AGG 112: Introduction to Agriculture II (1 Unit)

Prof. R.O. Babatunde

Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management,
University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
Email: [email protected]

Course materials

1.0 What is Agriculture

Agriculture is the science or practice of farming, it includes the cultivation of crops and rearing
of animals with the purpose of providing food, wool and other products for human consumption
and use. The word, agriculture, comes from the Latin word, agricultura. Where ‘agri' means
'field' and 'culture' means 'growing' or cultivation.
Agriculture encompasses various activities, including crop cultivation, animal husbandry,
forestry, and fisheries. It involves processes such as soil preparation, planting, irrigation,
harvesting, and distribution of produce. Additionally, agriculture includes agro-industries that
transform raw agricultural products into consumable goods.
There are different types of agriculture, including subsistence farming, commercial farming,
organic farming, and industrial agriculture. Each type is influenced by factors such as climate,
soil fertility, technology, and market demand. Traditional farming relies on natural techniques,
while modern agriculture utilizes scientific advancements such as genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) and precision farming.

2.0 History of agriculture

Agriculture dates back over 10,000 years, with early human societies transitioning from hunting
and gathering to farming in regions such as Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and Ancient Egypt.
The domestication of plants like wheat, barley, and rice, along with animals such as cattle and
sheep, marked the beginning of organized agriculture.

Over time, agriculture evolved through technological advancements, including the invention of
the plow, irrigation systems, and crop rotation techniques. The Agricultural Revolution in the
18th and 19th centuries brought mechanization, increasing food production and supporting
population growth. The Green Revolution of the 20th century introduced high-yield crop
varieties, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides, further enhancing agricultural productivity.
Key Milestones in the History of Agriculture:

a) Neolithic Revolution (10,000 BCE):

The transition from hunter-gatherer to agricultural lifestyles, with the domestication of plants
and animals, occurred independently in various regions, including the Fertile Crescent,
northern China, and Central America.
b) Domestication of Plants and Animals:
This involved selective breeding and cultivation of crops like wheat, barley, and rice, as well
as animals like sheep, cattle, and pigs.
c) Development of Farming Techniques:
Over time, irrigation, crop rotation, and fertilization techniques emerged, enhancing
agricultural productivity.
d) Rise of Civilizations:
The surplus food produced by agriculture allowed for the development of settled
communities, cities, and eventually, complex civilizations.
e) Technological Advancements:
The invention and refinement of tools like plows, harvesters, and later, machinery like
tractors, revolutionized farming efficiency.
f) Agricultural Revolutions:
Several periods of significant agricultural advancements have occurred, including the British
Agricultural Revolution (1700s-1800s) and the Green Revolution (mid-20th century).
g) Modern Agriculture:
Today, agriculture faces challenges related to sustainability, food security, and climate
change, leading to research and development of sustainable practices and technologies.

Historians have been able to track the development of agriculture in four major places around the
world, the earliest signs come from the Middle East and China, before it spread into the
Mediterranean and Europe and finally developed independently again in the Andes and
mountains of South America. Let's dive back into time and see how each of these civilizations
used the skills of agriculture to improve their world.

Middle East

The hunters and gatherers of early human societies, particularly in the fertile crescent (modern
day Turkey, Syria and Iraq), were experts on the plants and animals around them, the movement,
needs and abilities of each animal was well known to these people because they relied on that
knowledge to feed themselves and their children.

Around 11,000 BCE, people began to protect and herd the wild herds of goats, sheep, cows and
pigs that moved up and down the valley. They also harvested wild cereals such as einkorn,
emmer, and barley. At first, the methods they used were random and unorganized, people will
pull weeds out of the ground to promote the growth of more of the plants they ate, or they would
bring water from the river to water the plants. They would herd the animals simply, but did not
build farms for them yet.
At around 8800 BCE, scientists noticed a change in our genetics, for the first time humans in this
area had switched from eating primarily wild food to primarily farmed food.
China

Agriculture developed entirely independently in China and other countries of the far east of Asia.
Findings at archaeological digs suggest that pig herding was being used as a method of food
production as far back as 10,500 BCE in the Yellow River Valley.

By 8000 BCE, this same area had become a centre of millet cultivation and, alongside the
industry of pig farming, sustained large villages such as Cishan. The domestication of wild rice
soon followed and is still a stable ingredient in Asian cooking to this day.
Europe

The development of agriculture within Europe differs slightly from its development in China or
the Middle East, early European societies benefited from the work done by the societies in the
Fertile Crescent. Knowledge was traded back and forth between the cultures living on the shores
of the Mediterranean for many centuries, and with it came the knowledge of farming.

Around 7000 BCE, farming was introduced to areas that would become modern day Greece,
Italy and Spain, before moving north into Central Europe. It is thought that new arrivals from
Africa, Asia and the Middle East brought with them domesticated plants and animals and
elsewhere, local people adopted the same skills. Once the skills had been taught, the art of
farming exploded in Europe, with much of the land well suited to growing plants and feeding
livestock.

The Americas

In the Andes mountains of South America, people experimented with cultivating potatoes and
other root vegetables around 5000 BCE. They used llamas and alpacas to help them plough the
soil, and even farmed the local guinea pigs as a source of food.

