29.

Calorie restriction, a diet high in nutrients but low in calories, is known to prolong the life of rats and mice by
preventing heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and other diseases. A six-month study of 48 moderately overweight
people, who each reduced their calorie intake by at least 25 percent, demonstrated decreases in insulin levels and
body temperature, with the greatest decrease observed in individuals with the greatest percentage change in their
calorie intake. Low insulin level and body temperature are both considered signs of longevity, partly because an
earlier study by other researchers found both traits in long-lived people. If the above statements are true, they
support which of the following inferences?
• Calorie restriction produces similar results in humans as it does in rats and mice.
• Humans who reduce their calorie intake by at least 25 percent on a long-term basis will live longer than they would
have had they not done so.
• Calorie intake is directly correlated to insulin level in moderately overweight individuals.
• Individuals with low insulin levels are healthier than individuals with high insulin levels.
• Some individuals in the study reduced their calorie intake by more than 25 percent.

30. Last January, in an attempt to lower the number of traffic fatalities, the state legislature passed its “Click It or
Ticket” law. Under the new law, motorists can be pulled over and ticketed for not wearing their seat belts, even if
an additional driving infraction has not been committed. Lawyers and citizens’ groups are already protesting the
law, saying it unfairly infringes on the rights of the state’s drivers. Law enforcement groups counter these claims
by stating that the new regulations will save countless additional lives. Which of the following inferences is best
supported by the passage above?
• Prior to the “Click It or Ticket” law, motorists could not be stopped simply for not wearing a seat belt.
• The “Click It or Ticket” law violates current search and seizure laws.
• Laws similar to “Click It or Ticket” have effectively reduced traffic fatalities in a number of states.
• The previous seatbelt laws were ineffective in saving lives.
• Law enforcement groups, rather than citizens groups, should determine how to best ensure the safety of motorists.

31. In a certain state, hunting permits require the hunter to be at least 18 years old, possess a valid driver’s license or
state identification, and have completed a safety program within the past 5 years. The hunter must also sign a
legal document pledging not to consume alcohol while hunting. Which of the following can be correctly inferred
from the above statements?
• All states have the same requirements for hunting permits.
• Hunters under the age of 21 don’t need to sign the alcohol pledge because they are not legally allowed to drink
alcohol under any circumstances.
• If a person last completed the safety program six years ago, he will have to complete the program again before he
can be eligible for a permit.
• Someone who isn’t 18 years old cannot obtain a hunting permit in this state.
• Hunting is such a dangerous activity that state controls and requirements are necessary to ensure that nobody gets
hurt.

32. The public often protests when an unregulated service industry is found to be corrupt. However, regulation often
leads to increased costs for the consumer. Fewer companies survive in a regulated market, leading to decreased
competition and higher prices. The public then responds negatively to the increased costs of these services. The
statements above best support which of the following?
• Service industries should not be regulated.
• The public should not protest unregulated services.
• Only unregulated services are subject to public protest.
• The public is sometimes the cause of its own complaints.
• Decreased competition always leads to increased prices.

33. A certain medication used to treat migraine headaches acts by blocking pain receptors in the brain. When a person
takes the medication within one hour after ingesting grapefruit or grapefruit juice, however, the effectiveness of
the medication is significantly diminished. Researchers have determined that the grapefruit contains a compound
that alters the shape of the pain receptors, with the result that the medication can no longer bind with them
completely. Which of the following conclusions could be most properly drawn from the information given above?
• If one takes the medication more than an hour after ingesting grapefruit, its effectiveness is not diminished.
• Ingesting grapefruit after taking the medication does not diminish the effectiveness of the medication.
• There is only one type of pain receptor in the brain.
• The medication is fully effective only when it properly binds with its target pain receptors.
• It is not possible to design a medication for migraine headaches that can bond with the altered receptors.

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34. Educator: Like any other difficult pursuit, music requires intense study and practice in order for one to become
proficient. But many school music programs encourage only children who demonstrate early aptitude to continue
studying music, while children who are not especially musical are directed towards other activities. Having learned
to think of themselves as musically inept, these children do not devote any time to music and thus deprive themselves
of the opportunity to develop a latent talent. The educator’s statements, if true, would best support which
of the following conclusions?
• Music education should not devote special attention to talented students.
• Everyone has the potential to learn music.
• Talent is not always apparent at an early age.
• Children are particularly sensitive to criticism from adults.
• All children should study music.

