Switched Mode Power Conversion

Prof. Ramanarayanan. V
Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Lecture - 13
Non-Isolated converter – 11

(Refer Slide Time: 00:30)

Good day to all of you. In today's session, we will look at another one of these basic power
converters belonging to the family of non-isolated converters. We had seen in the last
session that such a cell, a converter cell consisting of a single pole double throw switch
and an inductor with two throws T 1, T 2 and a pole formed the basic power converters
cell and with this we were able to make several ways of converting power DC power from
one voltage to another or from one current to another.
(Refer Slide Time: 01:20)

We had seen that the first type of power converter circuit that we saw consisted of
connecting a voltage, input voltage source to this basic converter cell. And a load
resistance R supported by a capacitive filter at the output of this power converter cell and
we saw that this was classified with the name of Buck power converter where the output
voltage V0 was D times the input voltage V G an output voltage was always less than then
the input voltage, the D varies from 0 to 1. And because of this reason this non-isolate,
non-isolated converter was called Buck converter. It was bucking the input voltage and
providing an output voltage which was less than the input voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:27)

We had also seen that this basic cell could be used in 3 different variants to form different
basic power converter cells. The first one and the second one we had already seen called
the Buck power converter, the Boost power converter and what we will be seeing today
will be the third converter, which goes by the name of Buck-boost or fly back power
converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 02:59)

In the first type of power converter the input was a voltage and output was a current, we
could say that this is the voltage input, current output power converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 03:13)

And the second converter had current as the input and voltage as the output. And we could
say that as a current input and voltage output power converter, which boosts the output
𝑉0 1
voltage in this converter = 1−𝐷 where D is varying in the ratio of 0 to 1. And this
𝑉𝐺

converter was boosting the input voltage. The input current is stiff and output voltage is
stiff and we could call this as a current input and voltage output variant.

(Refer Slide Time: 03:51)

The third variant that we are going to see today is the current input and current output
variant, where the input current and the output current are both stiff on account of the
inductor which is getting charged from the source and discharging into the load. And this
converter is called the fly back power converter. And in this lecture today, we will see
several of the features of the fly back power converter. So, we will limit our analysis during
today's lecture to the fly back variation which is a third variation of the power converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:34)

This converter is having the name fly back power converter or Buck-boost power
converters because this is capable of providing an output voltage, which is both less than
as well as more than the input voltage. So, we will see the analysis process during this 1
hour of lecture. And we had seen that the steady state analysis of all these converters
𝑉
consists of the voltage gain𝑉0 as a function of the duty ratio D. This is one of the first
𝐺

things that we would like to find out. And similarly, the current gain or the output current
to input current ratio, again as a function of gain. These are the desirable characteristics of
the power converter, but the converter has a number of undesirable characteristics.

For example, the inductor currents are, are not perfectly constant and there is a ripple in
∆𝐼0
the inductor currents. And these ripples can be quantified by the ratio of , how much is
𝐼0

a variation in current in relation to the steady current that is flowing. And similarly, delta
V by V on the capacitor tells us how much is a variation in the voltage as a fraction of the
DC voltage. So, all these quantities are undesirable quantities, these are the current ripple
and the voltage ripple and then the analysis also takes into account the non idealities of
several of the components that are present here the non idealities of the switch, the non
ideality of the source and the non ideality of the storage elements, which are the inductors
and the capacitors. And eventually, we also like to find out what is the efficiency of power
conversion, which is the ratio of the output power divided by the input power. This is what
we would like to find out through the process of our analysis. And this analysis is done
based on several simplifications on the operating performance.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:05)

So, the first question is what is the ratio of output voltage V 0 to V input voltage V G
voltage conversion ratio? And the converters operating at a constant switching frequency.
During the on time of the switching frequency, if you call a switching frequency as
consisting of a total duration of T S, out of that, there is a duration called T ON and there
is a duration called T OFF. And during T ON, the switch is connected to P T 1 and during
T OFF; the switch is connected to P T 2. So, under that condition if everything is ideal,
inductor does not have any resistance, the switches do not have conduction drop, the
switches operate instantly, with all these simplifying assumptions we like to know what is
𝑉
the ratio of 𝑉0 ?
𝐺
(Refer Slide Time: 08:10)

And this is obtained by applying the inductor volts second balance. We have done this
twice befor- once for the Buck converter and once for the Boost converter. The method is
very simple, find out under steady state, what is the voltage across the inductor? What is
the periodic voltage across the inductor? So, in one period which is 0 to T S the voltage
across the inductor is V G during the on time, because the switch is connected to P T 1.
And during the off time the switch is connected to P T 2 and the voltage across the inductor
is V 0; V 0 is applied across the inductor.

