Research Methods (UCC 2102), August 2023

Facilitators forthe various programmes

No Names Courses Contacts

1 Mr. Mwebesa Edson Education 0782275512

2 Mr. Kawiso Martin Wilfred 0772510494

BEC,BEAS,BSTAT,BHR,BSP
BTM, All evening Bachelors

3 Dr. Kirabo Joseph BBA 0772323344

4 Mr. Sapele Frank 0758068189

CHSS All Bachelors and
weekend

5 0782061539
Mr. Luggya Herbert & SCIT & SEAS

Dr. Kario Margret SCIT & SEAS

August 2022

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 Research Methods (UCC 2102), August 2023

COURSEOUTLINE

Course description
In today’s business environment, the success of any firm depends on the use of timely and
effective use of information to make decisions. Information is derived for data which is
collected through research. This course will provide you with the basic understanding of
research, and the process or research. This course addresses the procedural issues of research
especially the basic steps and the appropriate methods of how research is carried out.

Class attendance and active participation: This is mandatory and if not possible at least
should attend 75% of lectures. Please note that statistical knowledge is cumulative, and gaps
in the early material will always have detrimental consequences later on.

Completion of class assignments: We can only know that we have learnt if we check ourselves
through rigorous tests and assignments. More to this, these contribute to final mark in this
course. So completing these the best right way possible is vital.

Course objectives
By the end of the course, students will be able to:
• Explain the importance of research in business
• Develop a research plan orproposal of your choice
• Identify the advantages of research in today’s business environment
• Discuss key steps followed in a research process
• Apply the learnt techniques of research

Course content
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Chapter one: Overview to research

• Introduction to general research
• The importance of research
• Classification of research
• Presumptions of social research
• Qualities of a good researcher
• Types of research
• Nature of scientific research
Chapter two: Problem identification and formulation
• Introduction
• Identifying research problem
• Evaluating a research problem
• Steps in research problem formulation
• Characteristics of a good research problem
Chapter three: Research Variables
• Introduction
• Meaning of variable
• Variable and attribute
• Types of variables
Chapter four: Research proposal
• Introduction
• Importance of proposal
• Proposal format
Chapter five: Literature review
• Introduction
• Theoretical review
• Conceptual framework
• Related literature
Chapter six: Research Design
• Introduction

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• Meaning of research design

• Classification of research designs
• Population
• Sample size and Sampling procedures
• Data collection
Chapter seven: Designing an Instrument for Research
• Introduction
• Conceptual Framework or model
• Identification of variables
• Operationalization of the variables
• Validity of the instrument
• Reliability of the instrument
Chapter eight: Data Analysis
• Introduction
• Data editing
• Data categorizing
• Data entry
• Data presentation
• Dissemination of research
Chapter nine: Ethical issues in research

Mode of delivery
Lectures, group discussions and presentations, and case study
Assessment
Individual and group course works and tests 40%
Final examinations 60%

Reading List ✓ Kothari C.R (2002),Research Methodology;Methods and

Techniques, 2ND
Edition, New Delhi ✓ Moser C.Aand Kalton. G (983),Survey in social
investigation, Heinemann

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London

Chapterone
INTRODUCTION TORESEARCH
Introduction
This topic gives an overview of research by considering the what, why and how of research.

What is Research?
Research has been defined in different ways by different investigators and writers.

It is defined as a critical and exhaustive investigation or experimentation that aims at discovering

new facts, and their correct interpretation; the revision of accepted conclusions and theories in the
light of newly discovered facts (Amin, 2005). Sekaran (2003) defines research as a process of
finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of situational factors. To
research is to carry out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination of a given phenomenon
(Mugenda and Mugenda, 2003). Charles (1995) conceptualizes research as a careful,
systematic, patient investigation undertaken to discover facts and / or relationships.

Such definitions highlight important characteristics of research such as;

• Research is a process; meaning that it goes through steps.
• It is intended to solve problems that is, without any problem to be solved, there is no need
for research.
• It should be thorough that is, it involves a deep inquiry.
• It is careful meaning that it should be given attention.
• It is systematic, implying that it should follow logical steps.
• It is patient meaning that it may take long and
• It is intended to discover facts if it is qualitative and to discover relationships if it is
quantitative.

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Generally, a good research is systematic, well planned, organized and has specific goals. It
involves observing, theorizing, experimenting to test a theory or set of theories, drawing
conclusions and reporting results (Kakooza, 2002).

Importance of Research/Purpose of Research

Research is intended to allow us, students to develop and demonstrate ability to collect d ata,

relevant to a given problem, process and analyze those data to enable us make independent
judgments basing on the analysis and to write clear reports. That is, through research participants
(students) get involved in the process of systematic discovery which enables them to have insight
into social problems and finding ways to solve them. Generally research help to;

(i) Generate knowledge; This implies that research help to generate new knowledge and bring
something that have not been in existence for example coming up with a new method of teaching
or advertisement that has not been in use.
According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003) research helps in discovering new knowledge, that
is, facts and methods of practice, etc. Therefore research is a major source of knowledge. Amin
(2005) observes that research is a systematic search for new knowledge. It is an intellectual
endeavour pursued at the frontiers of knowledge for the cardinal objective of extending such
knowledge and improvement of society in general.
(ii) Validate knowledge; this means that research help to check on the existing knowledge to
prove or disprove its validity, for example a study can be carried out to discover whether a certain
drug can cure a certain disease or whether a certain law can help to overcome a certain crime in
society.
(iii) Refine knowledge; this means that research help to improve on the existing knowledge. The
world improves through research for example a study can be carried out to improve the existing
way of governance. Here the study uses the existing knowledge and/ or practice and add something
to improve it.

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N.B: A study may begin with validating knowledge and then go ahead to refine knowledge for
example a study may be carried out on the chemical content of a splash with the aim of validating
knowledge by finding out what already exist. The researcher wants to know what is in splash first,
then after knowing the strength of the chemical content in splash another study to improve the test
of splash can be carried out for example “The effect of apples on splash taste”. This study aims at
improving splash to make the better and o it requires knowledge.
(iv) Research helps to describe a phenomenon; In order to provide understanding of a
phenomenon research tries to identify certain characteristics or events that can help to describe
clearly that issue for example size, shape, age, weight, speed, etc.
(v) Research predicts a phenomenon; Prediction means ability to estimate interaction of
phenomenon for example the movement of the earth and the sun help to predict seasons. We can
also use a set of variables to predict another for example we can predict the effect of individual
characteristics on performance of employees.
(vi) Research help to control phenomena; this means the ability to regulate a given event of
phenomena. Many scientific experiments help to do this. Here one group of a study subjects is
held constant while another group is manipulated (using the treatment) to see the effect of a given
factor for example to find out how a certain learning method affect learning, we give a lesson
using the new method to one group (experimental group) and the same lesson is taught to the
second group (control group) using the normal or usual method after which we compare the
performance of the two groups. N.B: Control and prediction are related and are both vital
characteristics of experimental studies and both are used mainly to generate knowledge.
(vii) Research explores or enables theory development; this involves formulating laws
concepts and generalization about a given phenomenon. Research can develop a theory, confirm
or validate an existing theory or falsification.
(viii) Social planning; any planning would depend on the systematic knowledge of the resources,
problems and objectives of the society. Social research can give us the detailed picture of the
contemplated aspect of social planning.

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(ix) Social understanding and good will; Social research pinpoints the need for
interdependence among different social groups. It gives the clean weight age to the independent
and respondents’ opinion and help to promote good will and understanding.
It brings out the unity among diversities and help to strengthen social cohesion.
(x) Social growth; Social research point out to society a right and normative way of
development by pin pointing the evil effects of the wrong course of action. Given the constraints,
the direction of social growth can be given by social research by study of societal organizations,
value motivation and so on.
(xi) Modernization of tools and techniques; With the progress of social research, the tools and
techniques of analysis become modernized and up-to-date. Necessity is the mother of invention.
Due to the exigency of new situations, better tools for social research may be devised and better
and more efficient results may be expected. (xii) Social welfare; Social research can untold and
identify the causes of social evils. In this sense, it can help to take the necessary action for
eradication of social evils. Social research can give sound guidelines for appropriate measures of
reform and social welfare.

The above points answers the question, why do we do research, which is asking for purpose or
importance of doing research

Qn. Why do we do research? / What is the importance of doing research? /What is the

purpose of research?
Qn. Identify three studies that generate validate and refine knowledge?

Classification of Research
A continued conceptualization of the term research or to-research, (i.e. giving a comprehensive
answer to what On pointed at, in the introduction sections of this topic) involves the classification
of research and identification of the types of research under each classification. Accordingly,
research can be classified in the following ways;
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(i) Research according to subject; by subject or discipline we refer to the area of specialization
or study. Subject can be looked at individually in which case we for example have Management,
law, education, and business, or in terms of their two major groups, that is either natural or social
sciences. Thus we can talk of business research, law research, management research and education
research, while at the same time we can have hard or natural sciences or research in the social or
behavioral sciences.

Behavior sciences are one studied without practical applications while natural sciences deal with
material phenomena and based mainly on observation; experiments and induction. Thus when we
talk of hard or natural sciences research we are referring to research usually carried out in artificial
or laboratory setting in such subjects as physics, chemistry and biology.