The hunter-gatherer way of life existed alongside farming here because there were far fewer
species of animals suited to domestication and the land was more difficult to farm.

The History of Agricultural Development in West Africa

Agriculture has played a central role in the development of West Africa for thousands of years.
From early subsistence farming to modern commercial agriculture, the sector has evolved
through various stages, influenced by environmental conditions, technological advancements,
colonial policies, and economic transformations. This essay explores the historical development
of agriculture in West Africa, examining its key phases and the factors that have shaped its
progress.

Early Agriculture and Traditional Farming Systems

The history of agriculture in West Africa dates back over 5,000 years, with early societies
engaging in subsistence farming. Indigenous crops such as millet, sorghum, yam, and rice were
cultivated using rudimentary tools like hoes and digging sticks. Farming practices were adapted
to the diverse ecological zones of the region, from the arid Sahel to the humid forest zones.
Traditional farming in West Africa was characterized by shifting cultivation, in which land was
cleared and farmed for a few years before being left fallow to regain fertility. Agroforestry
practices were also common, with farmers integrating tree crops such as oil palm, shea, and
baobab into their farming systems. Livestock rearing, particularly cattle, goats, and sheep, was an
essential aspect of agriculture in savanna regions, providing food, labor, and trade commodities.

The Influence of Empires and Trade

The rise of great West African empires such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai between the 9th and
16th centuries significantly influenced agricultural practices. These empires developed irrigation
systems, improved farming techniques, and facilitated trade in agricultural products. The trans-
Saharan trade connected West African farmers to markets in North Africa and the Middle East,
boosting the cultivation of cash crops like kola nuts and cotton.
During this period, agricultural knowledge spread through interactions with traders and travelers.
The introduction of crops like bananas and plantains from Asia via Arab merchants further
diversified West African agriculture. These developments supported population growth and the
expansion of urban centers.

Colonial Impact on Agriculture

The colonial period (late 19th to mid-20th century) brought profound changes to West African
agriculture. European colonial powers, particularly Britain, France, and Portugal, prioritized cash
crop production for export. Large-scale plantations and smallholder farming schemes were
established to grow crops such as cocoa, coffee, peanuts, and rubber.
While colonial policies improved infrastructure, such as roads and railways for transporting
agricultural goods, they also disrupted traditional farming systems. The emphasis on
monoculture and export-oriented farming reduced food security, as local food crop production
declined. Colonial taxation and forced labor further strained rural farmers, creating long-term
economic imbalances.

Post-Colonial Agricultural Reforms and Challenges

Following independence in the mid-20th century, West African nations sought to modernize
agriculture and achieve food self-sufficiency. Governments introduced policies to support
mechanization, irrigation, and the use of fertilizers. Agricultural research institutions, such as the
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), were established to improve crop yields
and combat pests and diseases.

However, challenges persisted, including land tenure issues, inadequate infrastructure, and
reliance on rain-fed farming. Political instability, droughts, and climate change have also
affected agricultural productivity. Despite these obstacles, initiatives such as the Green
Revolution, regional agricultural cooperatives, and government subsidies have aimed to enhance
food production and rural livelihoods.

Contemporary Trends and the Future of Agriculture in West Africa

Today, West African agriculture is undergoing significant transformation. The rise of

agribusiness, technological advancements in precision farming, and increased investment in
irrigation are driving improvements in productivity. Regional organizations like the Economic
Community of West African States (ECOWAS) promote agricultural development through
policies that encourage trade, investment, and climate resilience.

Urbanization and changing consumption patterns have also influenced agricultural trends,
leading to the expansion of poultry, fisheries, and horticulture sectors. Sustainable practices, such
as organic farming and agroecology, are gaining traction as governments and stakeholders seek
to balance economic growth with environmental protection.

History of agriculture in Nigeria

Nigeria is very blessed with agricultural resources, a large expanse of land estimated at 91
million hectares (1990) of which 81 million hectares are arable. Most parts of the country
experience-rich soil, well-distributed rainfall, not to mention the warm year-round temperatures.
And 18 million hectares of land classified as permanent pasture, for livestock production.

Agriculture has its place in the history of the nation, this is the reason for the ‘green’ in the flag,
and the progressive roles it has played; serving as the major source of livelihood to over 75% of
the population. The agricultural history of Nigeria is intertwined with its political history. This
can be assessed from the pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods.

Here's a more detailed look at the history of agriculture in Nigeria:

Pre-Colonial Era:

Subsistence Farming:

Before European colonization, agriculture in Nigeria was primarily subsistence-based, meaning

farmers grew crops primarily for their own consumption and the immediate needs of their
communities.

Diverse Crops:

A wide variety of crops were cultivated, including sorghum, maize, rice, millet, yam, cocoyam,
and cassava, depending on the region and climate.

Traditional Farming Techniques:

Traditional farming techniques included shifting cultivation (where land was cleared and used
for a few years before being left fallow), and the use of local tools and knowledge.

Examples of Crops:

In the forest south of Nigeria, root crops like yam, cocoyam, and cassava were widespread, while
in the savanna regions, sorghum, maize, rice, and millet were common.

Colonial Era:

Shift to Cash Crops:

The British colonial administration introduced a system that encouraged the production of cash
crops for export, such as cocoa, groundnuts, cotton, and palm oil.