35. Improved technology and equipment often result in fewer injuries during high-risk activities such as rock climbing
and scuba diving. But participant education also plays a large role in reducing the number of injuries sustained
during these activities. People who are poorly trained in these activities run a much higher risk of injury even if
provided with the latest and best equipment. Which of the following can be properly inferred from the
information above?
• Training is a more important safety factor than equipment in high-risk activities.
• People who are properly trained in their activities do not sustain injuries.
• The safety benefits of the latest equipment can be offset by inadequate preparation.
• Rock climbing and scuba diving are more risky than any other activities.
• People with the latest equipment often neglect proper training.

36. The new heart scans offer patients significant benefits. They can be completed in a fraction of the time required
for an angiogram, with no recovery time necessary. Furthermore, the scans are more sensitive and can identify
problem areas that an angiogram might not perceive. However, heart scans use more radiation than most diagnostic
procedures, and can cause undue concern over and treatment for the harmless abnormalities often picked up by
such sensitive technology. Which of the following conclusions is best supported by the statements above?
• A heart scan is safer than an angiogram procedure.
• Patients should not be concerned about heart abnormalities that appear in a heart scan.
• A heart scan could result in indirect harm by causing a patient to undergo risky, unnecessary procedures.
• An angiogram is the more appropriate of the two procedures for most patients.
• The heart scan is a more expensive procedure than the angiogram.

Critical Reasoning Topic 2: Assumptions

1. To decrease the number of crimes in city Y, the city’s Police Commissioner proposed taking some police officers
from low-crime districts of the city and moving them to high-crime districts of the city. His proposal is based on city
Y crime data that show that the number of crimes in any district of the city decreases when additional police
officers are moved into that district. The Police Commissioner’s proposal depends on which of the following
assumptions?
• City X experienced a drastic reduction in crime after implementing a proposal similar to that proposed by the Police
Commissioner of city Y.
• The severity of crimes committed in any district of the city decreases when additional police officers are moved
into that district.
• The number of crimes committed in all high-crime districts of city Y is more than triple the number of crimes
committed in all low-crime districts of city Y.
• There are more low-crime districts than high-crime districts in city Y.
• Districts of the city from which police officers are removed do not experience significant crime increases shortly
after the removal of those officers.

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2. Although there has been great scientific debate for decades over global warming, most scientists now agree that
human activity is causing the Earth’s temperature to rise. Though predictions vary, many global warming experts
believe that average global temperatures will rise between three and eight degrees Fahrenheit during the next
century. Such an increase would cause an alarming rise in sea levels, displacing millions of people by destroying
major population centers along the world’s coastlines. Which of the following is an assumption in support of the
argument’s conclusion?
• New technological developments in the next century will not divert rising seas from the world’s coastal cities.
• Individuals will not become more aware of the steps they can take to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.
• Rising sea levels similarly affect all coastal population centers.
• Some global warming experts predict a greater than eight degree Fahrenheit increase in global temperatures
during the next century.
• Human activity is the sole cause of increasing global temperatures.

3. “The new HitItFar driver is the only golf club that uses space-age Titanium-Kryptonium alloy to strengthen its head.
This driver is SO good, the last 12 winners of the major tour championships have all recently switched to it! Isn’t
it time for you to add power to your swing and distance to your drives? Trade in your old driver today — and
HitItFar tomorrow!” All of the following claims are either implied or made explicitly in the above advertisement
EXCEPT:
• Switching to the HitItFar driver will improve your play.
• The HitItFar driver helped the last 12 major championship winners achieve their victory.
• Major championship winners are experts and know what constitutes a great golf club.
• Your existing driver is inferior to the HitItFar driver.
• Only HitItFar golf clubs have Titanium-Kryptonium alloy in the head of their drivers.