Asocial science on the other hand is a study of human society or behavior in such disciplines as

education, law and management (Sykes: 1982). Thus when we talk of “social or behavior science
research” we mean that research involving behavior of human beings as friends sharing resources
on this planet.

(ii) Research according to scope; Research varies according to scope, scale or “unit of
analysis” for example a study on “Motivation and staff performance at Kampala International
University” is interested in bringing out how motivation affect performance of an individual staff,
thus the unit of analysis is the individual staff at KIU. However, other researchers may be
interested not in individual performance as a unit of analysis but in comparing the whole

organization like a school or a district for example a title like motivation and performance of
universities in Wakiso District.

The two examples suggest that as per their scale, scope or “Unit of analysis” we can clas sify
research as micro or macro. Micro (for example motivation and staff performance) is the one
interested in comparisons between small individual entities (for example staff and students) as unit

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of analysis, while macro research is that interested in variation between large entities (for example
Universities and districts) as units of analysis. Note: As students we are advised to opt for micro
research on account of time, cost and skills limitation.
(iii) Research according to purpose; basing on purpose research can be classified as either
applied or pure. (Bailey, 1994) a research that is concerned with finding a solution to an
immediate problem for example burning of schools or child sacrifice etc …. is said to be
“Applied”, “Problem solving” or “Action” research. Otherwise if research is trying to provide
answers to questions of theoretical, hypothetical or academic nature, then the research is said to
be pure, basic, academic, hypothetical or theoretical research.
As students, which kind of research is expected or suitable for us and why?

(iv) Research according to approach; Research varies according to approach or paradigm that
is. Research is classified as quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative research is the type of research
where the researcher is interested in quantities or numbers and it aims at discovering relationships.
The methods suitable for this are mostly, survey and experiments. The instruments are usually
structured questionnaires, observation check lists and interviews and data analysis is mainly
statistical.

Qualitative research on the other hand is one whose data is basically descriptive in nature and this
means that, the data to be gathered are ordinarily obtained in none numerical terms. Qualitative
research aims at discovering facts. That data collected is usually subjective and the main
measurement tool for collecting data is the investigator himself / herself.
N.B: There is no research that is purely qualitative or quantitative but elements of the two
approaches appear in all researches although one may dominate.

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Qualitative and Quantitative Research Approaches

The qualitative and quantitative methodologies are the two main approaches in social science
research.

The qualitative approach

The purpose of qualitative research is to promote greater understanding of the way things are and
why they are the way they are. It is through intensive and extensive observation, interviews and
discussions that promote greater understanding of how and why people behave the way they do.
Using the qualitative approach researchers explain and gains insight and understanding of
phenomena through intensive collection of narrative data.

In qualitative research, data collection is usually subjective and the main measurement tool for
collecting data is the investigator himself / herself. Therefore before conducting effective
research, the researcher needs intensive training and practice in the method planned to be used.

Qualitative research is one whose data is basically descriptive in nature. This means that the data
to be obtained are ordinarily expressed in none-numerical terms. Although descriptive is
emphasized this does not mean that numerical figures are never used.

The approach is one where by the inquirer often makes knowledge claims based primarily on
constructivist perspectives (that is the multiple meanings of individual experience, meanings,
socially and historically constructed with an intent of developing theory or pattern or participatory
perspectives (that is change oriented) or both.

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Principles of qualitative research methods

Openness; Qualitative methodology is not predetermined or pre-structured by hypotheses and
procedures that might limit its focus, scope or operation. Its perception and approach are open in
all aspects mainly with regard to its research objects, or the method to be employed.
Research as communication; Qualitative research is embedded in a process of communication
between researcher and respondent. There is no intention to establish independence of the
researcher from the respondent.
Reflexivity of object and analysis; in qualitative research, every symbol or meaning is considered
to be a reflection of the context in which they are developed. The meaning of an object of
expression is understood through a reference to its symbolic or social context.
Explication; Qualitative research is set to explain clearly and accurately how respondents will be
approached. The steps of the research process, as well as the rules of its operations are expected
to be made known as much as possible.
Flexibility; Qualitative methods are flexible in many ways for example with regard to the choice
of research instrument and research procedures, that is the research is not rigidly set but rather
flexible and can change during its execution. In qualitative research, the design is more likely to
include guidelines than strict rules.

Characteristics of qualitative research

The characteristics of qualitative approach to research include;
a. The research involves holistic inquiry carried out in a natural setting; This means that
the researcher is a participant who is highly involved in investigation and tries to study all
elements present in the setting in which the inquiry takes place.

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b. Humans are the primary data gathering instruments; The qualitative researcher prefers
to rely on human power of observation rather than measurement instruments like paper and
pencil tests. This is because no non-human instrument is sufficiently flexible to adapt to
the complex situation as it evolves, identifies and takes into account biases that result from
the interactions and value differences.
c. Emphasis on multiple realities; Qualitative data gathering procedures are preferred
because they are considered more emenable of the diversity of multiple realities one finds
in a complex field situation.
d. Purposive rather than random sampling; the qualitative research is more likely to uncover

the full array of “multiple realities” relevant to an inquiry when the sampling of
respondents is done purposely rather than probabilistic sampling methodology.

e. Inductive data analysis; the qualitative researcher used complex reasoning that is

multifaceted, iterative and simultaneous. The thinking process is interactive, with a cycling
back and forth from data collection and analysis to problem formulation and back.
f. Design emerges as the research progresses; the researcher has a very tentative design (or
in some cases none at all) and develops the design as the inquiry progresses. This permits
adapting the design to include variables that were not anticipated prior to the start of the
observation. The rationale for emergent design is that it is impossible for enough to be
known ahead of time to develop an adequate research design.
g. Emphasis on social progress qualitative; Studies focus upon social processes and the
meaning that participants attain to social situations. Qualitative researchers do not narrowly
pre-define their research methods before the study has begun.

Strength of qualitative research ❖ Researching

people in their natural settings ❖ Stressing
interpretation and meaning

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❖ Achieving a deeper understanding of the respondents world ❖ Harmonizing

research process by raising the role of the research ❖ Allowing higher level of
flexibility
❖ Presenting a more realistic viewing of events and the world

Weaknesses of qualitative research

➢ Problem of reliability caused by extreme subjectivity ➢ Risk of collecting meaningless
and useless information ➢ It is very time consuming.
➢ Problem of representative and generalizability of the findings
➢ Problem of subjectivity and detachment

Quantitative approach
Quantitative research refers to the type of research that is based on methodological principles of
positivism and neo-positivism and adheres to the standards of strict research design developed
before the research begins.

It involves collection of numerical data in order to explain, predict and control phenomena of
interest, data analysis being mainly statistical. It involves collecting data in order to test hypotheses
or answer questions concerning the current status of the subject of study. Quantitative research is
applied in order to describe current conditions or to investigate relationship.

Methods of data collection employed by quantitative researchers are many, diverse, simple and
straight forward. The most common ones are surveys, documentary methods, observations and
experiments.

Quantitative research warrants generalization. To achieve representativeness is one of th e aims

of quantitative research and several methods have seen devised for this purpose. Most of these

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methods deal with probability sampling as well as determining the right sample size and
composition of the sample in general.

Quantitative research attempt to control as many variables as possible; they therefore, prefer
research strategies such as random sampling, random assignment and use of standardized
instruments.

The quantitative research process involve

• Preparation
• Selection of research problem
• Data collection
• Data analysis
• Reporting
• The approach is based on vigorous and sophiscated techniques of analysis.

The approach involves the collection of numerical data in order to explain, describe, understand
and predict phenomena and interest.

Quantities researchers typically concentrate on a small number of variables in order to describe

current conditions or to investigate relationships including – and – effect relationship. This is
because they are more concerned with generalizability of their findings than the meaning of those
findings.

Quantitative researchers try to be as objective as possible that is, being value free at a more
operational level. Quantitative approaches are more focused and outcome oriented. Concepts and
theories pre-determined guide what data to be collected, impersonal reports of findings are
presented and researchers take an objective detached stand from the results.

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In quantitative research the problem statement and research questions or hypotheses are usually
directed and state a relationship or comparison.

Critique of quantitative methodology/approach

It is argued that reality cannot be defined objectively but subjectively. Objectively can only lead
to technocratic and bureaucratic dehumanization

Quantification often results into meanings that are close to the beliefs of a researcher other than
those of the respondents.
Quantitative researcher restricts experience in two ways. First, by directing research to what is
perceived by senses and second by employing only standardized used tools, based on quantifiable
data to test hypothesis.

In quantitative research methods are considered to be the most important elements of research.
They are more important than research object; research is carried out by using already established
methods.
Because quantitative research work on the principles of natural sciences (that is, objectivity
neutrality), research objects are seen as scientific objects and are treated as such. Respondents are
therefore treated as objects and as informants or producers of data. But social sciences are not
natural sciences and respondents are not objects but partners and experts whose views are being
thought.

The researcher procedure employed by the quantitative researcher pre-supposes the presence of a
research design, including hypotheses before the research begin. Consequently this design
determines what is relevant and what should be studied and what is meaningful and required even
before the stud start. This restricts the option of the research process, blocks initiative and the
motivation of the researcher and produces artificial data, which do not reflect reality.

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In a nut shell, although the quantitative approach in social research is criticized on a number of
grounds. It is important to consider the goodness because for it’s the theory is already in place and
researcher does not waste a lot of time to formulate a theory and complicate hypotheses.