And we see that the inductor is applied a positive voltage during a portion of the switching
period, and a negative voltage during the next part of the switching period. And the
principle that is used in order to find out the relationship between V 0 and V G is that the
inductor on an average does not support any DC voltage or the periodic DC voltage of the
inductor is 0. Or as we see here the positive volts second across the inductor is a same as
a negative volts second across the inductor during the off period.
(Refer Slide Time: 09:32)

So, if we apply this volts second balance on the inductor, we can write the equation that
during the on time the inductor is applied voltage of V G, because the switch is connected
to P and T 1 and during the off time the switch is connected to P T 2. And at that time, the
voltage applied is V 0. So, the volts second on the inductor is during the on time V G T
ON and during the off time V 0 T OFF. And if we equate it to 0, which is the voltage
across the inductor on an average over one switching period, we find out the ratio of V 0
by V G is - T ON by T OFF, which is the ratio of on time divided by off time or D duty
ratio divided by 1 - D, the compliment of the duty ratio.

The important point is there, is a - sign here this is - D /(1 – D), what it signifies is that the
for a positive voltage V G, the output voltage will be in the negative direction, which is V
0 is negative that is what this - sign signifies. So, we apply this volt second balance and
we find out that the inductor has or the output voltage is - D /(1 – D), times input voltage.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:56)

𝑉
This can be plotted-this ratio; this function of D of this 𝑉0 can be plotted as a function of
𝐺

D. And you see that it starts from 0 when D is 0 and it goes to infinity when D is 1 and this
would be the ideal gain characteristics of the fly back converter. So, as D varies from 0 to
1, the gain varies from 0 to infinity, when D is equal to 0.5 the gain will be 1, when D is
0.5 again is 0.5 divided by 0.5 which is 1 input and output voltages will be equal.
(Refer Slide Time: 11:39)

𝐼𝐺
The ratio of is found simply by current conversion or this is defined as a current
𝐼0

conversion ratio and this can be found out by averaging the output current.

(Refer Slide Time: 11:49)

We see that this I0(t) is the same as the inductor current during the off time, and inductor
current is I l, it does not have any ripple. So, this current during the off time is flowing
through the load. And so the average of that is I l * T OFF which is equal to I 0 * T S and
we can say that IL= I 0 T S /T OFF, this is the average input current. In the similar way,
average input current can be seen as during T ON I l is same as I G, rest of the time I G is
0. So, it is possible to find the relationship between the average input current and the
inductor current. So, this also has the relationship as shown here.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:39)

So, if we combine these 2 quantities, which is the inductor current, we find that the input
current average divided by T ON is the same as output current average divided by T OFF
or the ratio of the input current-output current is - D / 1 - D. We had also seen in the other
𝑉 𝐼𝐺
converters, that this ratio 𝑉0 in the ideal case will be the same as . So that the efficiency
𝐺 𝐼0
𝑉 𝐼
of the power converter which is 𝑉0 𝐼0 equal to 1 .So, on account of conservation of energy
𝐺 𝐺

𝑉 𝐼
and because there are losses in the ideal converter 𝑉0 will be the same as 𝐼𝐺. and which is
𝐺 0

this ratio - D / 1 - D. this result.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:32)

Similar results, we have seen for the buck converter and the boost converter and we are
seeing the same thing following similar lines of analysis and the efficiency is given by the
ratio of voltage conversion and current conversion, which is 1 and this is what we expect
in the ideal case.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:49)

The non idealities are the inductor current ripple and the capacitor voltage ripple and this
is found out the current ripple or Δ I in the inductor is found out by integrating
(Refer Slide Time: 14:05)

the voltage across the integral of inductor voltage will give us what is the current ripple
the inductor is applied voltage of V G during on time and V 0 during off time.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:17)

And if we integrate this voltage, we will see that during the on time this positive voltage
V G results in an increase in the inductor current during the off time the negative voltage,
that is applied across the inductor results in a drop in current. Under steady state the rise
in current during on time is the same as drop in current during off time and we can write
this Δ I l or the ripple current as the slope V G / L and multiply it by on time which is DTS
.So, the inductor current ripple is related to the input voltage and inductor through the on
time.