4. Researchers studying the spread of the Black Plague in sixteenth-century England claim that certain people survived
the epidemic because they carried a genetic mutation, known as Delta-32, that is known to prevent the bacteria
that causes the Plague from overtaking the immune system. To support this hypothesis, the researchers tested the
direct descendants of the residents of an English town where an unusually large proportion of people survived the
Plague. More than half of these descendants tested positive for the mutation Delta-32, a figure nearly three times
higher than that found in other locations. The researchers’ hypothesis is based on which of the following assumptions?
• Delta-32 does not prevent a carrier from contracting any disease other than the Plague.
• The Plague is not similar to other diseases caused by bacteria.
• Delta-32 did not exist in its current form until the sixteenth century.
• No one who tested positive for Delta-32 has ever contracted a disease caused by bacteria.
• The Plague does not cause genetic mutations such as Delta-32.

5. The popular notion that a tree’s age can be determined by counting the number of internal rings in its trunk is
generally true. However, to help regulate the internal temperature of the tree, the outermost layers of wood of the
Brazilian ash often peel away when the temperature exceeds 95 degrees Fahrenheit, leaving the tree with fewer
rings than it would otherwise have. So only if the temperature in the Brazilian ash’s environment never exceeds 95
degrees Fahrenheit will its rings be a reliable measure of the tree’s age. Which of the following is an assumption
on which the argument above depends?
• The growth of new rings in a tree is not a function of levels of precipitation.
• Only the Brazilian ash loses rings because of excessive heat.
• Only one day of temperatures above 95 degrees Fahrenheit is needed to cause the Brazilian ash to lose a ring.
• The internal rings of all trees are of uniform thickness.
• The number of rings that will be lost when the temperature exceeds 95 degrees Fahrenheit is not predictable.

6. The Department of Homeland Security has proposed new federal requirements for driver’s licenses that would
allow them to be used as part of a national identification system. Using licenses for purposes not directly related
to operating a motor vehicle is un-American because it would require U.S. citizens to carry the equivalent of
“papers.” Such a requirement would allow the government to restrict their movements and activities in the manner
of totalitarian regimes. In time, this could make other limits on freedom acceptable. The author assumes which of
the following?
• The next presidential election will be dishonest, as has happened in eastern European countries.
• The government will soon start curtailing the activities of those it considers “dissidents.”
• Blanket restrictions on law-abiding individuals are contrary to the traditions of American culture and law.
• The majority of Americans are not willing to give up their right to travel and move about without identification.
• Americans should resist all government regulation of their lives.

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7. Since the new publisher took control, a news magazine’s covers have featured only models and movie stars.
Previously, the covers had displayed only politicians, soldiers, and business leaders. A leading gossip columnist
claimed that the changes made the magazine relevant again. However, many newspaper editorials disagreed and
suggested that the new publisher is more interested in boosting sales than in reporting important news events.
Which of the following is an assumption necessary for the argument made by the gossip columnist’s opponents?
• The charitable activities of models and movie stars often focus public attention on pressing problems.
• Final authority for choosing the cover subject of the magazine lies with the publisher.
• A magazine can boost sales while highlighting the coverage of important world leaders.
• Some of the movie stars featured are now running for political office.
• Magazine issues with models or movie stars on the covers are purchased at a rate more than three times greater
than is the case with issues featuring politicians on the covers.

8. In response to the increasing cost of producing energy through traditional means, such as combustion, many utility
companies have begun investing in renewable energy sources, chiefly wind and solar power, hoping someday to
rely on them completely and thus lower energy costs. The utility companies claim that although these sources
require significant initial capital investment, they will provide stable energy supplies at low cost. As a result, these
sources will be less risky for the utilities than nonrenewable sources, such as gas, oil, and coal, whose prices can
fluctuate dramatically according to availability. The claim of the utility companies presupposes which of the following?
• The public will embrace the development of wind and solar power.
• No new deposits of gas, oil, and coal will be discovered in the near future.
• Weather patterns are consistent and predictable.
• The necessary technology for conversion to wind and solar power is not more expensive than the technology
needed to create energy through combustion.
• Obtaining energy from nonrenewable sources, such as gas, oil and coal, cannot be made less risky.