Forced Abandonment of Food Crops:

Colonial policies often led to a decline in food crop production as farmers were encouraged to
focus on cash crops, which negatively impacted food security.

Introduction of New Crops:

The colonial period also saw the introduction of new crops and farming techniques, some of
which were not well-suited to the local environment.

Infrastructure Development:

The colonial authorities built infrastructure, such as roads and railways, to facilitate the
transportation of agricultural produce to ports for export.

Post-Colonial Era:

Oil Boom and Neglect of Agriculture:

After independence, the discovery of oil in commercial quantities led to a neglect of the
agricultural sector as the government focused on oil revenues.

Decline in Agricultural Production:

The shift towards oil led to a decline in agricultural production, with the annual production of
crops like cocoa, groundnuts, cotton, and rubber falling sharply.
Increased Reliance on Imports:

As domestic production declined, Nigeria became increasingly reliant on food imports.

Modernization Attempts:

Despite the challenges, there have been attempts to modernize the agricultural sector through the
introduction of new technologies, improved farming techniques, and increased investment in
research and development.

Challenges and Opportunities:

Land Degradation:

Unsustainable farming practices have led to land degradation, soil erosion, and a decline in soil
fertility.

Climate Change:

Climate change, including droughts and floods, poses a significant threat to agricultural
production.

Infrastructure Deficiencies:

Poor infrastructure, such as roads, storage facilities, and irrigation systems, hinders agricultural
development.

Opportunities:

Despite the challenges, Nigeria has significant potential for agricultural development, with vast
arable land, a diverse climate, and a large population.

Government Initiatives:

The Nigerian government has implemented various initiatives to promote agricultural

development, including the Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA) and the National
Agricultural Land Access Fund (NALAF).

Focus on Food Security:

There is a growing focus on improving food security and reducing reliance on food imports.
THE PRE-COLONIAL AND COLONIAL PERIODS

Long before the advent of Nigeria’s colonization, our ancestors were sustained primarily on
farming as the major occupation with the use of crude implements compared to what is obtained
today. Yet, they produced enough food crops to feed themselves like most other Africans and
also produced cash crops which used for trade by barter system, across the Trans Saharan trade
to the end of the Atlantic trade. They responded accordingly to the demands of their time, the
limitations notwithstanding.

The period of the colonial administration in Nigeria, 1861-1960, was punctuated by rather an ad
hoc attention to agricultural development. During the era, considerable emphasis was placed on
research and extension services. The first notable activity of the era was the establishment of the
Department of Botanical Research in 1893 in former Western Nigeria; saddled with the
responsibility of conducting research in Agriculture. In 1905, the British Cotton Growers
Association acquired 10.35 square kilometres of land at the site now called Moor Plantation,
Ibadan for growing cotton to feed the British Textile Mills. In 1910, Moor Plantation, Ibadan
became the headquarters of the Department of Agriculture in Southern Nigeria, and a
Department of Agriculture was established in the North in 1912.

In 1921, a unified Department of Agriculture was formed in Nigeria, after the amalgamation of
the North and the South. The major policy of the Central Department of Agriculture was to
increase the production of export crops for the British market which was ready to absorb it for its
industrial growth. Extension activities were therefore directed towards increasing efficiency in
crop production and marketing. Regulations were made to set and enforce standards in export
crop production.

Under the colonial government, livestock which was predominantly nomadic got a fair share of
development with interest directed at the health and hygiene of the domesticated cattle. Thus, the
Nigerian Veterinary Department was established in 1914 with its headquarters at Zaria. In 1924,
a small veterinary laboratory was established in Vom for the production of rinderpest serum.

Deliberate efforts at developing the country’s fisheries can be said to date back to the Second
World War when, because of the naval blockade of the high seas, the then Colonial
Administration decided to develop the country’s local resources, including fisheries. A fisheries
organization was established in 1941 as a Fisheries Development Branch of the Agricultural
Department of the Colonial Office and a Senior Agricultural Officer was appointed to conduct a
survey of the industry and its possibilities. The headquarters was sited at Apese village and later
at Onikan in Lagos, from where, assisted by a part-time voluntary officer, preliminary
experiments in fish culture in brackish water ponds at Onikan were carried out and surveys were
conducted on the canoe fisheries of Apese village and Kuramo waters around Victoria Island,
Lagos.
The colonial period also witnessed the establishment of the Niger Agricultural Project in 1949
with the aims of producing groundnut for export and guinea-corn for local consumption. It was
also meant to relieve world food shortage, demonstrate better farming techniques and increase
the productivity of Nigeria’s agriculture. The project was sited near Mokwa (Niger state) at an
area which was suitable for mechanized food crop production.
THE POST-COLONIAL PERIOD

New policies were formulated in the post-independence era to actualize more equitable growth in
agriculture. The earlier surplus extraction policies were quickly translated into the pursuit of
export-led growth. This led to the demarcation of the country into the Western Region (cocoa),
Northern Region (groundnut) and Eastern Region (oil palm).

The 1962-1968 development plans were Nigeria’s first national plan. Among several objectives,
it emphasized the introduction of more modern agricultural methods through farm settlements,
co-operative (nucleus) plantations, the supply of improved farm implements (e.g. hydraulic hand
presses for oil palm processing) and a greatly expanded agricultural extension service.

