the

ond.

6 Ratio
emilogo sthemic
T is also atled values
The abaoute chonges in the valves of a
can be shoon
onothe
Vaaiable
one peaicd to
nalual (os) asrithrmeic sale . asie to be
on

ohen
telative Sates of chonge
Scaleis Used.
Scdeie
logaaihmic (o) matio
Stcied
Gcoleeguol vetical distonces
In satiolelative 91ates of (o)
indicote egual
chong
equol pescentage. based on aithmeli
The NatUSal Scale is

whese as the 1otio sale is base d

pooqsession
geometoic Poogmesio,.
 endbk us
-the rotio dhat to) 9otio scale
Coenpane
ditfeoent
dhe gate of charg 0f
of coteonies of
otatisicol unite on the o rme chot
Gor
CUVes com be pbtted on the
toends Studied.
toph ond heioy
he y-oxis Gtoot
In oose of oatio Goole
whenea in the
one ond not foom o
om logoithmic popes
Cose of dhe goale on seri- i6 hat the
is
SBating at and rot eo 4 is ploced at
#hm of 4 is o, ence
logaoi
distance foom he osigin.
no logoi-thm fot geso, nofo
hebie is SUch Voalues cannot be
-Ve numbes, hence
ploted. chat, conctant ote
On the logithmic Scalecan be easily roticed
decetease
incenease of qpteat use.
this prope rty is
hoing oide siange of
and
Cose
of voiabes boing
In iS fa moe
oio cale
values the
he othe ,
Sui-table than
S1atio goale the meoning9 of the data is
In fom the diselion of ines whereas
deaived is
of notUmal scale the meaning
in cose position of lines.
desni
ved foom
Medhods of conetucting a semi -logoithmie
Can be
A r-logoorthmic gnph
Constctedin any of Ahe
the loqoithmic of the qhven
t: By pottinga natal Scale,
values
 the gven vaues
plotirng
semiP logaoithmic
2.
Pape1.
a

fiost method is adopted the logasithm's

tohen values of Va iable a ne
VoioUS
the he bga ithmic tob les.
of
obBoinedbË conaotig then plotted on y-axis
These bgithms the vaniouS
natual Goale
scale and
|ines.
of the
joinel stenight
Rointswhen seord method is odopted no need to
he vaiables athe ,

fird tog values t o plotted on semi -logpi thmic

valves a e
he actual valves
sirnple and convenient
pope. This mehod is
fisst method
compael 4o the
to poepoered by follooing
as a
qaph is it is known
methods,
ohen two
any of the
above vertical scale
hese
qoph, but the
- laqaeithmic enatio poinciple
'Semi
Sis 9rUled on the aithmetio
the
SemainG on
hosigontal gcale
poinciple.el
possible to a line gaph
have

scales ogaoithmic, such

Itis also
both the
that has Known as a cbuble loqasith mic
qiaph is
and the use
of this qoaph s

limited.
Intepaetation of lbqoithmie be
CUSNeS uot
the logoithrie o-thewise 4hene is a
Loith caulion,
nteopoeted to w9ong conclusions, The
posibilty
of jomping of the
he impotant points.
Some
 oising upaods , it would
a coove is
indicate an
91ate
inceasing ate of change
o-f

iS
folling douhw0ds,it
2T the cuve
iate of change,
Slepsesent G a
otsaight line, the 9ate
a cueve is a
constont (o) Unifoem
is
change
CUNve is bot ie reo y staight,
at a neanly unifoam
eporesents a deine
it
aote one
in one potion tho
than
a CU9ve
stecpe
oate of change in
5.
potion, the
in
anothe sjapid than that in
foeime
4he
the latte.
on the Same Satio chat
CUSVeg

pamallel, they epesen t

pasallel
found s0nning
of
equal pemontage than anothe on
One
CU1ve Sleepe
in the
atio chaa t, the ote of charge
latte.
the same
0pid than that in the
1 i s moe
fome
of 9atio chati -
uses
Rotio paph a1e uSefol fosn 4 types of
composision.
1ote of is nepaesented
. A Constont pesicent
ine Such as the sales
Stsaight the atio cha t as
on
appeas
pescent
a
the sesies CUS1Ve5 a e foom the
line If denoteg a
ht
taaig line, it cosreapondirng chang
steoight
90te of