The approach is very direct and clear compared to qualitative approach. Again by using quantitative
methods a researcher can carry out his / her research and finish it within a given time. However,
it is not good for a researcher to rely on only one research approach. There is need to use both the
quantitative and qualitative approach in order to enrich the research work.
Qn. What are the main differences between qualitative and quantitative approaches to
research and what are the advantages and disadvantages of these approaches?

Basic Postulates (Presumptions) of Social Research

Social research presumes the existence of the following situations.

(i) Possibility of an objective study;It is presumed that the researcher would be able to make
a neutral or unbiased study of a social problem. Although it is difficult in practice, it is not
impossible altogether to attain an impartial judgment and this requires noninterference, sincerity
and honesty.
(ii) Existence of some social norms and law;It is presumed that in society there is some kind
of natural law or norm and any social event is based on it. Thus prediction become a possibility
for, there is some definite trend of social phenomena at least.
(iii) Causal relationship;In socialresearch, a cause – effect relationship between socialb ehavior
and events is presumed to exist.
(iv) Representative sample; Social research presumes the possibility of drawing a
representative sample from the whole of the population. It also assumes that the result of the study
from the representative sample may be made applicable to the whole population.
(v) Existence of similar and ideal group; It is assumed that society consist of fairly
homogeneous groups known as ideal groups. It is assumed that, the behavior of one ideal group is

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the same as that of other groups. That is, they have similar likes and dislikes for example if
different groups of people from the same profession emigrate,the causes would be regarded as
similar for all groups.
(vi) Social events; Social events are also amenable to scientific study, for human behavior
follows some definite trend.

Qualities of a Researcher
A researcher is one who involves more and more about less and less. This shows that a good
researcher must have a specialized area of interest. It is almost impossible to delineate the actual
qualities of a good researcher. However, some broad qualities of a good researcher may be
indicated in the following general ways.

(i)Scientific Mind;A researcher must have a scientific frame of mind. He / she should not be
influenced and guided by pride and prejudice, and by superficial facts. He / she must give up
personal likes and dislikes. He / she must be bold enough to discover new things and to discard
superstitutions and taboos.

(ii) Seekerof Truth and Knowledge;Aresearcher must be a seeker after truth. Therefore h e
himself must be truthful and sincere. He must have a desire for knowledge. The lure of discovering
the unknown fact is the starting point of the research. Aresearcher has to be prepared to make any
type of sacrifice in terms of time, money and energy to find out real truth.

(iii) Alertness and Imagination; A scientific mind must always be alert to appreciate minutest
changes in situations. This habit has to be patiently cultivated and practiced. This mind must be
prepared to work under all circumstances. A researcher should be accurate in observation, quick

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in perception and must have precision of statement. His mind must be thoroughly disciplined and
must have high degree of imagination.

(iv) Quick Powerof Understanding;Aresearch worker would have the ability to grasp thin gs
quickly so that he is in a position to make the best of his research.

(v) Trained and Educated; A researcher must have intimate knowledge of his area of research.
The concepts, symbols and the implications of his project must be very clearto him. He must have
sufficient experience and training to understand, analyze and tackle the problem. A researcher
must be acquainted with the sophisticated and latest techniques of research.

(vi) Patience and Perseverance;Research is a curious mixture of success and failure. It is an

intellectual exercise requiring endurance and patience. A researcher must not feel defeated at any
stage. He requires supreme courage of conviction. It may require a year or so to complete a
research project and the researcher must not give up hope.

(vii) Objectivity; A researcher must be objective in his approach. A scientist must try to avoid

sentimental and emotionalinterpretation of his result. He must have an open mind.

He must also be very cautious in his approach.

How do we do Research
The research process consists of a number of related steps which are essentially interdependent.

The process begins with conceptualization of a problem and ends with report writing and
dissemination of findings. We shall conceptualize the process of research as composed of six major
steps as reflected by headings of subjections in this section.

Phase One
Conceptual stage;This stage involves identifying and stating the research title / problem. The
first step in identifying a research title is to pick an area of interest. This area is related to one’s
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professional interest and goals. The next step is to identify a specific problem within the
researcher’s area of interest. This problem should be important and serious in that it needs a
solution immediately. It is from the problem that a researcher formulates a research title. Examples
of research problems are workers productivity in the public sector; student’s performance at
university level; strikes in secondary schools and the like.

Characteristics of a good research problem

1. It must be directed towards a solution to a problem.
2. Covers a reasonable scope that is not too narrow and not too general.
3. It should be generating,adding or validating existing body of knowledge.
4. It must be stated clearly showing the problem area.
5. It must be researchable in terms of time, data, money, etc.

Thus when selecting a research problem put in mind the following; (a)
The time available to conduct the study.
(b) The money available /which can be raised for the study.
(c) The availability of equipment and other tools required for the study.
(d) Availability of subject or respondents for the study.

Phase Two
Proposal Stage /Design and Planning Phase;In this phase a proposal is developed and data
collection or research instruments is designed among other activities. A research proposal is a plan
for the proposed research study and is written in a future tense for example “The study will ……”
and if it is well prepared it carries up to 60% or more of the research report.

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Phase Three
Data collection or research stage; In this phase /stage the researcher collects data pertaining to
the study (that is primary and secondary data).
Primary, first – hand or field data collection is aiming at new data by contacting or observing
respondents or specimen right in the “field”. A research has at least three methods of collecting
primary data, namely, via observing relevant respondents or specimen, interviewing respondents
and using survey. In addition to primary data collection some researchers (especially qualitative
researchers for example those doing historical research) also use secondary, desk, documentary or
library data collection which takes place at desk.

Phase Four
Data processing phase/stage;In this phase the data collected are processed or prepared for
analysis. That is, the data are edited or cleared of obvious errors; they (the data) are categorized
and entered in to the computer for presenting or summarizing them.

Phase Five
Data Analysis stage/phase; In this phase the processed data are analyzed and interpreted. Data
analysis can generally be classified as qualitative and quantitative depending on the preferred
research approach.

Phase Six
Reporting and dissemination phase /stage;In this phase, the research methodology (that is how
findings were arrived at) is summarized, together with findings themselves and their implications.
(That is dispersion,conclusion and pertinent recommendations).

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Such reporting is for future use or reference by the researcher and other interested parties such as
future researchers. While the term research report is common to all research findings;they (the
findings) can take on different names such as dissertation or thesis in the case of students or
conferences and journal articles in the case of senior researchers.
Summary of Research Process

N.B: The research process is an outline and / or description of key activities or steps in research

thus the number of steps or key activities may vary depending on what one (that is writer or
teacher) consider to be pertinent steps. While in this paper we have separated conceptualization of
the problem from designing and planning phase, other writers / teachers may combine the two
and call it the proposal stage, hence having five steps in the process. At the same time data

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processing and analysis can be combined and given one name (i.e. data analysis or analytical
phase) bringing the number of stages to four.
The importance of the research process is to help us conceptualize in summary what we are
supposed to do (in logical order) during the process of conducting research; the details of which
are provided in the next chapters.

Types of research
a. Pure
b. Applied
c. Experimental
d. Non-experimental (Explanatory and Descriptive)
Pure research always aims at enriching the theory by unraveling the untold mysteries of nature.
On the other hand, applied or empirical research always aims at enriching the application of the
theory by discovering various new uses to which the findings of pure research may be put and by
showing the limitations of there findings.

Differences between pure and applied research

Pure research Applied research

• Aims to illuminate (clarify) the theory by • Aims to solve a problem by enriching the
enriching the basis of a discipline field of application of a discipline
• Studies a problem usually from the forces • Often several disciplines collaborates

of one discipline forsolving the problem

• Seeks generalizations • Often studies individual cases without the

• Works on the hypothesis that variables not objective to generalize

measured remain constant • Recognizes that variables are constantly

• Reports in technical language of changing

discipline • Reports in common language
• Tries to say why things happen • Tries to say how things can be changed

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Experimental research is when a researcher is able to manipulate the predictor variable and
subjects to identify a cause-and-effect relationship. This typically requires the research to be
conducted in a lab, with one group being placed in an experimental group, or the ones being
manipulated, while the other is placed in a placebo group, or inert condition or non-manipulated
group. Alaboratory-based experiment gives a high level of control and reliability.
Non-experimental research is the label given to a study when a researcher cannot control,
manipulate or alter the predictor variable or subjects, but instead, relies on interpretation,
observation or interactions to come to a conclusion. Typically, this means the nonexperimental
researcher must rely on correlations, surveys or case studies, and cannot demonstrate a true cause-
and-effect relationship. Non-experimental research tends to have a high level of external validity,
meaning it can be generalized to a larger population.
Experimentalresearch
Non-experimental
• Begins with hypothesis which the
• Not always essential to have a
researcherwants to test
hypothesis
• Control of extraneous (unconnected)
• The researcher exercises very little
variables is a very important phase in this controlover extraneous variables
type of research • Data generated by this type of research are
• Data generated by this research are used to not helpful in establish the cause and effect
establish cause and effect relationship
relationship between variables.
between 2 variables
• The scope of this type of research is very
• This type of research is narrow in its scope. wide
Problems Encountered By Researchers
➢ Lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research
➢ There is insufficient interaction between department
➢ Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information
➢ No code of conduct for researcher
➢ Difficulty of adequate and time by secretarial assistance ➢ Difficulty of timely
availability of published date.