9. Surveys consistently show that the best-selling ice cream flavor is vanilla, although those who prefer chocolate
rarely order vanilla. Vanilla-flavored candy, then, probably sells better than chocolate-flavored candy. Which of
the following is an assumption upon which the author of the argument relies?
• Because someone prefers vanilla ice cream does not mean he prefers vanilla-flavored candy.
• Children who prefer vanilla ice cream also tend to like chocolate candy.
• Those who prefer neither vanilla nor chocolate ice cream also prefer other flavors of candy.
• Someone who prefers vanilla ice cream may still order chocolate on occasion.
• Preferences for certain ice cream flavors are similar to preferences for candy flavors.

10. The media claim that the economy is entering a phase of growth and prosperity. They point to lower unemployment
rates and increased productivity. This analysis is false, though. The number of people filing for bankruptcy has
increased every month for the last six months, and bankruptcy lawyers report that they are busier than they have
been in years. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
• Unemployment rates are not useful indicators of growth and prosperity.
• Economic growth cannot be measured in terms of productivity.
• Legislation has not been recently passed to make legal bankruptcy easier to obtain.
• There has not been an increase in the number of bankruptcy lawyers.
• The media often misrepresent the current state of economic affairs.

11. A newly discovered painting on wooden panel by Michelangelo must have been completed after 1507 but before
1509. It cannot have been painted earlier than 1507 because one of its central figures carries a coin that was not
minted until that year. It cannot have been painted after 1509 because it contains a pigment that Michelangelo is
known to have abandoned when a cheaper alternative became available in that year. Which of the following is an
assumption on which the argument depends?
• No stocks of the abandoned pigment existed after 1509.
• Michelangelo did not work on the painting over the course of several years.
• The coin depicted in the painting was known to general public in 1507.
• The wooden panel on which the painting was executed cannot be tested accurately for age.
• Michelangelo’s painting style did not change between 1507 and 1509.

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12. In order to save money, some of Company X’s manufacturing plants converted from oil fuel to natural gas last year,
when the cost of oil was more than the cost of natural gas. Because of a sudden, unexpected shortage, however,
natural gas now costs more than oil, the price of which has fallen steeply over the past year. The cost of conversion
back to oil would more than negate any cost savings in fuel. So Company X’s fuel costs this year will be significantly
higher than they were last year. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument above depends?
• Company X does not have money set aside for the increased costs of fuel.
• The increase in the cost of fuel cannot be offset by reductions in other operating expenses.
• The price of natural gas will never again fall below that of oil.
• The cost of fuel needed by those of Company X’s plants that converted to natural gas is not less than the cost of
fuel needed by those plants still using oil.
• The price of oil will not experience a sudden and steep increase.

13. Advertisement: Avian Oculars are the newest in binocular technology for the professional bird watcher. For a price
comparable to that of traditional binoculars, Avian Oculars are specially designed with the features demanded by
birding enthusiasts: they are lightweight, compact and extremely durable. So, use Avian Oculars on your next bird
watching excursion, and see some of the world’s rarest species in all of their beautiful plumage. Which of the
following is an assumption on which the author of the advertisement relies?
• Avian Oculars weigh less than traditional binoculars.
• Avian Oculars should be used only by bird watchers.
• The reader will travel through the habitats of rare species during his or her next bird watching trip.
• Avian Oculars are similar in cost to traditional binoculars.
• Birding enthusiasts often determine the specifications of new products.

14. Every year many people become ill because of airborne mold spores in their homes. After someone becomes ill,
specialists are often hired to eradicate the mold. These specialists look in damp areas of the house, since mold is
almost always found in places where there is substantial moisture. If one wishes to avoid mold poisoning, then,
one should make sure to keep all internal plumbing in good condition to prevent leakage that could serve as a
breeding ground for mold. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
• Mold itself does not create moisture.
• Most homeowners know enough about plumbing to determine whether theirs is in good condition.
• Mold cannot grow in dry areas.
• No varieties of mold are harmless.
• Mold spores cannot be filtered from the air.