(Refer Slide Time: 14:55)

It will always good to represent the voltage, the voltage ripple as a fraction of the current
through the inductor. The current ripple as a fraction of the current through the ripple and
when we do that this I L is a related through the output current V 0 / R divided by (1 – D).
𝑉0 (1−𝐷𝑇𝑆 )
Δ I L we had just now found out 𝐿

.
(Refer Slide Time: 15:21)

And if we combine these 2 quantities, we get the ratio of the ripple current to the average
(1−𝐷)2 𝑇𝑆
current in the inductor, which is . T S is the switching period and L /R is the time
𝐿/𝑅

constant of the load and the inductor. And if this ratio switching time is very much small
compare to the time constant of the converter then this ripple will be small.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:50)

And that could be one of our conditions for design of the converters. So, we can say that
for low ripple current as the performance of the inverter of for the inductor current to reach
the ideal condition, it is necessary that this inequality is met better. T S if it is becoming a
smaller and smaller fraction of L by R then our inductor ripple current will go towards 0.
So, the design criterion is that the switching period T S must be very small compared to
the circuit time constant L / R.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:24)

The non ideality in the converter, on account of the switches having non zero drops can be
found out by finding out, what is the voltage drop in the switch when it is on and what is
the voltage drop in the diode when the diode is conducting? If we apply these non
𝑉
idealities, we will come across a different ratio of 𝑉0 that we apply gain the same principle,
𝐺

which is the volts second balance.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:56)

We keep account of the voltage drop. Volts second balance on the inductor is now V G
supply voltage - the device drop the transistor drop during on time. And similarly, the
output voltage plus the diode drop during the off time.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:15)

And if we now take the volts second balance, we find that if we see that V 0 + V D that is
because the polarity of V 0 is negative. On account of that, this ratio the on time voltage
is algebraically (V G - V T)* T ON; off time voltage is algebraically (V 0 + V D )T OFF.
(Refer Slide Time: 17:39)

And from this volts second balance, we get the ratio of the output voltage to input voltage
is the same as the ideal gain D /( 1 – D) multiplied by a correction factor .You can see that
𝑉𝑇
this correction factor consists of 2 parts; numerator which is 1 − , and a denominator
𝑉𝐺
𝑉𝐷
which is 1 + . If the correction factor has to approach 1, then the device drop V T has
𝑉0

to be small compare to the source voltage V G. And similarly, if the denominator has to
approach one the diode drop V D has to be small compared to the output voltage V 0. And
from this, we can also say that the efficiency is the factor by which the voltage ratio is
𝑉
1− 𝑇
𝑉𝐺
different from the ideal voltage ratio, which is 𝑉 . So, if we look at the circuit, this term
1+ 𝐷
𝑉0

also can be this efficiency can also be seen as 2 terms; one consisting of a numerator and
another consisting of denominator.

𝑉𝑇
The numerator is effectively 1 − , you can say that it is the efficiency of charging. From
𝑉𝐺

V G, we lose the voltage drop and rest of it goes into the inductor. So, you can say that the
𝑉𝐷
numerator represents the efficiency of charging. And the denominator 1 + represents
𝑉0

the efficiency of discharging, because during discharging of the inductor the current
passing through the diode drop is loss and current passing through V 0 is the output load,
output power. And so this nicely can be decomposed into 2 parts, numerator as the
efficiency of charging and the denominator as the efficiency of discharging. And it nicely
fits in and this with number will always be less than 1 and if it has to approach 1, V T has
to be very much less than V G and V D has to be very much less than V 0.

(Refer Slide Time: 19:45)

We had also seen that none of these serial non idealities V T of the switch or V D of the
diode, they are all series non idealities it does not affect the current conversion ratio And
𝐼𝐺
they remind the current conversion ratio remains the same as the ideal number which is
𝐼0

- D / (1 – D).
(Refer Slide Time: 20:09)

𝑉
1− 𝑇
𝑉𝐺
And when we multiply these 2 terms we get our efficiency which is 𝑉𝐷 . The method of
1+
𝑉0

evaluating the voltage gain, current gain the current ripple in the inductor the efficiency
on account of the switch drops they follow the same method; volts second balance on the
inductor, integrating the inductor voltage to get the inductor current and so on.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:39)

The inductor has another non ideality, which is a resistor. So, no inductor can be with 0
resistance as we are using a conducting wire to wind the inductor it has a resistance which
 𝑉
is R l. On account of that, the output voltage 𝑉0 will be different from what we calculated
𝐺

in the ideal case and that also can be found out from the gain, the ideal the volts second
balance on the inductor. During the on time the inductor is applied voltage of V G - I L RL
and during the off time, the voltage across the inductor is output voltage plus I L R L.

