Cross-cultural Psychology

A. Roots or Antecedents
( Shiraev & Levy, 2023)

Descended from Scientific General Psychology.

Part of an intellectual tradition, rooted first mainly in Europe but developed

initially in the US toward the end of the 20th century.

Cross-cultural psychology has diverse influences, including some that

originate in disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, history, economics,
political science, the humanities, and even
biology, such as genetics and physiology.

By the beginning of the twentieth century, interest in comparative subjects

in the social sciences grew. Psychological studies and anthropological
observations in the middle of the twentieth century led many scientists to
believe that the key to the understanding of human behavior was the
interaction between individuals and their cultural environment.

By the 1960s, cross-cultural psychology began to establish itself as an

independent discipline.

B. Focus Area or Distinct Scope

Cross-cultural Psychology studies similarities and differences across

cultural and ethnocultural groups, examining how psychological variables
interact with socio-cultural, ecological, and
biological factors (Berry et al., 2002).

It is concerned not only with diversity, but also with uniformity, what is there
that might be psychologically common or universal to all people and groups
(Lonner, 1980).

It is the critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human

psychology. On the one hand, it asks for commonalities in human thinking,
feeling, and acting despite cultural diversity, and on the other hand, for
differences in human thinking, feeling, and acting depending on the
respective cultural environment (Helfrich, 2024).

According to Berry et al., (2002), the following are the main goals
of Cross-cultural Psychology:

Cross-cultural Psychology 1
 Transport and test; explore other cultures in order to
discover cultural and psychological variations which are not
present in our own limited cultural experience

Attempt to assemble and integrate a more nearly universal

psychology.

C. Views on Culture
(Poortinga, 2002; Poortinga, 2015)

Defines it as “the shared way of life of a group of people.” A shared system

of meanings that influences human behavior but does not completely
determine it.

Has consistent underlying universal aspects of human cognition and

behavior. (Shiraev & Levy, 2023)

A complex and dynamic system of shared meanings, beliefs, and practices

that significantly influence human behavior, cognition, and emotion.

Has universal psychological processes that transcend cultural boundaries

(Helfrich, 2023)

There are underlying universal patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting

shared across cultures

He argued that while culture is often treated as an independent variable in

cross-cultural psychology it is actually organismic.

D. Methodology of Research
Cross-cultural psychology employs various methodologies which can be
broadly categorized into qualitative and quantitative methods.

1. Qualitative methods do not involve direct numerical measurement or

statistical procedures (Shiraev & Levy, 2023). It aims to explore cultural
phenomena in-depth, emphasizing meaning and context.

Psychobiographical research
Observation
Self reports

Cross-cultural Psychology 2
 Content analysis
Focus group

2. Quantitative methods use statistical or mathematical data

to measure and compare variables across cultures,
identifying patterns, testing hypotheses, and quantifying
differences (Shiraev & Levy, 2023; Helfrich, 2023).

Psychometric approach
Multilevel analyses
Experimental and quasi-experimental design
Ex Post Facto studies
Correlational and regression analysis

Qualitative and quantitative are not mutually exclusive, however, they can
complement each other (Berry et al., 2002; Helfrich, 2023; Shiraev & Levy,
2023).
The etic and emic approaches influence the way research is conducted and
interpreted. The emic approach focuses on understanding from within a
specific culture, while the etic approach seeks universal principles across
cultures (Berry et al., 2002; Helfrich, 2023).

E. Strengths of the Discipline

Extends the range of cultural variation to the maximum (Poortinga, 2015).

Challenges cultural bias and universality (Helfrich, 2023; Shiraev & Levy,
2024).

Focuses on how cultural differences can be best addressed and dealt with
(Poortinga, 2015), with the goal of uniting people worldwide as it promotes
inclusivity, mutual understanding,
professionalism, curiosity, and appreciation (Shiraev & Levy, 2024)

F. Limitations of the Discipline

Cross-cultural Psychology has not made any contributions to knowledge

about the influence of culture on the individual (Sta. Maria, 2000).

Cross-cultural subject matter in Psychology is that mechanisms found

within the individual are inherent in all individuals (Sta. Maria, 2000).

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 Cross-cultural Psychology has not even served as a challenge to traditional
Psychology (Sta. Maria, 2000).

Experimental designs for causal inference are not available (Poortinga,

2015).

Any group of humans can be classified as culture.(Poortinga, 2015).

Equivalence has become an empirical issue for most researchers in Cross-

Cultural Psychology (Poortinga, 2015).

Extensive debate on emotions as an empirical topic for research (Poortinga,

2015).

Became too narrow and inward looking (Jahoda, 2011, cited by Poortinga,
2015)

Angat-patong

Construct equivalence, functional/scalar equivalence and, full-scale

equivalence

Field-Independent Field-Dependent

Analytical approach …
Seeing the parts
Impersonal relationship
Prefers data
Rely on perception
Perform better in academic
settings

Dimensions of Culture (Hofstede, 1984):

1. Individualism

2. Masculinity

3. Uncertainty Avoidance

4. Power Distance

Cross-cultural Psychology 4
 When you look at culture, culture itself is not seen as something that how
people became and their practices, there exists the ecocultural framework of
dimensions of culture, this includes distal antecedents, historical events,
proximal antecedents, immediate antecedents; which may lead to patterns of
action.

Predict, manipulate, control.

Individualism-Collectivism Scale

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