the
 histo i c facto of gouth be
2
If may
crpected to the
pensist, the analyt con poo jec t Past
Odee1 fomecast fotume olumes,
rends, in
3. The selative giouthof fluctuation of two cceVes

compased mo1e accUately in atio chts

be
chats Since poollel lines
may eithmetic
than in
indicates the Same Pesicent Nates of change
steepes slopes indicot
choert and stee pes
anyuheme On the
91ates.
highes Co) iatios be iead diec tly foom
pencentages (o)
touads futhe.
4he vemtical scale and apelied
qopghic analysia. Compaing
5. Ratio soale i6 ctemely ufol in
SeaieS which diffea in mognitude.
Limitotions
ondestord.
a1e difficott 4o
values
valves cannot be shouon.
2 Zeo (o») tNegotive
an ioto VaioUS ompo nent
3. The Sudy of by using rotio soale.
Posmts is not possi ble
inteapnetation necdshighly specialise kouledge
4.theia which One nay deau entisely
uwhich
in 4he absence of alone esticts
ThiS focto
twsong conclusiong, of sUch a uSefol
the Saope 0f mass populoy
5. Ratio
cannot measUNe abolute
SCale chages
distaibution Graphs i
T of fseguenc distaibotion can be poresented
A fequency
of
in ang of the folbuing nYs.
pophicoly
21fequenc oygo
3. Gmoothed freguency ve
(o) CUmolative faeguencY
4 Oqives CUpNeS.
 HistogeamHistogram distsi
is most
botion white
Sepesentation o a foequency of

Corstuctng histogeomthe vnoiobe is aluay s

Aoken on and
c-acis freguencieG de pending on it (o)
of he histogmam epseaents
On y-acis. The aea
thacugh out the
the 0tol foregueney dictsibeted
is a two dimensional e, length
classe Histoqon important.
Ond width aie
the technique of constsucting histopom s
distaibutlo ns class in tevals,
have eual
t) fo
hoving onegual class inteNals,
) fo distai bu4ions equal, take
when inte vals
class
Vasioble on r-aris an d
y-ais, the
fseguencg
eonstt
on

adjacent ecton gles Tn CUch ca6e height

Of
poetiona ) to the fsguencies
the ectong bs oll be poo
oe eohen
ohen class inteoyals Oe unequal, a Conseion

fo unequal class inteorvals must be mode, The

Cog iec tion ongistS of find a eoch class the foeguency
(o) the elo4ive foeguency dencity The
density is the
4he foegency that chss
foequency density is closs.
divided the width of he
by dersity polygon
stoqpam
A Hi tos) feguency
density values wood have
these
Congtuted foom
gene ocoeS
DES Pondino
the Same 9al apperance as the aronding
devdoped foom equal elass inteval
foraphica the cass which has loue
odjustment toke
FO
adivst the fnequencieg of othe
intevVal and
class - d0y It one class inteal
class in
the follo uing
twice a s
wide aS the one having louwest
class intesval
tokevaldivide the h ght of the etange
If it is Ahaee time moe, divide the
by tuo
o f g e by thee etc. i.e., the
height coill be the
popootional to the 9tioS of
heights
fsqUencies of 4he olcth of 4he clasS

2 Fguen of:
paph sides.
is o fou1
A fnequency polygon than
disteibion It has mone

ponticola m effective in compoeing

4 i5 butions. These
to constuct
forequency disti
a foeguency Polygon
histogomof ofthe given dota ar then
t: Dsou a lines the midpoints of the oPPesy
join by st soight eoch
each ectang le with the adjacent
hoiontal side of oblained is cated fseguenc
the figuse
so
neg
cose the polygon at both erds
poractice o 4hem to bae line
Polygon
the distibution rtending
of QSea Unden polygon egual to the
the
of making
Qea Unde 1 he cosnesponding histoqam.mdpoints of
method is to totake the class
2. Anothes intevals and then plot the
class
Ahe
VoaioUS
each point and join these
costeespording to So obtoined is
Caegueny atenight lnes, The fiqu e
points b mocel 1 but the
only diffesence
ome as
the
we have ot to onstsct histogiar
iS 4hese hene