(Refer Slide Time: 21:28)

And if you find out the ratio of these areas and equate it to 0, (V G - I L R L )T ON-first term
and (V 0 - I L R L )T OFF-the second term, if both of them are made equal to 0. Then on
simplification, we find that we have an expression which relates V G and V 0 through the
non ideality of the resistor R L / R and the duty ratio D.
(Refer Slide Time: 21:55)

And on simplification, if we apply this term alpha = R L/ R, the parasitic resistance of the
inductor can be normalized by the load resistance R, and that ratio is defined as alpha. So,
𝑉 𝑉
if we defined like that then𝑉0 can be written as the ideal ratio 𝑉0 multiplied by a correction
𝐺 𝐺

1.
factor 𝛼 this alpha is the ratio of RL /R. So, we have seen that now by an amount
1+
(1−𝐷)2

1.
which is 𝛼 , the voltage gain is reduced from the ideal. And this number will always
1+
(1−𝐷)2

1.
be less than 1, because it is 1+𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦.
(Refer Slide Time: 22:50)

And this correction factor being less than 1, we can also say that, this correction factor is
the same as efficiency; the efficiency of power conversion is the same as this correction
1.
factor 𝛼 . Interestingly, this correction factor is identical for the boost converter as
1+
(1−𝐷)2

well as the fly back converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 23:09)

𝑉
So, on account of this correction factor, 𝑉0 now is not just D /( 1 – D), which is shown by
𝐺

the red color line here it is getting modified by a correction factor. And once the correction
factor is included, the gain of the converter drops to 0 as you go to duty ratio 1. It reaches
a peak at some point and then instead of going all the way to infinity, it changes direction
and falls all the way back to 0. So, as duty ratio is 0, the gain of the converter is 0 and as
the duty ratio goes to 1 also a gain of the converter is 0. And in between there is some
value for which the gain is maximum and it is possible to find out what is that value off
duty ratio at which this gain is maximum, and also what is that maximum gain- all these
can be found out by simply analyzing this factor.

(Refer Slide Time: 24:10)

And this function has a maxima and minima, and if we differentiate it with respect to duty
ratio and equate it to 0, we can find out that this maximum occurs at a duty ratio which is
1 − √𝛼 and the maximum value itself is 1/2√𝛼, where alpha is the ratio of the parasitic
resistance to the load résistance. Alpha is the inductor resistance normalized to the load
resistance. And this is a real forward gain what you see is the blue line here it is modified
from the ideal on account of the correction factor that we see here.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:49)

Now, we can also find out the efficiency of the power conversion and plot it on the same
graph. So, that we get certain other insights into the operating characteristics of the
converter. The efficiency is also a function of alpha and D. And on this same figure for D
if we plot efficiency in the vertical axis for duty ratio exactly at the point where maximum
output voltage is obtained at that time, the efficiency turns out to be 0.5. Or at that
operating point only half of the power is delivered to the load, the remaining half is lost in
the converter that is not a very satisfactory state of things.
(Refer Slide Time: 25:45)

And so, we would like to operate at the lower end of duty ratio where the efficiency is
more than 0.5. What you see here and the yellow region here is the region where the gain
is in the increasing range where it has not reach the maximum. So, in that region gain is
more than 0.5 and on the other region in the next region, the efficiency is less than 0.5 and
that is not our preferred region, our preferred operating region is the region where
efficiency is greater than 0.5. So, what is shown here?
(Refer Slide Time: 26:16)

The next non ideal performance of the converter is on the output voltage, output voltage
has V 0 + Δ V 0. And this Δ V 0 can be found out by finding out what kind of current is
coming out of this, out of that all the DC current will go to the load and the AC current
will go in to the capacitor. And by integrating this current in the capacitor it is possible to
find out the output voltage ripple-is the same strategy, which we have followed in the other
converters as well, I have plotted the current I 0 ( t) which comes out of the converter what
you see here is a function of t. And then the current load, current going into the load is a
flat current I 0.