Some of the specialized development schemes initiated or implemented during this period
included:

· Farm Settlement Schemes

· National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP), launched in 1972.

There were also a number of agricultural development intervention experiments, notably

· Operation Feed the Nation, launched in 1976;

· River Basin and Rural Development Authorities established in 1976;

· Green Revolution Programme, inaugurated in 1980

· The World Bank-funded Agricultural Development Projects (ADP).

While each of the above programmes sought to improve food production, the ADPs represented
the major practical demonstration of the integrated approach to agricultural development in
Nigeria.

Owing to the oil boom in the 1970s, Agriculture assumed a downward trend. Available data
show that at independence in 1960 the contribution of agriculture to the GDP was about 60%,
which is typical for developing agrarian nations. However, this share declined over time to only
about 25% between 1975 and 1979. Between 1970 and 1982, agricultural production stagnated at
less than one per cent annual growth rate, at a time when the population growth was between 2.5
to 3.0 per cent per annum. There was a sharp decline in export crop production, while food
production increased only marginally. Thus, domestic food supply had to be augmented through
large imports. The food import bill rose from a mere N112.88m annually during 1970 – 1974 to
N1, 964.8m in 1991.

The years since the early 1960s have also witnessed the establishment of several agricultural
research institutes and their extension research liaison services. Some of the major institutions
are:

1. Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Service (AERLS) at the Ahmadu Bello
University, Zaria established in 1963

2. The International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) established in 1967

3. International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA).

AGRICULTURAL PROGRAMMES IN NIGERIA

In an attempt to address the dwindling resources accrued from Agriculture, the successive
government implemented programs aimed at increasing food production and reviving
Agriculture. These are:

National Accelerated Food Production Programme (NAFPP):

This was an agricultural extension programme initiated in 1972 by the Federal Department of
Agriculture during General Yakubu Gowon’s regime. The programme focused on bringing about
a significant increase in the production of maize, cassava, rice and wheat in the Northern states
through subsistent production within a short period of time. The programme was designed to
spread to other states in the country after the pilot stage that was established in Anambra, Imo,
Ondo, Oyo, Ogun, Benue, Plateau and Kano states.

Operation Feed the Nation (OFN):

This programme evolved on 21st May 1976 under the military regime of General Olusegun
Obasanjo. The programme was launched in order to bring about increased food production in the
entire nation through the active involvement and participation of everybody in every discipline
thereby making every person capable of partly or wholly feeding him or herself. Under this
programme, every available piece of land in urban, suburban and rural areas was meant to be
planted while government-provided inputs and subsidies (like agrochemicals, fertilizers,
improved variety of seed/seedlings, day-old chicks, machetes, sickles, hoes etc) freely to
government establishments. Individuals received these inputs at a subsidized rate.

The River Basin Development Authority (RBDA):

River Basin Development Decree was promulgated in 1976 to establish eleven River Basin
Development Authorities (RBDAs) (Decree 25 of 1976). The initial aim of the authorities was to
boost economic potentials of the existing water bodies particularly irrigation and fishery with
hydroelectric power generation and domestic water supply as secondary objectives. The
objective of the programme was later extended to other areas most important to production and
rural infrastructural development.

The Green Revolution:

Green Revolution was a programme inaugurated by Shehu Shagari in April 1980. The
programme was aimed at increasing the production of food and raw materials in order to ensure
food security and self-sufficiency in basic staples. Secondly, it aspired to boost production of
livestock and fish in order to meet home and export needs and to expand and diversify the
nation’s foreign exchange earnings through production and processing of export crops. The
federal government provided agrochemicals, improved seeds/seedlings, irrigation system,
machine (mechanization), credit facilities, improved marketing and favourable pricing policy for
the agricultural products.

The Nigerian Agricultural Land Development Authority (NALDA):

This was established in 1992. The authority aims at giving strategic public support for land
development, assisting and promoting better uses of Nigeria’s rural land and their resources,
boosting profitable employment opportunities for rural dwellers, raising the level/standard of
living of rural people, targeting and assisting in achieving food security through self-reliance and
sufficiency.

National Fadama Development Project (NFDP):

The first National Fadama Development Project (NFDP-1) was designed in the early 1990s to
promote simple low-cost improved irrigation technology under World Bank financing. The main
objective was to sustainably increase the incomes of the Fadama users through the expansion of
farm and non-farm activities with high value-added output. The programme covered twelve
states of Adamawa, Bauchi, Gombe, Imo, Kaduna, Kebbi, Lagos, Niger, Ogun Oyo, Taraba
including the Federal Capital Territory (FCT). The program adopted a community-driven
development approach with extensive participation of the stakeholders at the early stage of the
project. This approach is in line with the policies and development strategies for Nigeria which
emphasize poverty reduction, private sector leadership and beneficiary participation. Overall
appraisal of the first and second phases of the project; show remarkable success, hence the
invention of the current third phase.

National, Special Programme on Food Security (NSPFS):

This Programme was launched in January 2002 in all the thirty-six states of the federation during
the Olusegun Obasanjo’s regime. The broad objective of the programme was to increase food
production and eliminate rural poverty. Other specific objectives of the programme were:
assisting farmers in increasing their output, productivity and income; strengthening the
effectiveness of research and extension service training and educating farmers on-farm
management for effective utilization of resources; supporting governments efforts in the
promotion of simple technologies for self-sufficiency; consolidating initial efforts of the
programme on pilot areas for maximum output and ease of replication; consolidating gain from
on-going for continuity of the programme and consequent termination of external assisted
programmes and projects.