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Criteria of good research

One expects research to satisfy the following criteria ✓ The purpose of the research should be
clearly defined and common concepts be used.
✓ The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement
✓ The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are
as objective as possible.
✓ The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance the analysis
used should be appropriate.
✓ Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
✓ Greater confidence in research it warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Characteristics of good research

✓ Good research is systematic - (orderly, organized and methodical)
✓ Good research is logical-(rational, reasonable and consistent) ✓ Good
research is empirical-(practical, experimental and experiential) ✓ Good
research is replicable
Reading questions
1. Briefly describe the different steps involved in a research process

2. What do you mean by research? Explain its significance in modern times.

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ChapterTwo
RESEARCHPROBLEM/TITLE/TOPIC
Introduction
In this chapter we shall examine how research problems and hence topics or titles are identified,
searched or selected and narrowed down as the first step in the research process.

Identifying/searching fora research problem

One of the most challenging task of any research project (which all students face) is the
identification of a suitable research problem and hence topic or title yet the problem is the centre
on which the whole research efforts turn. The heart of every research project is thus the problem
and the identification of a good research problem should be considered a discovery in itself. The
selection of a problem even to the experienced researchers is always a difficult step in the research
process yet problems are abundant. The issue is not really the lack of problems to be studied;
selecting the problem topic from a multitude of problems may be the problem.

A problem obtains when differences exist between observed and expected outcome. For example
difference of productivity between one employee and another under different styles of
management. This evokes an interrogation in the mind and gives one the challenge to go and search
for solution in a systematic study. In this section we argue that research problems and hence topics
or titles can arise from the following sources.

Sources of Research Problems

(a) Lecturers;As we progress with lecturers in our respective disciplines a number of unresolved

problems are identified and printed out. For example several theories can be raised, a number
of which are yet to be tested in different context through research. While there are several
major sources of problems, the most meaningful ones are generally those derived from theory.
There are for instance many educationally relevant theories such as the human capital theory
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of investment in education by Adam Smith (1776) which asserts that training of employees
is one way of investing in human capital in that later,that training will raise employee
productivity. Such a theory is asking for such research as that entitled “Training and
Productivity of Employees in KIU. In addition, class discussion, seminars and out of class
exchange of ideas with fellow students and lecturers unveil a wealth of stimulating problems
to be solved through research studies.

(b) Past experience; many research problems, and hence topics or titles result from a potential

researcher having experienced some problems in personal life or society.

(c) Mass Media; these are communication channels with large audience and / or viewership and
include newspapers, radios, televisions and internet. For example in the recent past several
newspaper articles have raised the problem of corruption in Uganda and researcher may want
to study the effect of that problem say on performance in which case a topic such as
“corruption and performance in …” will arise.
(d) Scholarly Literature; Scholarly or academic literature refers to text books, professional and
academic journal, and research reports, dissertations or thesis. Same textbooks have chapter
heading relating variables and hence suggesting academic research topics or titles. Other text
books especially research text books have suggested research topics for example pp. 446 –

448 Amin, 2005 gives 30 research topics.

(e) Consultation with instructors; Consultation with the course instructor(s) is helpful. Although
the student should not expect problems to be assigned, consultation and discussion with
facilitator(s) is desirable. For their first time beginner are not expected to present a completely

acceptable problem. Thus they can always be advised to clarify their thinking, achieve a sense

of focus and develop a manageable problem from one that may be too vague and complex.

(f) Practical issue; Every society is always faced with many burning issues which are hard to
completely explain for instance cost sharing in universities, gender and women’s status. A

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researcher can therefore decide to take one of these issues and investigate it logically with a
view of finding a solution to the problem.

Evaluating Research Problem

After a thorough search from one or more of the suggested sources, you will come up wit h at
least one problem and hence topic such as Outsourcing and Performance in KIU. Note that a
research title should have variance (that is Outsourcing and performance) and a context in which
the proposalstudy is to be done (that is KIU).
However, before such a topic is approved, several criteria have to be satisfied including asking

and positively answering questions to do with.

(i) Newness;While the verb “to research” literary means “to search again” a given research

topics ought to be adequately new so that it does not involve too much duplication. We
consider “content newness” that is in terms of variables. Contextual newness that is in
terms of area where the study is to take place; “ Temporal newness” that is in terms of
time.
(ii) Interest;if you choose a research topic that is not interesting to you, you will find it hard
to overcome / fight challenges that will come at every step in your research process. This
partly explain why as a student you are advised to search for problems and hence topics in
your area of specialization.
(iii) Significance; Any selected research topic should be significant or justifiable in that if it is
pure or basic, it has some important theory underpinning it and it will contribute to
generation of knowledge;if it is applied it should have some practice.
It intends to improve.
(iv) Feasibility;A research problem or topic should be feasible or viable in terms of skill, time

and money. If not it should be changed or discarded. For example, a research problem like
“Is life existing on planet mars? Time and the resources to finish the project are obviously
beyond the reach of most researchers.

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(v) Assurance of guidance;this answers the question: Is there a potential supervisor for you?
This partly explains why as students, we are encouraged to search for topics in our area of
specialization where we are assured of guidance or supervisors from our respective
teachers.
(vi) Facility available;in choosing a research topic or title we consider the availability of
adequate facilities such as literature and this is another reason why as student
you should search for and propose research topics in your area of specialization where you
are assured of adequate literature.

Steps in formulating research problem

According to Kothari (2000) it includes the following steps;
1. State the problem in a general way
2. Understanding the nature of the problem (origin, scope and magnitude).
3. Surveying the available literature
4. Developing the idea through discussion
5. Rephrasing the research problem into the working proposition. Narrow the problem to
specific

What information should be included in the statement of the proble

m?
✓ Aconcise description of the nature of the problem
✓ Analysis of the major factor that may influence the problem and convincing the argument
and variable knowledge is sufficient to solve it.
✓ Brief description of any solution that have been tried in past, how well they have been
worked and why further researcher is needed.
✓ Description of the type of information expected to result from the project and how that
information would be used to help to solve the problem.

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Characteristics of good research problem

• Should be researchable for instance have variable and respondents, accessible
• Should have theoreticaland practical significance
• Heavy and precise

To ensure that the problem is heavy stated be aware of the following;

• There must be a group or an individual to when the problem would be attributed
• There should be alternative courses of action to solve the problem
• Ensure that the problem is neither too vague (unclear) nor too broad in scope.
• Avoid philosophical questions
• Define all the concepts in technical terms

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ChapterThree
RESEARCHVARIABLES
Introduction
Social science research is mostly based on the study of variations, making a variable a key element

in research. Therefore with in the section of the notes, a broader definition of the term variable
will be given, the types of variables and their role in research and the level at which such variables
are measured.

Meaning of a variable
A variable can generally be defined as anything that can take on differing values (or conditions
for different individuals). It is anything that may assume different numerical or categorical values.
The value can differ at various times for the same object or person. Once you begin to look for
them, you will see variables everywhere. Examples of variables include age, sex, social economic
status, level of education, production units, management style, motivation,marital status etc.
Age of respondent may be given as 25, another 32 and another 40 or categorized as young,

middle age or old.

Sex can be categorized as male and female; SES can be categorized as low middle and high; The
level of education is categorized as no schooling, primary education, secondary education and
university; Marital status can take on values of never married, single, married, divorced, or
widowed, Family income is a variable because it can take on values from zero to billions of

shillings. A person’s attitude toward women empowerment is variable; because it can range from
highly favorable to highly unfavorable.

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Variable and attribute

Avariable differ from an attribute in that an attribute is a specific value of a variable for example

sex has two attributes that is male and female. A variable agreement has 5 attributes that is strongly
agree,agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree. There are two basic characteristics of variables
• Each variable should be exhaustive that is, it should include all possible answerable
responses. For example if the variable is religious affiliation and the only options are
Catholics, protestant, Muslim and there are others not known to the researcher it is
important to include others …. Followed by the word specify to ensure that all religions
are captured.
• The attributes of a variable should be mutually exclusive. No respondent should be able to

have two attributes simultaneous.

Types of Variables
• Dependent variable
• Independent variable
• Extraneous variable
• Moderator variable
• Categorical variable
• Numerical variable
• Continuous variable

Dependent Variable; The dependent variable also known as the criterion, outcome or effect
variable is the predicted or explained variable. It is the variable of primary interest to the
researcher. The researcher interest is to explain its variability or predict it. For example a research

may be concerned about a high dropout of the girl child in secondary schools in Uganda. Dropout
is the dependent variable that is the presumed effects which is caused by other factors. Through
the analysis of dependent variable or finding out what variable influence it, it is possible to find
solutions to the problem.

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Independent Variable;The independent variable is the predictor variable or explanatory variable.

Any variable upon which the value of another variable depend. It is the one that influences the
dependent variable and it is the presumed cause of variation in the dependent variable(s). It
explains or account for variation in the dependent variable. The independent variable may affect
the dependent variable in a positive, negative orbot h ways;for example on a positive side the

increase in teachers pay (independent variable ) might lead to institutions commitment (dependent

variable) and on the negative side fo r example banning of corporal punishments on schools have

tended to increase students indiscipline (dependent variable). On both positive and negative; the
adoption of genetically modified foods lead to high yield and less food nutrition content.