So, the difference between I 0 ( t) and I 0 what is shown in hatched region is what is going
into the capacitor current .So, the hatched region here is capacitor current it has negative
value in the on period and the positive value in the off period. During the on time, the
capacitance discharging its energy into the load on period of the switch, during off period
of the switch, the capacitor is getting energy from the source and the load is also being
supplied. So, by integrating this capacitor charge, we will be able to get what is the voltage
ripple on the capacitor. And that integrally gives you here Δ V 0, Δ V 0 can be found out
by finding the hatched region on the side during the off period or the hatched region during
the on period, on period current being constant it is easier to do the integration.
(Refer Slide Time: 27:55)

So, we find that I 0 *D T S is the area here and this area multiplied or this I 0 multiplied
by D T S is the current taken from charge taken from the capacitor divided by the value of
C will give us Δ V 0. And that is output voltage, multiplied by on time divided by RC time
constant of that.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:22)

Again it is good to represent it as a ratio, normalized it on the output voltage. So, this is
duty ratio times switching period divided by the load time constant, and the design
guideline to keep the unwanted ripple on the output because clear from this, that if the
switching period T S is very much less than the load time constant RC, then we will have
low ripple and that could be our design guide line and this is obtained by the capacitor
charge balance.

(Refer Slide Time: 28:58)

So, practically now, we have done the ideal as well as the non ideal steady state analysis
𝑉
of this converter. And we see that the ideal voltage gain of this converter is 𝑉0 which is
𝐺

−𝐷
. This was obtained by applying the volts second balance on the inductor; this was our
1−𝐷

method of evaluating the ideal voltage gain.

(Refer Slide Time: 29:30)

The ideal current gain is obtained by averaging the current through the input as well as the
output and relating it to the inductor current, which is in between. And this also turned out
to be a function of D, and we have seen that, this ideal voltage gain and ideal current gain,
𝑉 𝐼
ideal forward voltage gain 𝑉0 and ideal reverse current gain 𝐼𝐺both will be same. So that
𝐺 0

the product of them will be 1 to keep the efficiency 1 or to to keep that the losses are 0 in
𝑉 𝐼
the converter 𝑉0 will be the same as 𝐼𝐺. So that the efficiency in the power converter is 1,
𝐺 0

this was the second ideal performance characteristic that we found, this was obtained by
averaging the current. The ideal voltage gain was obtained by finding out volts second
balance on the inductor and equating it to 0.
(Refer Slide Time: 30:36)

The current ripple is an undesirable performance in the converter and we try to normalize
it as a ratio of ripple current divided by the inductor average current. And that also was
found out by evaluating, by integrating the inductor current and finding out the ripple
current in the inductor and normalizing it to the average current in the inductor. This turned
out to be the ratio of T S / (L / R) with a multiplier (1 – D)2, and this gave as the design
criterion for the current ripple to the very small, that T S has to be very much less than L/R
.So, many times, R, being the load current, is not under our control, but the inductor in the
power converter is what we have to provide and that inductor value can be selected
appropriate to the switching period. So, that the current ripple is small or negligible.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:41)

In the next step is the voltage ripple on the converter, the voltage ripple on the output
voltage again this also has been normalized. So, that it is represented as a ratio of the
switching period divided by the RC time constant. And this could be used profitably, the
load resistance in the converter is not under our control, it is decided by the user, but the
capacitor that is used in the converter can be selected. So that the voltage ripple will be
small and negligible. So these undesirable quantities of Δ I and Δ V has to be very much
less than I and very much less than V, that criterion can be used in order to select L and C.

The first one, if this is used, if you know what is V 0 and V G, this can tell us at what
operating duty ratio one should operate. So, that the converter does the power conversion
with the voltage ratios that we desire. And the current ripple and voltage ripple are made
as small as possible by selecting the value of L and C. These are the desirable performance
characteristics of the converter which will tell us, what should be the operating point.
These are the undesirable performance characteristics of the converter. These will give us
a boundary on the value of L and C to be used. So, that the undesirable performance
features are negligible compared to the desirable performance features.
(Refer Slide Time: 33:17)

The real voltage gain, whenever there is a presence of non idealities of switches like the
transistor switch drop or the freewheeling diode drop, and similarly, the non ideality of the
inductor the parasitic inductor R L / R, which is represented by this quantity alpha. Now,
these non idealities in the switches, conduction drops of the switches non idealities in the
inductor, which is the parasitic resistance of the inductor they all affect the ratio, the
𝑉
conversion ratio 𝑉0 . The way we have done the analysis, we write it in a such a way that
𝐺

the ideal conversion gain is now modified by a correction factor, which is a function of the
non idealities. For example, when the inductor non ideality of RL is considered the
parameter which quantifies these non ideality is R L / R. The ratio of parasitic resistance
of the inductor represented as in relation to the load resistance is alpha and operating duty
ratio D and alpha decide how much this correction factor is.