Root and Tuber Expansion Programme (RTEP):

RTEP was launched on 16th April 2003 under Olusegun Obasanjo’s administration. It covers 26
states and was designed to address the problem of food production and rural poverty. At the local
farmer’s level, the programme hopes to achieve economic growth, improve access of the poor to
social services and carry out intervention measures to protect poor and vulnerable groups. At the
national level, the programme is designed to achieve food security and stimulate demand for
cheaper staple food such as cassava, garri, yam, potato etc as against more expensive
carbohydrate such as rice. Smallholder farmers with less than two hectares of land per household
were the targets of the programme while special attention is being paid to women who play a
significant role in rural food production, processing and marketing. RTEP also targets at
multiplying and introducing improved root and tuber varieties to about 350,000 farmers in order
to increase productivity and income.

PRESENT DAY

Agricultural Transformation Agenda (ATA):

In 2011 the government of Nigeria, launched the Agricultural Transformation Agenda, with the
aim of changing the perception about agriculture as a development issue instead of pure
business.

The vision in the transformation strategy is to achieve a hunger-free Nigeria through an

agricultural sector that drives income growth, accelerates the achievement of food and nutritional
security, generates employment and transforms Nigeria into a leading player in global food
markets to grow wealth for millions of farmers. In order to achieve this vision, the value chain
approach has been in use. Fertilizer procurement and distribution, marketing institutions,
financial value chains and agricultural investment framework are poised for a change using this
approach.

Ironically, the issues and challenges have not changed much since the dawn of agriculture in
Nigeria. Majority of farmers (more than 65%) still use the crude method of farming; Storage
ideas and facilities have not improved much and thus losses incurred from postharvest handling
are still very high; Infrastructure development has not progressed to meet the current challenges,
resulting in stagnation of processes and logistical nightmare; Access to markets has remained a
recurring headache making the idea of Farming very unattractive to most people.
Beyond all of this, the fact remains that, Nigeria’s Agriculture Sector has enormous potential,
with an opportunity to grow output by 160% from USD 99 billion at present to USD 256 billion
by 2030(depending on who you ask).

This growth potential comes from the ability to;

1. Increase yield to 80% -100% of benchmark countries.

2. Shift 20% of production to higher-value crops.

Opportunities highlighted at SENCE Agric’s Agriculture Fair of March 2012 showed that
Nigeria faces a large and growing global agricultural market. The rising commodity prices,
growing demand for food and opportunities in biofuel as safe sources of alternative fuel all
present significant opportunities for Nigeria. In summary, Agriculture has had a long history in
Nigeria albeit a not so successful one but the future is great and the right people need to be
involved to move it away from rhetoric to a life-giving, money-making venture for the good of
man and country.

3.0 Roles of agriculture

i. Provision of food/feed:
Through agriculture, essential foods required for survival are produced; example plantain,
tomatoes, mango, maize, rice, fish, chicken, yam, etc.

ii. Source of raw materials:

Agriculture provides raw materials such as cotton, cocoa, timber, jute, fruits, and beef for
industrial purposes. Cocoa is processed into chocolate, fruits into jam and juice, beef into
canned beef, latex into rubber.

iii. Source of fuel:

Agriculture provides biofuels for domestic and industrial purposes. Two examples
include biogas from agricultural waste sewage or food scraps and ethanol from sugarcane
and corn.

iv. Employment opportunities:

Agriculture directly or indirectly employs about 52% of Ghana’s population according to
the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) (2024), serving as a means of livelihood
for individuals and their dependents.

v. Environmental sustainability and biodiversity:

Through agro systems such as agro-forestry, organic farming, crop rotation, conservation
farming and rotational grazing, the soil health and environment are preserved.

vi. Source of foreign exchange:

 Through the export of agricultural products and produce, the country earns foreign
currencies such as dollars, CFA, and pounds sterling to improve the economic conditions
and international trade status of the country. Agri-tourism activities such as farm tours,
farm stays, pick-your-own events and agri-tainment, equally generate foreign income to
the nation.

vii. Source of income:

Farmers earn income by cultivating crops, raising livestock, and producing other
agricultural products for sale as well as through agribusiness activities.

viii. Source of manure:

Waste products from farm animals and crop residues can be used as fertiliser; e.g.
farmyard manure, decayed crop residue, etc.

ix. Cultural preservation and heritage:

Agriculture has been deeply intertwined with human culture and traditions for thousands
of years. It has shaped societies, influenced cultural practices and contributed to the
development of languages,

x. Climate change mitigation and adaptation:

Modern agricultural practices tend to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions, promote carbon
capture through sustainable land management, and adapt to changing climate conditions
through resilient crop varieties and farming techniques.

xi. Rural Development:

By boosting agricultural productivity and incomes, agriculture can drive rural
development, leading to improved infrastructure, education, and healthcare in rural
areas.

xii. Helpful to Reduce Inequality:

In a country which is predominantly agricultural and overpopulated, there is greater

inequality of income between the rural and urban areas of the country. To reduce this
inequality of income, it is necessary to accord higher priority to agriculture. The
prosperity of agriculture would raise the income of the majority of the rural population
and thus the disparity in income may be reduced to a certain extent.

xiii. Shift of Manpower:

Initially, agriculture absorbs a large quantity of labour force. In India still about 62%
labour is absorbed in this sector. Agricultural progress permits the shift of manpower
from agricultural to non-agricultural sector. In the initial stages, the diversion of labour
from agricultural to non-agricultural sector is more important from the point of view of
economic development as it eases the burden of surplus labour force over the limited
 land. Thus, the release of surplus manpower from the agricultural sector is necessary for
the progress of agricultural sector and for expanding the non-agricultural sector.

xiv. Creation of Infrastructure:

The development of agriculture requires roads, market yards, storage, transportation

railways, postal services and many others for an infrastructure creating demand for
industrial products and the development of commercial sector.

xv. Create Effective Demand:

The development of agricultural sector would tend to increase the purchasing power of
agriculturists which will help the growth of the non-agricultural sector of the country. It
will provide a market for increased production. In underdeveloped countries, it is well
known that the majority of people depend upon agriculture and it is they who must be
able to afford to consume the goods produced.

xvi. Provide Market for Industrial Output:

As a result of agricultural progress, there will be extension of market for industrial

products. Increase in agricultural productivity leads to increase in the income of rural
population which is turn leads to more demand for industrial products, thus development
of industrial sector.

Major Branches of Agriculture and their Descriptions

Crop science:
It’s a branch of agriculture focused on the science and technology of growing and using crops for
food, fuel and fibre. This includes breeding, growing, protecting, processing, packaging and
storage of crops.
Horticulture:
It deals with the cultivation of fruits, vegetables and ornamental plants. It includes techniques
such as breeding, propagation, cultivation and management of vegetables and ornamental plants
for optimal growth and yield.
Animal Science:
This deals with the breeding, care and management of livestock such as cattle, poultry, sheep,
goats, and pigs. It involves animal nutrition, health care, breeding and production systems. It also
involves the processing and preservation of animal products such milk and meat.

Agricultural Engineering:
This applies engineering principles and technology to agricultural production and processing. It
includes farm machinery and equipment design, irrigation systems, drainage and environmental
control in agriculture.
Agricultural Economics and Agribusiness:
It is the economic and business aspects of agriculture and involves the production, distribution
and consumption of agricultural goods and services. It also includes studying markets, prices,
policies and economic decision-making related to farming and agribusiness.
Agroforestry:
This integrates the cultivation of trees and shrubs for economic, environmental and social
benefits. It combines elements of forestry and agriculture to enhance land use and promote
sustainability.
Agricultural Biotechnology:
This applies biological techniques to improve crop and animal production. It involves genetic
engineering, molecular breeding and biotechnological approaches to enhance crop and animal
productivity, quality and resistance to pests and diseases.
Aquaculture:
This is the production and management of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish, aquatic
plants and algae under controlled environments such as freshwater ponds, tanks, raceways,
marine cages, inland and coastal waters.
Soil Science:
It is the formation, classification, mapping, physical properties, chemical composition, biological
processes and fertility of soils. It also involves the study of the interactions between plants,
water, air, and micro-organisms in the soil as well as soil management and fertiliser usage. Soil
science also involves the mitigation of environmental impact of human activities such as mining,
construction and land use changes.

Examples of Career Opportunities that Exist in Agriculture

Teachers/lecturers:
They teach various aspects of agriculture in educational institutions such as universities,
agricultural colleges or vocational training centres.
Extension officers:
They are trained personnel who connect agricultural researchers to farmers or rural communities.
They provide information, technical assistance and promote best practices in agricultural
production.

Crop Scientists:
They conduct research to understand the physiological, genetic and environmental factors that
influence crop growth, development and productivity.
Soil Scientist:
They specialise in the various aspects of soils, including their formation, classification, physical
properties, chemical composition, biological activity and fertility. They analyse soil
characteristics and processes to understand how soils support plant growth, regulate water and
nutrient cycles and influence the ecosystem.
Horticulturists:
They specialise in the cultivation and management of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants and
flowers.
Animal Scientists:
They are involved in the care, breeding and management of livestock for meat, milk, fibre and
other products. They include livestock production managers, animal nutritionists, herd managers,
veterinary officers and animal breeding specialists.
Engineers:
They design, develop and implement machinery, equipment and systems for agricultural
production and processing. They handle projects on farm machinery design, irrigation systems,
drainage, renewable energy and post-harvest technology.
Economists:
They analyse the economic aspects of agriculture, including market trends, pricing, policies and
agricultural trade. They could be market analysts, agricultural policy advisors, agribusiness
consultants and agricultural finance managers.
Food Scientists and Technologists:
Their activities include developing and improving the processes for food production,
preservation and quality control. They specialise in areas such as food safety, food product
development, sensory evaluation and food packaging.
Agribusiness professionals/Agricultural entrepreneurs:
They manage businesses involved in agricultural production, processing, distribution and
marketing. Their roles include farm management, supply chain management, agricultural
marketing, agribusiness consulting and setting up of agricultural businesses.
Environmental scientist and conservationist:
They focus on sustainable land management, conservation and environmental protection. They
could be soil conservationists, environmental consultants, watershed managers and natural
resource managers.