In a foequency po'yon the vales of made

Obtained # foom the aper of a
Con be
doown on c- cis.
Polygon a fasn
 2. ompaision of 2 (o moe
Itoclitates
distibUtion on the Gome genph
31 FMeguency polygon is simplem than its histo goam,
4. T cketcheG the data pattes1n
on outline of
like
Smooth and ccerve
becomeg
5 Polygon beco Ineosingyclasses and no of
of the numbeor of
twe inceeaSe
Obsevation
histogom difficuties
ae
Same as in

faced in the con

ConstUction (oreguoncy polygon
ie, they Cann be vsed for distoibulion s hoving
avoid it make an odjustment
open end classes. To
Some in histoqaam:
3- Smoothed freguency cumve i
3. CUNve an be
AA Girolhed freguency
of the polygon.
thsounh the Vamious points Such
deown thooh
douwn a mannee
fsee band in
The CUn Ve
included undeon
Undeen the cuVe is
thot the
oppsozimately Sarme as of poypn the objertive
poesent
te ton eliminate the accidental va niatio ng
is
in the dota Fo dmouing a smoothed fegueny
it necegsa to fiast dow the
CUrve
out, while
and then
plotting the
mooth t
foegencles at the mid point
polygon bby intevals Save ome time but the
constucting
clase
of
the polygon cannot be done
Smoothing of poopey
without a
histogom
oCet
ie, fist doe hiatoqem then polygon ond
smoothent The cuNe should
lastly byin and end
 the base ine and aS ule it
Ot
be eended midpoint of the cloSs
to the
moy o0tside the hicloqiarn
tntevals just
Shou d Deponts
The anea Undeon he CUSNe

nUmbeo of (oequeies in he entie

the -otal
distiibUfion
Impotat while
he folowing
follouing pointsCUSIvE
Smoothing a foegue
distoib otion boced on Samples
only be
choud
foegueny
Smothed.
should be Smoothed
only continvous Seoied
the cu9ve should be
2
ahea Undet
3 The total histogpicm
eual to the o Undem the oiginal

to) polyjgon
Cumulative freguencH USNeS (o) oqies
oqies
gaaphical nepesentation of
4-
It iS a
distaibution An oqi ve is
Cumulative
frequeney the cumulative freguenci on
obtoined by pbtting clacs boUndaieS on racis,ig
y-acis againet he
ogive cuevesthese
a1e
ypes
Types of
1. Less tan ogive
Moe than
than oqive
2

I. Less than oqivei on the bosis of

Tt is onstected

CUmu la4ive
faeguencies ohich OSCending
than Oqive
cumulatie foeyuencies
In leS
odea limits of eS pective
oPPe
plotteed qpinst
which hos
class
an incoeasing cUsve
an upuod slope foom left to oight.
 Moste hon oqvei
ted
the bogis of
on tho
Tt iS onstoc
Umulolive foeg uencies hich
which
a91e in
cgive, cumulalive foeguencies deszending
Ode In mone hen limits of espctives
bues CuoNe which has
ploted ogainstdeenesing
Oe

class Tt is a
forom tet to oight
downwaods clope
Uses of ogivesi the numbes
to detemine oophically
t. T4 helps below the
obæVation obove (o)
of peopoetion
of vOnioble.
Vaeiable
gven valve copete potifion values Such
also belpe to
It aaphically.
2
median and guastiles two
Compaeni sion of
facilitates he
3. It distibutions.
feguency and Histogpom
ces between Hiskoqpom
en
Diffe
HisBogman shous vesntical djacent
Intes vols on -0ciS and
seckongles Loith class
foequencies on y.ocis. Histoqam
comsesponding Oven a peniod of
in vaeniable
wS changes
sho w5 r-oxiS and valves
with time
peniodg on
time
on y-aciS .
of vaiable
f
eample; Scole bs) Popolation
FO
yeasS farom 2001 to 2010
Oven a pesiod o+ lo
Basics of
distincion
Histoqaam. Hlistaoqaam
CUe Lt iS an aeQ I{ iS a foeguen
a
dioqom diagoom. CUerve

Tt is a praph of gaph of
2 Type of Gooph foequencH distii botion time
ime Senies.

Tt Shows class It shows time -Peiod

3. - aris
in teeNalS on -aris on 0-0cis.

aciS
4 shous fsreguenciesof t Shous the vales of a
elass inteer vals on Vasiable on y-acis.
y-aciS.