So, from the ideal gain, we have now a modifier or a correction factor, which is a function
of the non ideality in the converter. And similarly, whenever the switch has a conduction
drop, we do the analysis based on volts second balance. And we represent the results as
the ideal gain in multiplication with a correction factor and this connection factor will be
close to 1, if the converter is a good converter, that the parasitic elements are the
conduction drops do not affect the performance so much.

So that the correction factor on account of the inductor or the correction factor on account
of the switch drops will be negligible or will be the correction factors will be close to 1.
For that to happen the switch drop V T has to be very much small compared to V G, and
the diode drop has to be very much small compared to V 0. And similarly, on this side,
this alpha has to be very much less compared to 1, R l has to be very small in comparison
with R. So, these are the parasitic effects and there their affect on the effect on the ideal
performance figures.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:14)

The real current gain is not affected by any of these parasitic effects, this is an interesting
result, because we know that all the parasitic effects that we have been considering
conduction drop of the switch, conduction drop of the diode, then the series resistance drop
of the inductor and so on. They are all series non idealities; they drop in voltage when
certain current is flowing and because they are in series non idealities they have no effect
on the current ratios in the converter ratios of input current to inductor current, input
current, output current, output current to inductor current and so on. And we had seen in
the analysis, that it is simply the averaging of this current do not or not affected averaging
of the current is not affected by the series non idealities. And so the real current gain and
the ideal current gain, these two are perfectly the same - D /( 1 – D).
(Refer Slide Time: 37:16)

And on account of these non idealities, series non idealities, we have seen that the
efficiency of the power converter has been affected. And this efficiency, because of the
inductor is on account of the loss in the inductor I square R loss in the parasitic resistance
of the inductor. And similarly, the conduction loss in the active switch and the conduction
loss in the freewheeling diode, all these quantities give rise to losses in the converter and
it also reflects on the efficiency of the converter. So, the efficiency on account of the
parasitic resistance is this quantity, efficiency on account of the switch is this quantity.
And overall efficiency will be the product of this correction factor 1 multiplied by the
correction factor 2.

So, we can say that there is loss in gain, loss in voltage gain on account of the parasitic
loss in the inductor. And similarly, there is a loss in voltage gain on account of the
conduction drop in the switch. And over all the efficiency is affected by 2 factors; one is
(1−𝐷)2 .
the I 2 r loss in the inductor which is the factor given by . And the other one is the
(1−𝐷)2 +𝛼

loss in the switches conduction loss in the active switch controlled switch. As well as the
uncontrolled switch and this has efficiency of charging and efficiency of discharging. So,
effectively the overall efficiency is the product of these two correction factors.
(Refer Slide Time: 38:54)

And we had seen that in all this in the ways in the boost converter as well as the fly back
converter, when the duty ratio goes beyond this number 1 − √𝛼

, the converter operates with an efficiency which is less than 0.5, which is not a very good
operating point losses are higher than what is being delivered to the load. So, the preferred
operating range is the region where duty ratio is less than 1 − √𝛼 normally, we would
keep it even considerably less than 1 − √𝛼 . So, that the efficiency is closer to 80 percent
or 90 percent.

(Refer Slide Time: 39:38)

To what we had seen in the past, in the past 1 hour or so is to look at this buck boost
converter of fly back converter as made up of a converter cell connected to a voltage source
and connected to a load.

(Refer Slide Time: 40:05)

Earlier we had seen that this cell can be used in 3 different variations, where the throws
are on the input side and the inductor is on the output side. And this we called as the buck
𝑉
converter where 𝑉0 = 𝐷duty ratio, Then we had also seen that if the V G is connected to
𝐺

the inductor end and V 0 is connected to the throws, then this works as a boost converter
𝑉 1
is called a boost converter where 𝑉0 = 1−𝐷 duty ratio in the ideal case. And now, what we
𝐺

have seen is that the same cell can be connected in a third way, these are the different ways
in which the cell can be converted connected, where the source is connected to one side
and the load is connected to the other side. And the common point is the pole or the
inductor of the switch and T 1 and T 2. And we had seen that in this case the ratio is - D/(1
– D). The output has a polarity which is negative of the input polarity and the ratio - D/(1
– D) in the ideal case.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:29)

So, these are the 3 different power converter topologies, basic power converter topologies.
This is the buck converter, the second one is the boost converter what you see here and the
third one is the fly back converter, which is this .These converters are all non isolated
converters, that is the electrically the input and output have a common potential on one
side of the, of the voltage, V G is with respect to 0 and V 0 is also with respect to that same
0. And these converters are all called non isolated converters.