Also one, two or more independent variable(s) may lead to one dependent variable for example
students academic achievement (dependent variable) may be a result of the school environment,
home environment and students’interest, etc.

It is not always easy to determine whether a variable is independent or dependent. Two questions
help to identify the independent variable. First, does it come before other variable in time? Second,
if the variables occur at the same time, does the researcher suggest that one variable has an impact
on another variable? Independent variables affect or have an impact on other variables. When
independent variable is present, the dependent variable is also present, and with each unit of
increase in the independent variable, there is an increase or decrease in the dependent variable
also. In other words, the variance in dependent variable is accounted for by the independent
variable

In statistical analysis a variable is identified by the symbol (X) for independent variable a nd by
the symbol (Y) for the dependent variable. In the research vocabulary different labels have been
associated with the independent and dependent variables like:

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______________________________________________________________

Independent variable Dependent variable

Presumed cause presumed effect

Stimulus Response

Predicted from … Predicted to …

Antecedent Consequence

Manipulated Measured outcome

Predictor Criterion
______________________________________________________________

For example: Research studies indicate that successful new product development has an influence
on the stock market price of a company. That is, the more successful the new product turns out to
be, the higher will be the stock market price of that firm. Therefore, the success of the New
product is the independent variable, and stock market price the dependent variable. The degree
of perceived success of the new product developed will explain the variance in the stock market
price of the company. It is important to remember that there are no preordained variables waiting
to be discovered “out there” that are automatically assigned to be independent or dependent. It is
in fact the product of the researcher’s imagination demonstrated convincingly.

Moderating Variables; A moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect on the
independent variable-dependent. A moderating variable is one that has a strong contingent effect
on the independent variable-dependent variable relationship. That is, the presence of a third
variable (the moderating variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent and
the dependent variable. For example, a strong relationship has been observed between the quality
of library facilities (X) and the performance of the students (Y). Although this relationship is
supposed to be true generally, it is nevertheless contingent on the interest and inclination of the
students. It means that only those students who have the interest and inclination to use the library

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will show improved performance in their studies. In this relationship interest and inclination is
moderating variable i.e. which moderates the strength of the association between Xand Y
variables.

Extraneous Variables;This is also known as intervening variable, confound or covariate. It is a

variable(s) that compete with the independent variable in explaining the dependent variable. It is
any variable other than the treatment variable (independent) that if not controlled, can affect the
research outcome and it may be difficult to know whether the observed change in the experimental
research group are due to experimental treatment or to some extraneous variable.

INDEPENDENT DEPENDENTVARIABLE
VARIABLE

EXTRANEOUS
VARIABLE

Example A researcher may want to study how a new education program (independent variable)
may affect the students’ willingness to learn (dependent variable). Within the students there are
those with low, medium and high willingness to learn. Time may however be an extraneous factor
because willingness to learn across the three categories (high medium and low) can also vary over
time.

Continuous and Discontinuous variables; Variables have different properties and to these
properties we assign numerical values. If the values of a variable can be divided into fractions
then we call it a continuous variable. Such a variable can take infinite number of values. Income,
temperature, age, or a test score are examples of continuous variables. These variables may take
on values within a given range or, in some cases, an infinite set. Any variable that has a limited
number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions, is a discontinuous variable.
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Such a variable is also called as categorical variable orclassificatory or discrete variable. Some
variables have only two values, reflecting the presence or absence of a property: employed-
unemployed or malefemale have two values. These variables are referred to as dichotomous. There
are others that can take added categories such as the demographic variables of race, religion. All
such variables that produce data that fit into categories are said to be
discrete/categorical/classificatory,since only certain values are possible.

Relationship between categoricaland numerical variables

In most cases, the independent variable or explanatory variable is categorical and dependent
variable is numerical or continuous for example the number of crimes a person commits
(dependent variable) may depend on the person’s income level (high, medium and low). Thus
income in this case is a categorical variable while number of crimes is a numerical variable. In
other words the relationship is said to exist if the different categories of independent variable say
(low, medium and high income group) predict different values of the dependent variable, say
(number of a person commits crime).

Organismic variable
This is the pre-existing characteristics of the individual under study and is not randomly assigned
to individuals for example sex and age of an individual.

ChapterFour
INTRODUCINGRESEARCH
Introduction
Before getting to the empirical part of research, a student is expected to first develop a research
proposal or guide, a document summarizing the systematic process to be followed in the study.

Aproposal serves the following purpose/functions;

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(i) It helps the researcher or student to communicate his / her study idea to potential
supervisors, funders and consenting agencies. However you must will talk to these people,
without a written proposal they will not appreciate your study idea.
(ii) Secondly, the proposal will be your plan of action; planners summarize the purpose of
planning in a philosophical saying that “on who has no plan has planned to fail”.
(iii)Third, as you develop your proposal, you are assessing the feasibility of your study idea.

(iv) Fourth, once complete your proposal will serve as a guide, protocol or terms of reference
to be followed by you (the researcher) your supervisors and the like. The first element in a proposal
is the title reflecting the independent variable, the dependent variable and the context of the study.
Regarding the structure of a research proposal, that is the content and order, there is yet to be a

universally acceptable format. However, in this course we shall consider a research proposal as
consisting of three chapters that is Introduction, Literature Review and Methodology, plus the
accompanying data collection instrument(s).

Chapterone: Introduction
This chapter involves the following sub-section.
1.0 Introduction. This gives a brief layout of what is included in the chapter.
1.0 Background to the problem (Historical, Theoretical, Conceptual and Contextual
Perspective)
1.0 Statement of the Problem
1.0 Purpose of the Study
1.0 Objectives
1.0 Research Questions
1.0 Research Hypotheses
1.0 Scope
1.0 Significance orJustification
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1.1 Background
Abackground refers to those “things that can be seen or heard behind other things that a re closer
or louder (Cambridge International Dictionary). In research there is a particular concern, referred
to as “the problem” making you to think of a study. But behind that problem is a background to
it. Which you will be expected to give first. Abackground to a research problem has at least four
perspectives.

Historical Background/Perspective;The historical background brings to picture the area or

institution of study, the population in question and its characteristic and also trace the history of
the problem being investigated which is usually on the D.V. In addition to narrating how the
problem came about historical attempts by other researchers to deal with the same problem that is
to carry out studies with the same D.V as yours should be given showing gaps they left to justify
your study.

Theoretical Background/Perspective; In this part of the background, the researcher is expected

to theories on the assumed relationship between the I.V and D.V in the study. This can be done by
invoking a formal theory of relevance.

Conceptual Background/Perspective;In this part of the background, the researcher conce

ptualizes or defines the variables. In conceptualizing a given variable, you are expected to begin

with one or a few text book or dictionary definition and then go further to give an “operational
definition” to the variable, that is how the variable will be understood in the study. This is done
by identifying and stating basic elements or concepts that will constitute each variable.
Contextual Background/Perspective;In the contextual background, the researcher is expe cted
to usher in the situation in the area of interest, re-iterating the concern or problem with the D.V in
the context tendering empirical indicators of the existence of “the problem”.

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1.2 Problem Statement

In this section the research officially state “The problem” that exist in the field he /she want to
investigate upon stressing the urgency to study “the problem” with the view of understanding it
more and hence possibly suggest how to solve it (usually on a page or less).

Agood problem statement has the following characteristics.

• It clearly shows the researchers interest that is what he / she want to find out or solve.
• It must be specific, objective and researchable.
• Must indicate the scope (coverage)
• Must give the purpose of the study.

While there are many ways of stating “the research problem” in a given study, it may be presented
as follows. Start by stressing the importance of the D.V in the study; then lament “the problem on
the D.V in your study context giving its empirical indicators. Suggest bad consequences of “the
problem” and hence the need to solve it.

Argue that one way to solve “the problem” is to isolate its factors and point out that your study is
interested in investigating the extent to which your I.V could be one of the factors contributing to
“the problem” hence justifying your proposed study relating to I.V and D.Vin your study context.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

This is also known as the general objectives, aims or goal (or main objective) of the study. It should
state in concrete and concise terms the reasons for the study. Here the researcher officially states
the general intentions of the proposed study, which as per the study title is to co-relate the I.Vand
D.Vin the study context. If the purpose is accurately stated, the research study will be easy to
conduct, but if it is poorly stated, the research will not provide the required answers. In stating the
purpose of the study common words used are: To determine; Compare, Investigate; Differentiate;
Explore; Find out; Examine; Inquire; Predict;Describe; Control, etc. However, the following
words should be avoided:
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to show;prove;confirm;verify;check;indicate and to validate.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

This is the breakdown of the purpose aim or general objective of the study into specific a ctivities
that when executed will result into achievement of the study purpose. In doing so the researcher
with either use the “many to-one” linking strategy where the I.V is broken into many concepts but
leaving the D.V as one concept or the one-to- many linking strategy where the I.Vwill be left as
one while breaking the D.Vin many concepts (Amin 2005: 132 – 133).

The more objectives a researcherstates, the wider his / her study will be. Characteristics of

specific objectives

(a) Should be measurable

(b) Attainable
(c) Should be feasible – in terms of resources
(d) They should be specific and in simple words
(e) Help to measure the independent and dependent variable.