15. The legislature of the Philippines voted recently to abolish the death penalty. In contrast, the death penalty remains
legal in the United States. The difference in the legality of capital punishment demonstrates that the majority of
American citizens believe in the death penalty, while the majority of Filipino citizens do not. Which of the following
is an assumption upon which the above argument depends?
• There are more murders per year in the United States than in the Philippines.
• The legal status of capital punishment in the United States and the Philippines aligns with how the majority of
citizens in those respective countries view the death penalty.
• There are not strong voices opposing the death penalty in the United States.
• Most American citizens who believe in the death penalty think that it acts as a deterrent for potential criminals,
while most Filipino citizens do not.
• The legal standard used to determine whether a criminal should be sentenced to the death penalty in the United
States is similar to the legal standard used in the Philippines before capital punishment was abolished there.

16. Smoking is a known cause of certain serious health problems, including emphysema and lung cancer. Now, an
additional concern can be added to the list of maladies caused by smoking. A recent study surveyed both smokers
and nonsmokers, and found that smokers are significantly more anxious and nervous than nonsmokers. Which of
the following is an assumption on which the argument rests?
• Anxiety and nervousness can lead to serious health problems.
• Anxiety and nervousness do not make individuals more likely to start smoking.
• Equivalent numbers of smokers and nonsmokers were surveyed for the study.
• Smokers are aware of the various health problems attributed to smoking, including lung cancer and emphysema.
• Smokers who had smoked a cigarette immediately before responding to the survey were more anxious and
nervous than smokers who had not smoked for several hours.

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17. Over the past 5 years, Company X has posted double-digit growth in annual revenues, combined with a substantial
improvement in operating margins. Since this growth is likely to persist in the future, the stock of Company X will
soon experience dramatic appreciation. The argument above is based on which of the following assumptions?
• Company X has a large market share in its industry.
• Prior to the last 5 years, Company X had experienced similarly dramatic growth in sales associated with stable or
improving operating margins.
• The growth of Company X is likely to persist in the future.
• The current price of the stock of Company X does not fully reflect the promising growth prospects of the firm.
• The stock of Company X will outperform other stocks in the same industry.

18. Antoine: The alarming fact is that among children aged 19 years and younger, the number taking antipsychotic
medicines soared 73 percent in the last four years. That is greater than the increase in the number of adults taking
antipsychotic medicines during the same period.
Lucy: But the use of antipsychotic drugs by adults is considered normal at the current rate of 11 adults per 1,000
taking the drugs. In contrast, the number of children on antipsychotic medication last year was 6.6 per 1,000
children. Lucy’s argument relies on the assumption that ______.
• normal levels of antipsychotic drug use are rarely exceeded.
• the percentage of adults taking antipsychotic medication is always higher than the percentage of children on such
medication.
• the use of antipsychotic medication in children is no different from the use of such medications in adults.
• Antoine is not consciously distorting the statistics he presents.
• a rapid increase in the number of children taking antipsychotic drugs generates more fear of random violence by
adolescents than does knowledge of the absolute number of children on such medications.

19. A recent article stated that only 5.5% of American colleges grant the majority of their degrees in the liberal arts.
Citing this, a reader wrote to lament that this was further evidence of the decline of academic rigor in American
post high school education. Which of the following is an assumption on the part of the reader?
• The percentage of American colleges granting liberal arts degrees would continue to drop.
• All colleges should grant the majority of their degrees in the liberal arts.
• Most post-secondary scientific, engineering, and vocational training does not involve as much academic rigor as
liberal arts training.
• Academic rigor is the most important aspect of post high school education.
• Of the colleges that do not grant the majority of their degrees in the liberal arts, many granted fewer than a
quarter of their degrees in the liberal arts.

20. Doctor: Research shows that adolescents who play video games on a regular basis are three times as likely to
develop carpal tunnel syndrome as are adolescents who do not play video games. Federal legislation that prohibits
the sale of video games to minors would help curb this painful wrist condition among adolescents. The doctor’s
conclusion depends on which of the following assumptions?
• The majority of federal legislators would vote for a bill that prohibits the sale of video games to minors.
• Not all adolescents who play video games on a regular basis suffer from carpal tunnel syndrome.
• Playing video games is the only way an adolescent can develop carpal tunnel syndrome.
• Most parents would refuse to purchase video games for their adolescent children.
• The regular playing of video games by adolescents does not produce such beneficial effects as better hand-eye
coordination and improved reaction time.