(Refer Slide Time: 42:23)

So, just before we go into that.

So, just before we go into that, we will look at another slight variant of the same converter
cell, this converter cell what you see on the right hand side is a dual of the converter cell
that we have seen before. The first cell that we had seen is consisting of a single pole,
double throw switch, where an inductor is connected in series with the pole and the 3
terminals are brought out. And we had seen that it can be converted, it can be connected
to a source and a load in different ways the buck converter, the boost converter and the
buck boost converter. The dual of this circuit where the switch is connected as before a
single pole, double throw switch, but instead of using an inductor, we use a capacitor-there
is only one storage element which is capacitor.

And we have seen that in the case of a single pole double throw switch, the capacitor can
be connected across the throws between T 1 and T 2, because there is a circuit condition
that the capacitor voltage can never be short circuited. Just as the circuit condition, that the
inductor current can never be open-circuited and so the inductor was connected to the pole.
In the same way the capacitor has to be connected across the throws. So, whether the
switch is connected to P T 1 or it is connected to P T 2, the capacitor is never short
circuited. This also has 3 terminals and this is a dual configuration of the one that we have
seen.

(Refer Slide Time: 44:13)

And it is possible to connect this as a buck current converter. And if we had seen the
previous cell as a converter, the buck voltage converter where it converts V G to V G to V
0 in the previous a configuration. Now, we can have a source of I G and a load of I 0 and
this cell, this converter cell can be connected in several ways between the source and the
load and the way I have shown here is a buck current converter. In such a configuration
this is connected to P, these points are connected together and this is connected here. So,
such a configuration it is a buck current converter, we will see that it can be also here also
we can apply similar to volts second balance. We can apply amp second balance on the
capacitor.

(Refer Slide Time: 45:19)

The dual property of what we had seen before the dual converter cell, what you will have
seen is during the, or the connection is made like this. So, during the T ON, during the
time the switch is in T ON, the inductor current I C capacitor current I C is I G coming from
here, because of switch is connected to T ON, I G coming from here and I 0 going out of
here. This is the on state current into the capacitor, if you see the off state when the switch
is connected to this end I G is just short circuited through the switch and I 0 only is flowing
through the capacitor with the - sign because it is coming out of that. This is a capacitor
current during the off time. So, if we find out, what is the total charge into the capacitor it
will be (I G - I 0) T ON - I 0 T OFF.

So, under steady state, the net charge over one cycle in a capacitor has to be 0. This is
similar to volts second in an inductor, because the net volts second apply to an inductor
over one cycle represents the flux change and under steady state flux change from cycle
to cycle is 0. In the same way the charge that is supplied to the capacitor during the on
time, and the charge that is depleted from the capacitor during the off time, they have to
be equal to each other if under steady state, the capacitor does not gain any voltage from
𝐼 𝑇𝑂𝑁
cycle to cycle. If we simplify this, you will find I G T ON = I 0 T S or 𝐼0 = = 𝐷.So, this
𝐺 𝑇𝑆

is a buck current converter, the output current is duty ratio times the input current. And
this is the perfect dual of what we had seen before that from a current source of I G, you
can supply power to a current sink of I 0 using a single pole double throw switch and a
capacitor C. The connection between the throws, poles and the capacitor are shown in this
way and what we have seen here in this external box is our switch cell, this switch cell
consists of one single pole double throw switch and one capacitor connected as per the
circuit laws, this is a buck current converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 48:24)

And if you just a see a very interesting thing just like a boost voltage converter, we can
have a boost current converter with the same cell connected by flipping the cell, where P
was earlier on this side is connected to the output. And the P, the throws which were on
the output side, where connected to the input side. And now this connection is done over
like this and then P gets connected here, this will become a boost current converter. Here
also it is possible to find out during the on time, during the on time P T 1 is connected here
I 0 is completely shorted in that time I G flows through C, you will find that, I G into T
ON is the charge on the capacitor, when the switch is connected here.
And when the switch is connected in the off state, the current through the capacitor is now
what was coming in here I G T ON. Now, it is (I G - I 0) T OFF =0 and this can be written as
I G T S = I 0 T OFF or I 0 = I G T S / T OFF, this is I G / 1 - D. This is what we call as the boost
current converter, the output current is input current divided by 1 - D or the output current
will be more than the input current. This is a dual of the boost voltage converter and this
is a boost current converter.