1.5 Research Questions

Research questions are the specific objectives turned into question form it has been argu ed by
some researchers that since research is expected to give answers to questions, then questions
should be posed because there is no way the answers should be forthcoming.

Note: The research questions should be congruent (for example in terms of number content
/variable and context) with the research questions.
The research questions guide the researcher in data collection that is the researcher collect data
that will help to answerthe research questions.

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1.6 Hypothesis
A hypothesis is defined as a presumptive statement of a proposition or a reasonable guess based
on available evidence that the researcher intends to check for example a hypothesis can be stated
as; students taught using lecture method learn significantly more than those taught by discussion
method. Hypotheses are tentative answers to a problem. They are not absolute truth and not all
researches need hypotheses for example descriptive studies (Amin 2005: 128).

Note: Like research questions, hypotheses should be congruent (for example in terms of numbers,
content and context) with the objectives.

1.7 Scope of the Study

This is also known as the de-limitation or coverage of the study. The scope specifies the
limitations boundaries or restrictions imposed on the study considering the limitations in terms of
time, cost and skill (Amin 2005). The scope help to determine the boundaries of the research by
providing answers to such questions as who, what, when, how many, etc.

A research study is expected to give at least three scopes; namely geographical scope, that is where
the study is to take place;content or theoretical scope, that is the variables the study will consider
or relate and the sample scope that is, who the respondent in the study will be.
1.8 Significance orJustification of the Study
The significance of the study states how the results of a research will influence the institution or
society in question; why the study is worth the time, efforts and expense. That way the significance
seeks authority say from government and also persuades donor agencies to support the study.
The significance section of the proposal should answer at least two questions:First how will policy
makers or practitioners (for example government and other stakeholders benefit from the study
findings?), second, how will theoreticians, academicians or researchers benefit from the study
findings.

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ChapterFIVE REVIEWINGLITERATURE
The second chapter of the Research Proposal is Literature Review. This is divided into the
following sections 2.0 Introduction
2.1 Theoretical Review
2.2 Conceptual Framework
2.3 Related Studies

Why Literature Review?

Since researchers are only contributing to an on-going debate a good proposal should include
literature review, that is through a systematic location and study or reading of document that have
information related to your research problem.

The review helps the researcherto achieve many things including;

1. To obtain detailed knowledge about the topic / problem under study.
2. Share with proposal readers what earlier researchers and / or writers found and / or said about
a given research issue.
3. To identify gaps left by earlierresearchers and / or writers for the current study to fill.
4. To see how others went about relate studies, with the aim to replicate their ideas and
methodologies in the proposalstudy.

In reviewing literature a researcher may have to review theories of relevance to the proposed study

from which he/she may derive a conceptual framework or model and then review literature related
to the respective study objectives.

2.1 Theoretical Review

The theoretical review section in this chapter of the proposal is usually an expansion of the
theoretical perspective of the background in that, any theory raised therein is expanded by giving

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in details. What theory it is, who suggested it, when it was suggested, what the theory stipulates
and how relevant it is to your study, that is, how it links the I.V and D.Vin the proposed study.

But, what is a theory? A “theory” can be regarded as a formulation regarding the cause and effect
relationship between variable (Mugerwa, 2008). According to Kerlinger (1973) a theory is a set
of interrelated constructs, definitions and propositions that presents a systematic view of
phenomena by specifying relations among variables with the purpose of explaining and predicting
the phenomenon.”

In research a theory bridges the I.V and D.Vby providing an explanation of why and how we

should expect the I.Vto explain or predict the D.V.

There are a number of theories related to our area of specialization out of which we shall use path-

goal theory of leadership as an example. This theory propounded by Robert House (1971)

stipulates that a good leader should enhance subordinates’ job performance by showing them goals
to achieve and the paths to take in order to achieve the said goals. Studies involving leadership as
one of the variables (for example leadership styles and performance of administrative staff in the
Magistrates Court in Makindye) can make use of that theory.

Researchers on motivation as one of their variables (for example Motivation and Staff
Performance in the CEM of KIU) can explore the relevance of such theories of motivation as
equity theory on motivation by J. Peason (1943) which postulates that individual employees for
example compare what they receive in terms of salary, allowances, treatment and so on, with what
other employees of the same rank, education,same work load, and soon receive and if the two are
comparable, there is equity and hence motivation to work;the opposite occur otherwise.

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2.2 Conceptual FrameworkorModel

After reviewing theory (ies) of relevance a researcher may go on to develop a conceptual

framework or model usually in form of a diagram which visualizes how the researcher views inter-
connections between variables in the proposed study, in order to achieve the study objectives.
The frame work (especially for a quantitative study) should at least show the IV and DV in the
study and how each is conceptualized or operationalized (a process that start in the conceptual
perspective of the background and continue when deriving specific objectives).

While it may not be a must in all studies in addition to the IV and D.V a conceptual model
(especially on the demand of the Supervisor) may include /reflect extraneous variables (E.V) that
is variables competing with the IV to explain the D.V. A framework may also reflect moderating
variable (for details about E.V and M.V revisit our chapter three).

As done in most studies, it is conventional for the I.V (and E.V if any) to be on the left side the

M.Vif any to be in the middle while the D.Von the right.

Relationship between concepts in the framework is represented by arrows directed from t he left
to the right sometimes via M.V.
A given conceptual framework or model should be given an identification number (for example
Fig. 2.2) and a working title. The Frame work should also be described with the description
highlighting how the I.V (E.V, M.V) and D.V are or were conceptualized or operationalized and
related.

2.3 Related Literature

After reviewing theories of relevance to the propose study and developing or adopting a

conceptual framework or model there from, a research may now return to the review of “ related
literature” that is “Literature related to the respective specific study objectives.

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Note that literature related to any objective does not have to be specific to the study context for
examples consider a title “Business behaviors and employee performance in Agro-based export
enterprises in central Uganda” while each objective may relate a behavior characteristic to
performance of employees the respective section in literature in the proposal may be silent about
agro-based enterprises and central Uganda. This implies that the review goes beyond employees
in agro-based enterprises and central Uganda.
Also note that literature related to any specific objective start with a mini “conceptual review”,
that is definition of (new) concepts in the objective; then related literature proceeds to a mini
“Theoretical review”,that is an explanation of why the concepts in an objective are expected to be
related.

Lastly literature related to any objective gives an empirical review that is past study (ies) findings
of relevance to the objective. Such a review of any past study should reveal who undertook the
study, when, where and what was studied (that is the variables related), how the study was carried
out (that is, the methodology) briefly its main findings of relevance to the objective and the gaps
the study left for the proposed study to fill.

Sources of Literature Review

Sources of literature review include documents such as periodicals, abstracts, books and other
research books. These sources are classified into two categories, namely;secondar y and primary
sources.

Secondary sources
These are publications written by an author who was not a direct observer or participant in the
event described. In Uganda history for example Buganda made an agreement with the British in
1900. According to this agreement some of the land was to be under the care of the Queen of
England. A portion of Buganda land was given to the King of Buganda and his chiefs. Different
authors on this 1900 Buganda Agreement who were not born by that time have made several
publications. So what they write is referred to as secondary sources of information (Amin, 2005).

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Primary source
This is a direct description of an occurrence by an individual who actually observed or witnessed
is occurrence. For example UPE in Uganda was introduced in 1997 from that time; many authors
have made publications to this effect. Such authors who have observed and witnessed the
beginning and progress of UPE provide a primary source of information on the subject.

Both sources are useful and very important. However, as much as possible the review of literature
should be based more on primary sources since the authors of secondary sources may slant the
intentions of primary sources to agree with their own view and leave out information that may
contradict their personal views.
Literature review helps in the various phases of the research process that is in research problem,
identification, in the theoretical perspective of a study; conceptual perspective of the study, in the
contextual perspective of a study, in the methodological view point and in discussing findings of
the study. For details visit Amin 2005 pp 140 – 150 and an indication that you have
conceptualized it will be your being able to provide answers to the following questions.

Qn. Discuss the ways by which literature review help in the various phases of the research process.

ChapterSix
PROPOSINGA METHODOLOGYFORRESEARCH

Introduction
After searching for and evaluating the research problem / topic in clear cut terms (our chapter

two) and justify a study on it (our fourth chapter) and having officially reviewed literature related
to the study (chapter five), the researcher’s intention now turns to the methodology of the proposed
study, that is the systematic process the researcher will follow in the empirical part of the study.

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Research Design
A research design is a plan for carrying out a research project. It is a structure within which the
(quantitative) research is conducted and constitutes the blue-print for the measurement of
variables, collection and analysis of data.

According to Riley (1963), research design is a set of methods a researcher has chosen from
many available methods to follow in a particular research.

The research design includes an outline of what the researcher will do from writing or formulating
the hypothesis to the final analysis of data. The research design decision tries to answer the
following questions that may be considered by the researcher.
• What is the study about?
• Where will the study be carried out?
• What type of data is required?
• What period of time willthe study include?
• What will be the sample design?
• What technique of data collection will be used?
• How will the data be analyzed?
• In what style will the report be prepared?
It is worth noting that choice of research design is contingent upon the choice of research approach
or paradigm where by the research is either qualitative or quantitative.

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Fig. 6.1: Classification of Research Design.

