regarding the arrangement of
poetic meters.

16. LCM & HCF

Ancient Indian mathematicians knew and used the concepts of Least Common Multiple
(LCM) and Highest Common Factor (HCF) in solving problems involving number theory.

17. Approximating Pi

Indian Mathematicians: Aryabhata Approximated π with a very good approximation as:

3.1416 which is approximated to the date (it was used in astronomical calculation and
geometric problems that indicates a sophisticated understanding of its properties)

Continued Fraction: Bhaskara II contributed to the development of continued fractions,

allowing methods for solving specific types of equations and approximating irrational
numbers.

18. Binomial Theorem

Indian mathematicians such as Bhaskara II knew the principles of the binomial theorem
which enables one to expand powers of binomials, using factorial notation and
combinatorial methods for solving problems pertaining to these expansions.

19. Infinite Series

The idea of representing functions as sums of infinite series was developed in India,
specifically by the Kerala School, developing series for trigonometric functions of much later
European work in mathematical analysis.

References

Joseph, G. G. (2000). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics.

Princeton University Press.

Tirthaji, B. K. (1965). Vedic Mathematics. Motilal Banarsidass.

Murthy, T. S. B. (1975). Bhaskara and His Contributions to Mathematics and

Astronomy. Indian National Science Academy.

Plofker, K. (2009). Mathematics in India. Princeton University Press.

Rao, T. R. N. (2000). The Art of Mathematics in Ancient India. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.

Prakash, S. (1965). Pingala’s Prosody and Mathematics. Indian Mathematical Society.

Raju, C. K. (2007). Indian Mathematics: Engaging With the World From Ancient to
Modern Times. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A.

K. Ramasubramanian and M.D. Srinivas : "Development of Calculus in the Kerala

School of Mathematics"

T.S. Bhanu Murthy : Bhaskara and His Contributions to Mathematics and Astronomy

The Concept of LCM and HCF in Ancient India :A.K. Sen & A.K. Bag