(Refer Slide Time: 50:16)

And in the same way, the third way of connecting the same cell is with the pole at the
common point and T 1 and T 2 connected to the source and the load. And if the calculations
are done on the amp second balance here, you should be able to find out that I 0 / I G was
must be - D/(1 – D)which is the same as the buck boost current converter. So, we have
seen that, this cell which is a dual of the inductor plus SPDT cell also has identical 3
variants of buck current converter, boost current converter and buck-boost current
converter. So, effectively single, switch and single energy storage element can be
connected in these many ways 3 variants each of them as a current converter or voltage
converter.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:23)

And we see that in all these converters, it is possible to find out the voltage gain, current
gain, current ripple, voltage ripple, real voltage gain, real current gain, efficiency and then
the preferred operating range all of them through the different steps that we had seen. The
ideal voltage gain will be done by volts second balance on the inductor or ampere second
balance on the capacitor. So, in the capacitive energy storage element, to find out this gain
current gain or voltage gain really, we will use the ampere second balance or volt second
balance.

In order to get the ideal current gain, we will find out the averaging process. Similarly,
here also averaging process and the current ripple is found out by integrating V L and
1
voltage ripple is found out by integrating Ic dual properties 𝐶
∫ 𝑖𝐶 𝑑𝑡 over one period 0 to
1
T, will give us the voltage ripple measure, and similarly 𝐿 ∫ 𝑣𝐿 𝑑𝑡 for one cycle 0 to T, will

give us a current ripple. And the real voltage gain is also obtained by volts second balance
by volts second balance, but keeping account of the drops that are taking place on account
of the parasitic resistances is parasitic voltage drops and so on.

Real current gain is again found out by similar averaging process and then the efficiency
can be easily found out as the correction factor, which appears on the voltage gain. The
real voltage gain, and the ideal voltage gain will differ by a correction factor and that
correction factor will be our efficiency. The preferred operating range is normally found
out where the efficiency is closer to 1. In most converters, the closer to unity efficiency is
the preferred operating point, because losses in the converter will be small.

(Refer Slide Time: 53:42)

All these converters that we have seen up to now, the current converters or voltage
converters they all have one of the lines common and they are all called non-isolated
converters. Even though, practically all the converters can be reduced to an equivalent
circuit of such a non isolated converter for the purpose of simple analysis.

(Refer Slide Time: 54:09)

In real life, we require in many applications, the load to be supplied power from a source,
which do not share a common electrical connection. So, such power converters are called
isolated power converters. In such power converters, the source side and the load side are
not to be connected electrically. As you see here, see this has a source portion and the load
portion are perfectly isolated from each other. Electrically, there is no connection between
the source side and the load side. So, that the potential, the potential on the load and the
potential on the source can be arbitrary they can be floating at different levels. And so this
electrical isolation between input and output is very essential in many, many applications.

So, what we will see in the in the next set of lectures will be several power converter
topologies which help us to achieve the electrical isolation. Performance wise they are
identical to the non isolated versions, they also operate with pulse width modulation, with
a constant switching period and certain on time and certain off time. All those fundamental
basic characteristic features are same between the isolated power converters and non
isolated power converters. But the isolated power converters provide load power which is
electrically isolated from the source potentials and that is very essential in many, many
applications from the point of view of safety of personal as well as safety of equipment.
So, what we will see will be several power conversion topologies which are suitable for
isolated power supplied to the load from a source with total electrical isolation.

These circuit topologies invariably will use electromagnetic isolation, what you see here
is an electromagnetic element with a primary inductance or a primary winding and a
secondary winding. The magnetic element can be charged by drawing a current in the
primary and the magnetic element can be discharged by discharging the current into the
load. In such a way, that the power first get's converted to electromagnetic, electrical power
is converted to magnetic energy, magnetic energy is reconverted electrical and supplied to
the load. So, that way we keep the total electrical isolation between the input and output.

So, in the coming lectures, we will see several circuit topologies which provide electrical
isolation with different number of switchers, energy storage elements, transformers and so
on. And after that is over, we will be able to see a few more operating modes on these
converters. The next lecture will be on isolated power converter topologies. So, we will
see forward converter, fly back converter again and bridge converters and several of them.

Thank you very much.