Research and development scientist:

They conduct research to address challenges in agricultural production, develop new
technologies in agriculture and improve agricultural practices. They work in research
institutions, universities, government agencies and private companies.
Forestry officer:
Responsible for conservation, protection and sustainable management of forests and other natural
resources. Biotechnologists: They are scientists who specialise in applying biotechnological
techniques to improve crops, livestock and agricultural processes. Their work involves using
genetic engineering, molecular biology, genomics and other biotechnological tools to enhance
the efficiency, productivity, and sustainability of agricultural systems.
Precision specialist:
They use precision agricultural technologies and practices such as Global Positioning System
(GPS), Geographic Information System (GIS), remote sensing, drones, sensors and data analytics
platforms to maximise agricultural operations, improve production, sustainability and
profitability, and enhance resource efficiency.
Agro-processors:
These professionals work on processing, manufacturing, and transforming agricultural products
into finished goods for people to use. They add value to raw agricultural items, making them last
longer, more marketable, and ready to meet consumer demands for both food and non-food
products.

ROLES OF GOVERNMENT IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT

Some of the roles of government in agriculture are enumerated below:

1. Provision of financial assistance

2. Building of storage facilities
3. Establishment of efficient marketing outlets
4. Pest and disease control
5. Provision of basic amenities
6. Processing of storage facilities
7. Provision of Extension Services
8. Provision of farm inputs to farmers
9. Establishment of Agricultural Programmes
10. Establishment of an Agricultural research institution
11. Provision of Agricultural Education

Provision of Financial Assistance

To ensure that agriculture fulfills its role in food production the government has provided
financial assistance to farmers to boost food production. This financial assistance could be in the
form of loans and credit facilities.
Agencies like agricultural banks and their affiliate and commercial banks were set up to give
loans to farmers. Loans and credit facilities through the government and its financial agencies are
usually very low interest rates to boost their production, and these loans are usually not tied to
collateral securities.

In West Africa, particularly Nigeria loans are given to farmers without collateral securities but
based on bank verification numbers (BVN) and National Identification Numbers.

Building Storage facilities

The government has provided storage facilities in major parts of the country with various
subsections in the farming communities so as to prevent food wastage and scarcity.

They have also encouraged farmers with portable cold storage facilities, and airtight containers
to prevent food spoilage. The government through its ministries has provided farmers with
credits to set up storage facilities, while and encouraging the local farmers to build construction
facilities such s cribs, bans to store their farm produce to prevent food spoilage.

Additionally, chemicals such as fumigant have been supplied by the government to control the
incidence of pests.

Provision of Processing Facilities

Processing facilities such as rice mills, cassava mills, yam mills, oil palm mills, corn mills, and
other mini-processing machines are been provided by the government to facilitate the processing
of agricultural produce immediately after harvest.

The government trains farmers annually on better processing techniques and ensures that the
food processed is safe for human consumption. Symposium are been organized on how to
manage and operate these processing facilities. The government also sponsors research on how
to locally fabricate these processing machines for better and more effective uses.

The government also equipped farmers with the knowledge of the right material to be used for
processing agricultural commodities to ensure that the food processed is well packaged.
Processed farm produce is also registered with appropriate organizations to enhance the quality
of food.

Establishment of the Research Institution

The government has set up an agricultural research center to develop new farming systems and
practices. These research institutions are set up according to crops and animals that are of
national interest.

In West Africa particularly Nigeria, the government has set and funded many agricultural
research institutions that developed improved varieties of crops and breeds of farm animals that
early maturing, good quality, uniform growth, and meet consumers’ needs.
Crops such as rice, cowpea, yam, cocoyam, tomato, oil palm, cassava, cocoa, mango, and
animals with a higher yield of milk, meat, egg, and more ensure food sufficiency. The
government through these research institutions has developed crops and animals that are resistant
to certain prevailing pests and diseases and the method for their effective control.

Agricultural research institutions have developed local methods of preserving farm produce and
developed various vaccine use for preventing and controlling pathogens.

Provision of Subsidies on Farm Inputs

The government subsidizes many agricultural inputs to increase agricultural production. Farm
inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, tractors, and implements, harvesters, improved
seeds of crops, and breeds of farm animals are provided to farmers at a minimum amount to
encourage farmers to invest in agriculture.

The government also provides financial assistance to farmers at minimal or no interest rate to
ensure that farmers start their farming operation when due and recommended.

The government made available modern farm tools and implements at a subsidized rate to boost
agricultural development.

Provision of Basic Amenities

The government provides infrastructural facilities such as sports centers, pipe borne, electricity,
good roads, hospitals, good schools, and markets to aid agricultural development.

These basic amenities are provided in the rural areas or in the farming communities to reduce the
movement of able-bodied youths from rural to urban areas. Stadiums and recreational centers
are constructed in the rural areas to bring life from the urban center to the rural area to enable
youths to stay and carry out farming activities.

Feeder roads are constructed to link the remote communities to the urban area to facilitate the
easy movement of rural dwellers and farm produce to urban areas for sale and return to the rural
area.

Establishment of Efficient Marketing Outlets

This is one of the roles of government in agriculture, the government establishes commodity
boards, and other marketing organizations and is saddled with responsibility for the marketing of
agricultural communities.