Fig. 6.1 shows a number of research designs under the quantitative and qualitative approaches.
However, although both approaches are welcome and also used in many academic institutions
including KIU, in this paper we shall concentrate on the commonly used designs which mainly
follow under the quantitative paradigm or approach.
According to fig. 6.1 if a research takes the quantitative approach or paradigm it may tak e either
the experimental or non-experimental design, with experimental research being one where the
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researcher manipulate variables (for example by varying the amount of control given to the
subjects); while non-experimental research is intended to simply report something that has
happened without manipulating or experimenting with variable.

Experiment
This involves the deliberate manipulation of an intervention in order to determine its effects. The
intervention might involve individual pupils, teachers, schools or some other unit. Again, if the
researcher is also a participant (eg a teacher) this could be described as ‘action research’. An
experiment may compare a number of interventions with each other, or may compare one (or
more) to a control group. If allocation to these different ‘ treatment groups’is decided at random
it may be called a true experiment;if allocation is on any other basis (eg using naturally arising
or self-selected groups) it is usually called a ‘quasi-experiment’.

Issues of generalizability (often called ‘external validity’) are usually important in an expe riment,

so the same attention must be given to sampling, response rates and instrumentation as in a survey

(see above). It is also important to establish causality (‘ internal validity’) by demonstrating the

initial equivalence of the groups (or attempting to make suitable allowances), presenting evidence
about how the different interventions were actually implemented and attempting to rule out any
other factors that might have influenced the result.

It is worth noting that quantitative social researches are usually non- experimental in which case
(Fig. 6.1) we have descriptive and exposit factor research.

Descriptive research which is common for us students is concerned with describing the
characteristics of an event, community or region providing data about the population or item being
studied. Descriptive research is classified into co-relational and survey. Corelational research is
interested in testing whether two or more variables are co-related (for example your current
research topic).

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Survey
Survey research is that involving relatively large number of respondents or informants. Where an
empirical study involves collecting information from a larger number of cases, perhaps using
questionnaires, it is usually described as a survey. Alternatively, a survey might make use of
already available data, collected for another purpose. A survey may be cross-sectional (data
collected at one time) or longitudinal (collected over a period). Because of the larger number of
cases, a survey will generally involve some quantitative analysis.

Issues of generalizability are usually important in presenting survey results, so it is vital to report
how samples were chosen, what response rates were achieved and to comment on the validity and
reliability of any instruments used.

Fig. 6.1 further suggest that survey research may either be cross-sectional or longitudinal where
the cross-sectional design involve getting responses from informants at once as opposed to
longitudinal researches which involve contacting or checking specimens repeatedly,
(Bakkabulindi, 2004).

Note that your work will be cross-sectional in order to reduce time and costs involved. For a
sample of quantitative research design, see our sample proposal section 3.1 where the writer
declares his study as taking the quantitative paradigm with a co-relative, crosssectional survey
design.

Case study
This will involve collecting empirical data, generally from only one or a small number of cases. It
usually provides rich detail about those cases, of a predominantly qualitative nature. There are a
number of different approaches to case study work (eg ethnographic, hermeneutic, ethogenic, etc)
and the principles and methods followed should be made clear.

A case study generally aims to provide insight into a particular situation and often stresses the
experiences and interpretations of those involved. It may generate new understandings,

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explanations or hypotheses. However, it does not usually claim representativeness and should be
careful not to over-generalize.

Population
A population is the entirety of the unit of analysis (for example customer, staff, specimen, etc)
about which you, the researcher will measure your variables. In the population section of your
proposal, you are expected to describe the nature of your “ target or parent population” that is your
intended respondents, informant or specimen; who or what they will be; where they will be found,
why they have been chosen for your study and how many they are;usually by categories.

Sample size
There is no fixed and inviolate rule on how large a research sample should be rather it is the
circumstances that dictate what number or fraction of the population you will study. Owolabi
(2003) observes, that, the larger the sample size you will use, the more representative your sample
will be of your target population although the more costly your study will become.

While there are several methods of determining appropriate sample size, including compl icate
ones (for example Amin, 2005:257 – 260) many social science researchers and students make
use of Kreijce and Morgan (1970)’s table of determining minimum sample size(s) from a
population of a given size (N). This table is given as appendix A. in Amin (2005). For example
according to this table size, N = 400 students, the suggested minimum sample size you should
select is 196.

Sampling Strategies
Apart from determining the sample size, sample selection should detail how the researcher intends
to select the sample ensuring representatives of the target or parent population. Amin (2005)
refers to sampling as a process of selecting elements from a population in such a way that sample
elements selected represent a population.

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Amin (2005) further observes that since a sample represents a population, most characteristics of

a population should be represented in the sample selected. Characteristics of a sample may include
gender, level of education, economic background, religious affiliation and many other dictated
upon by the nature of the study. Sampling strategies take two major forms that is, scientific,
statistical, probabilistic or random sampling and non-scientific sampling approaches.

On account of representatives,quantitative researchers use scientific sampling methods. These are

methods of selecting a sample which ensures that all elements in the population have some
probability of being selected.
Probability sampling takes at least 4 forms.

Forms of Probability Sampling

(a) Simple Random Sampling; A simple random sample is a sample obtained from the
population in such a way that samples of the same size have equal chance of being selected.
This sampling strategy involves the use of lottery method, where by a name or number is written
on a tag that identifies elements of a population to be sampled. The tags are placed in a container
and well stared. Atag is then drawn from the container and the process is repeated until the
required number of tags is obtained. (b) Stratified Sampling; This is a sampling strategy in
which subjects are arranged according to their sub groups. Then the researcher selects
participants randomly from each group for example members may be arranged according to age,
sex, income level, color, tribe, etc.
(c) Systematic Random Sampling;This is when the researcher selects a participant every after
a given interval. For this method not to be biased and to avoid sampling errors, participants
should be randomly arranged so that each category is represented. Alphabetical order may not
be good. The basic rule to determine a sampling interval is to divide the total population by the
sample size for example if your population consist of 8000 and your sample size is 400,then
divide 8000/400= 20, this means that every 20th participant is chosen untilthe sample is
obtained.
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(d) Cluster Sampling; This is where a researcher selects a particular group as case sample. It
is used when the population is very large or scattered over a large area. All members in the group
sample are used, for example if one want to study malaria patients in Uganda, he / she may use
referral hospitals as clusters.

Non-Probability Sampling
This is also referred to as biased sampling and is used when the researcher is not interested to a
good sample that can represent a population. Non-probability sampling takes the following forms.

(a) Purposive Sampling;This is where one select participants who have the required
information according to the objectives of his/her study. The participants are selected
according to the researcher’s interest in them. But the researcher must specify the

procedure of choosing the participants for example a given age range, religion sect,
education level, etc.
(b) Convenient Sampling or Accidental Sampling; This is where one selects participants
depending on how easily he / she can find them (for example in a radio program, they ask
a few listeners who can call in). The method involves use of volunteers or the existing
group. The researcher may for example, position him / herself at a particular spot such as
entrance to a super market, a street point at any given time. Subjects are chosen until a
desired sample is obtained. Result of such sampling technique should be generalized to the
target population with caution.

Data collection/Research Methods

While there are two general approaches to data collection namely primary and secondary,
quantitative researchers usually use the former; further while there are at least three “methods” of
collecting primary data, namely observation, interview and survey, most researchers especially
quantitative researchers usually rely on the survey method of primary data collection.

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Data collection instrument

Having declared the choice of data collection method, the researcher must specify the instrument
he/she will use to collect data from participants. It can be self administered questionnaire,
interview guide or observation checklist among others. Research instrument(s) are constructed
following a framework. They should be very simple and clear for example in a questionnaire. For

each objective;one designs questions that can help him / her to get data on it. If the questionnaire
is correct, so will be the data collected and meaningful results will be got. But if the research
instrument is wrongly designed or set, the whole research becomes useless. Therefore,as research
student you must be very careful in setting the objectives and questionnaires because they
determine the meaningfulness of your research.

Data Quality Control

Data quality refers to the quality of your data collection or research instrument. Thus in this section
of the proposal you deal with how the validity and reliability of your proposed instrument will be
ensured. Details of the same are to come in the next topic.

Data analysis
This section of the proposal outline how the data collected will be processed and analyzed. Method
of data analysis depends on the type of data one has and the types of variables. Many researchers
use mathematical or statistical methods to organize and present data for example data can be
presented using frequencies, tables and percentages. Computer packages such as excel, SPSS and
stata can aid in data analysis.
N.B: Beginning researchers should not be disturbed with scientific data, analysis; there are
specialized statistians who can do this work. So if you reach this section, consult your statistician
in the research department of your school / faculty.

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Procedure
In this section, you should narrate how your respondents or informants will be contacted for
example, whose permission will you seek? What assistants will you use in contacting
respondents, say in distributing and following up SAQs?

Chapterseven
DESIGNINGAN INSTRUMENTFORA
RESEARCH
Introduction
A research is incomplete unless it is accompanied by at least one data collection or research
instrument. In this section we shall argue that a research instrument result from repeated

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conceptualization or operationalization of the variables in the study, a process that is facilitated

by constructing the conceptual framework or model.

Conceptual Framework ormodel

One designing a data collection instrument should base on the particular study’s conceptual
framework which is usually a diagram that visualizes how a given researcher views inter-
connection between variables in the proposed study in order to achieve the study’s objectives. For
a sample (or conceptual model) re-visit our sample proposal.