21. Company X receives most of its revenues from the sale of gasoline through a network of gas stations that it owns
across the country. The company purchases ready-for-sale gasoline from several oil refineries at wholesale prices
and sells it to the final consumer at its gas stations. Over the next quarter, the management of Company X expects
that the market price of gasoline will rise by approximately 10 percent. Therefore, the management projects that
the next quarter’s revenues from the sale of gasoline will also increase by approximately 10 percent. The
management’s projection is based on which of the following assumptions?
• Consumption of gasoline at the company’s gas stations will not drop in response to higher prices.
• Company profits will not decline below their current level.
• Higher gasoline prices will not reduce the company’s revenues from other business lines.
• The costs of gasoline purchased by the company for subsequent sale at its gas stations will remain relatively
constant.
• The supply of gasoline is likely to decline over the next quarter.

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22. An oil field prospector and developer reported a large oil deposit in southwestern Texas. As a result, a large oil
and gas company purchased the field with the intention of drilling oil wells in the area soon afterwards. However,
the company found that what had been reported to be a large oil deposit was actually much smaller than had been
indicated. Thus, the methods that the prospector had used to determine the size of the oil deposit must have been
inaccurate. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
• The company’s methods of measuring the size of the oil deposit were determined by a third party to be more
accurate than those used by the prospector.
• The prospector did not purposefully fabricate or misrepresent the size of the oil deposit.
• Though smaller than originally thought, the oil deposit contained enough oil to make drilling commercially feasible.
• The prospector did not explore other oil fields and use the same methods to determine the magnitude of the oil
present, if any.
• The company had successfully drilled for oil in other large oil fields in Texas throughout the early twentieth
century.

23. Parent: The city education department is unable to distinguish between annoyances and important problems. For
instance, prohibiting students from having cell phones is an overreaction. If a student uses one and thus interferes
with instruction, confiscate it. All in all, we need educational leadership that can solve problems, not create them.
Which of the following is an assumption made by the parent?
• Students having cell phones does not constitute an important problem for the city schools.
• Students have no need for cell phones in school.
• Faculty and staff should be allowed to possess cell phones.
• Students need to have cell phones because some of them have no stay-at-home parent.
• An interest in solving problems is the most important attribute of an educational leader.

24. The Ergonomic Society conducted a study that indicated that many people develop severe back problems during
adulthood, and that virtually all such people who received chiropractic treatment showed great improvement.
Therefore, in order to minimize the proportion of the population that suffers from back pain, the Ergonomic
Society recommended that chiropractic treatment be directed toward those adults who suffer from severe back
problems. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
• Any person who receives chiropractic treatment for back pain may also benefit from other forms of treatment.
• Large insurance carriers cover chiropractic care for back problems to a lesser degree than they do other medical
treatments.
• Individuals who receive chiropractic or other treatment prior to developing severe back problems are not less likely
to develop back pain than those who do not.
• Chiropractic treatment is more effective in treating severe back problems when utilized over a long period of time,
as opposed to sporadically.
• Severe back pain and other problems often cause individuals to miss workdays.

25. Since the new publisher took control, a news magazine’s covers have featured only models and movie stars.
Previously, the covers had displayed only politicians, soldiers, and business leaders. A leading gossip columnist
claimed that the changes made the magazine relevant again. However, many newspaper editorials disagreed and
suggested that the new publisher is more interested in boosting sales than in reporting important news events.
Which of the following is an assumption necessary for the argument made by the gossip columnist’s opponents?
• The charitable activities of models and movie stars often focus public attention on pressing problems.
• Final authority for choosing the cover subject of the magazine lies with the publisher.
• A magazine can boost sales while highlighting the coverage of important world leaders.
• Some of the movie stars featured are now running for political office.
• Magazine issues with models or movie stars on the covers are purchased at a rate more than three times greater
than is the case with issues featuring politicians on the covers.

15