The government through these agencies purchases farm produce during the harvest season to
prevent price fluctuation and sets up many food storage schemes such as strategic grain reserves
and food storage programs to store excess farm produce during the period of surplus and release
food to farmers and citizens during emergency periods.
 To ensure that agricultural produce gets to the final consumers the government places low
taxation on agricultural commodities to ensure that consumers don’t bear the burden of higher
taxation. Agencies have been established by the government to encourage the export and
regulate the import of agricultural produce.

Pest and Disease Control

In order to protect farmers crops and animals from the adverse effects of pests and diseases the
government has provided agrochemicals such as fungicides, pesticides, bactericides, viricides,
and vaccines to protect crops and animals against pathogens.

The veterinary clinic has been established to treat sick and diseased farm animals. Quarantine
stations have been established in every state or district, border, airport, and seaport to control and
prevent the introduction of new diseases.

Additionally, research states have also been set up to develop new species of crops and
developed breed of farm animals that are resistant to pests, parasites, and disease.

Establishment of Agricultural Programmes

The government has set many agricultural programs to stimulate agricultural development. In
West Africa particularly Nigeria, the government has set up programs such as Operation Feed
the Nation (OFN), Farm Settlement Schemes Agricultural Loan Schemes, River Basins
Development Authorities, National Agricultural Insurance schemes, National Accelerated Food
Production Programme, Agricultural education and Research, quarantine and vaccines,
Operation feed the nation, Green revolution, Agricultural Development Project, DFRRI, National
Agricultural Land Development Agency and so on to aid agricultural production.

Many of these programs are established to reduce the rate of unemployment among school
leavers and make farming vary alternative, provide rural infrastructure in the rural area, protect
farmers against uncertainties, natural hazards, and risks in farming, and provide irrigation
through the construction of dams, stimulate large scale farming, provide tractor and other farm
implement at minimum cost, provide farm inputs and provide storage and processing facilities
for farmers to increased agricultural production.

Provision of Extension Services

The government through various ministries and agencies has set up the Department of
Agricultural Extension and Training to help farmers make better farm management decisions and
purchase improved farm inputs to boost agricultural production.

Extension agents have been employed to help farmers access market information and strategies
for the acquisition of loans and their utilization. Qualified and experienced extension officers are
employed to relay farmers’ problems to the government ministry, research stations, and
universities for solutions.
 The trained personnel help farmers understand and adopt new ideas and innovations for
improved productivity.

Establishment of Agricultural Education

The government has established the Department of Agricultural Education in the colleges, and
universities as well as the teaching of agricultural science compulsory at the primary and
secondary school levels.

The government through the Ministry of Education also set up nomadic, adult education for the
migrant fishermen to educate farmers and adult individuals on how to read and write.

These abilities to read or write will help farmers adopt new and improved techniques and
innovations in farming. Agricultural education equipped youth with the knowledge, skills, and
competencies to up farming as a profession. Due to the fact that some Nigerian farmers are
illiterate, the government decided to provide adults.

Roles of NGOs in Agricultural Development:

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an independent, typically nonprofit organization that

operates outside government control, though it may get a significant percentage of its funding
from government or corporate sources. NGOs often focus on humanitarian or social issues or
providing services or to advocate a public policy.
Here's a more detailed look at the roles of NGOs in agricultural development:

1. Promoting Sustainable Agriculture:

Advocating for organic and eco-friendly farming:

NGOs often champion sustainable practices like organic farming, which helps conserve natural
resources and reduces the environmental impact of agriculture.

Supporting smallholder farmers:

They empower smallholder farmers by providing access to resources, training, and market
opportunities, helping them increase incomes and improve their livelihoods.

Promoting soil health and water management:

NGOs can play a crucial role in promoting sustainable soil management techniques and water
conservation practices, which are essential for long-term agricultural productivity.
2. Providing Resources and Training:

Access to inputs:

NGOs can facilitate access to essential inputs like seeds, fertilizers, and other agricultural tools
for farmers, especially in remote areas.

Training and extension services:

They provide training and extension services to farmers, helping them adopt new technologies
and improve their farming practices.

Credit schemes and financial support:

NGOs can connect farmers with credit schemes and financial resources, enabling them to invest
in their farms and improve their productivity.

Facilitating Self Help Groups (SHGs):

NGOs can help farmers form SHGs to meet their requirements and foster a sense of community.

3. Advocating for Small Farmers:

Representing the interests of small farmers:

NGOs can advocate for the rights and interests of small farmers in agricultural policies and
decision-making processes.

Promoting fair trade and market access:

They can help small farmers access fair prices for their products and improve their market
access.

Addressing social and environmental issues:

NGOs can raise awareness about social and environmental issues related to agriculture, such as
food security, poverty, and climate change.

4. Facilitating Connections and Partnerships:

Bridging the gap between farmers and institutions:

NGOs can act as intermediaries, connecting farmers with government agencies, research
institutions, and other stakeholders.

Promoting collaboration and knowledge sharing:

They can facilitate collaboration and knowledge sharing between farmers, researchers, and other
actors in the agricultural sector.

Facilitating farmer-to-farmer contact:

NGOs can develop innovative dissemination methods, relying on farmer-to-farmer contact,

whether on a group or individual basis.