Identification of variables (orconcepts orconstructs in the study)

A conceptual framework should help a research instrument designer to identify the variables (at
least independent variables and dependent variables) in the study.

Conceptualization (oroperationalization of the variables)

A conceptual framework or model should help a data collection research instrument designer at a
glance to see how each variable has been conceptualized or operationalized.

Hence the instrument

From the repeated conceptualization or operationalization the pertinent data collection or research
instrument will emerge; with sections of the instrument reflecting the variables (independent
variables and dependent variables) and how they have been subdivided or conceptualized. Under
the subsection are the respective questions or items. However, as our sample proposal suggest an
instrument should, like any other academic document start with a;

Main title
As the sample suggests, this title should reflect the type of the instrument (in which case, SAQ),
the unit of analysis (ortarget respondent) the context and variables in the study.

In addition the instrument should have an:

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1. Introductory orcoverletter
This letter should among other things, identify the address of the researcher; the purpose
of the study, why and how the respondents have been chosen. It should request for the
respondents cooperation while assuring the respondent of anonymity or confidentiality of
responses. The letter should also specify the time frame within which the instrument should
be filled or administered and whom to return it, ending with thanks and the identity of the
researcher then the sections

A– Dependent variables
B – Independent variables I
C – Independent variable II
D – Independent variable III
E – Background variable

Note that, the number of sections for the independent variable(s) depends on number of
variables (independent variable) in the study or on how they are conceptualized and
operationalized. We note further that most questions in the instrument are asked in an
opinion or attitudinal format, and even calls for opinion or attitude scaling using Likert’s
scale (Amin 2005).

The section of the background classification or stratification variables contains items for
classification of respondents into different backgrounds. We shall observe that background
questions or items are usually factual (and not opinion questions) soliciting facts and hence
have yes (correct) or no (wrong) answers.

Note that contrary to expectations, the background questions may not be put at the start
(see our sample proposal) but the end of the SAQ. This is in agreement with Oppenheim
(1992) who advices that “personal data questions should … come near the end of the
questionnaire …..” (p. 109).

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In designing the instrument (SAQ) questions or items relating variables should be avoided;

then co-relation will be done by the researcher in the analysis phase of the study.

Questions or items in the instrument should be self-rating, that is prompting a respondent

to talk about self and not about others. All items should also prompt a respondent to talk
about how things are; and not how things should be. Thus theoretical questions or items
should be avoided. Redundant questions or items (for example repetition) should also be
avoided.

Validity of the instrument

Before a data collection or research instrument is declared fit for use, it usually has to jump at least
two other hurdles; validity and reliability test which are dealt with in this and the next sections
respectively. According to Kakinda – Mbaaga (2000:132),“Validity” of an instrument is the
degree to which it measures what is intended to measure and does so correctly, giving an example
that if length is measured with a foot ruler, that is valid measurement, while measuring length with
a thermometer is invalid measurement!!

In the social science, if an instrument is constructed to measure say “job satisfaction” then the
designer ought to ensure that it is measuring that, and not something else say “Motivation”.

Amin (2005: 286 – 293) discusses several ways of validating an instrument such as “ Face or
content validity (validation)” and “concurrent validity” read about them.

Reliability of the instrument

Reliability of an instrument is its degree of consistence. A “reliable” instrument will give the same
score even when used many/several times to measure the same variable, provided the variable has
not changed for a given entity. Kakinda – Mbaaga (2000) illustrates, “reliability” of an
instrument using the case of wood ruler which will give same length of an object irrespective of
the number of times the measurement is repeated. He argues however that if the ruler expands

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when it is hot and contracts when cold, then the length got will depend on the weather and hence
the plastic ruler will not be reliable or consistent!!

Amin (2005) gives several methods of testing reliability of an instrument such as test – retest and

parallel form methods;

Parallel form methods involves producing parallel versions of an instrument (that is, asking the
same questions but using different wording and or order) and then administering the parallel
instruments almost simultaneously (in parallel).

Test re-test method implies giving or piloting an instrument on a group, and then giving it to the
same group later, may be a week and comparing the scores. If the scores are highly correlated,
then the instrument is declared reliable or consistent.
REFERENCES
Here all the cited books, articles, journals, magazines, newspapers and internet websites are
recorded in an orderly and acceptable manner following the APAstyle in the case of KIU.

APPENDICES
Other important things but which are not part of the research findings are not put inside the
proposal, they are put at the end as appendices. Common appendices are introductory letter,
research instrument,budget and time frame.

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Chapterseven
DATAANALYSIS
Introduction
Data obtained from the field in row form is difficult to interpret. Such data must be cleaned, coded,
key-punched into a computer and analyzed. This topic (chapter) is devoted to the process of data
editing, data categorizing, data entry and data presentation.

Data editing
During the process of data collection the respondent or interviewer can make errors. Data editing
or cleaning is the process by which errors in complete data collection instruments are detected and
eliminated. Adata editor or cleaner should check for such errors as;

(i) Incompleteness or omissions or non – response; A data editor should check whether
there is a response to every question or item. Thus the editor should check whether an
unanswered question is just not applicable (for example, a respondent may be asked to
state whether he / she has a PDG, the awarding institution and year of award. For not
application the response would respond with N/Aor NIL) ora refusal that is “non
response”.
The editor can even try to deduce answers to answered questions from answers to
related questions. Usually if an instrument is not 75% answered it should be eliminated
from analysis: (Sekaran, 2003).
(ii) Inconsistencies; The editor should check whether answers to reflected questions or
items are in agreement. For example is the respondent who has reported not to be
studying giving current course of study?
(iii) Non-uniformity in recording answers; Here the editor is interested in finding out
whether all answers to a given question were recorded as instructed.
(iv) Eligibilities; This is concerned with whether all answers particularly those pertaining
to “open ended questions” are legible or readable. This may involve contacting friends

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(for example fellow students) to help you understand poor handwriting or in some cases

(for example in the case where respondents reveal names) re-contacting them for

clarification.

Data categorizing
Data categorizing and / or coding is a process by which answers to each question in the completed
data collection instrument are categorized and each category given an identification code (for
convenience of the computer where it is to be used for analysis). For example a question about the
rank for university staff can be categorized and / or coded as ‘1’for lecturer, ‘2’for assistant /
junior lecturer; ‘3’for senior administrator and ‘4’for assistant administrator.

These numerical codes are particularly useful if the data or responses are to be entered into
computer for further processing and / or analysis. This is because they are easier to enter as
opposed to words and take less storage in the computer.

Data entry
If a computer is to be used in coming up with summary frequency tables and subsequent data

analysis, then the responses have to be transcribed from each coded data collection instrument into
computer.

Use of a computer for data processing and / or analysis is recommended particularly if complex
or multiple analyses are to be performed, or if a large number of respondents are involved.
However, Gay and Aurasia (2003),advices beginning researchers not to use the computer to
perform analysis that they have never done manually, because they will fail to appreciate computer
output

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Data presentation
After data or responses have been “entered” into computer they have to be presented so t hat

they can be analyzed. Statistics as a tool for research offers a data presentation at le ast two tools
for data presentation namely frequency tables and graphics.

1. Graphics
Agraphic or a figure or a chart is any illustration than a table, thus a graphic may be a
graph, a photo, drawing and so on. Such graphics have advantages such as attraction of
readers;they have visual appeal that breaks monotony, ability to give an overall pattern of
result at a glance among others. However graphics suffer disadvantages such as difficulty
of drawing (although computers have eased this). Another disadvantage is that a graphic
requires readers to estimate value as opposed to say a table which gives exact value.

As to when to use a particular graphic (for example pie graph, bar graph, etc) one should
consider advantages of that graphic over others in the circumstances. For example a pie or

circular graph is used for comparing sizes of components of a numerical variable for
example expenditure sub divided by sub categorical variable for example sectors,
e.g.Kagezi LC I (2002) used a pie to show expenditure to the different ministries of its
cabined as shown in figure.

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Second, a bar graph is used to compare value of a numerical variable such as expenditure
for example NCHE (2006) used the bar graph to Fig. 7.2 to show university expenditure
in Uganda.

Figure 7.2:Bargraph showing university expenditure in Uganda 2003

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As to the content of any graphic, we should recall that a good graphic

supplements rather than duplicate text, thus using a graphic should convey only essential

facts, omitting visual distracting details.

Further a good graphic should have the main title, axis of title, unit of measurement, scale

used; if not to scale, this should be mentioned using such phrases (in the title) as

“sketch…..”,spruce(s) of data and so on.

2. Frequency table
These are special type of table for data presentation interested in how frequently different
events occurred. They are perhaps the most popular tool(s) for research data presentation
because of their ability to summarize. For example one can use frequency tables to
summarize (illustrate) the distribution of respondents say by attitude (that is poor orgood)
towards a given subject like mathematics.

Table 7.1: Distribution of respondents by attitude towards mathematics

Attitude Frequency

Poor 140
Good 60
Total 200
Such a frequency table is referred to as a one way or simple frequency table because it

pertains to one variable (in this case attitude ….). Another one way or simple frequency
table can be used to illustrate the distribution of the same respondents by gender.

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Table 7.2: Distribution of the said respondent by gender

Gender Frequency

Male 112
Female 88
Total 200
Analyses of data in one way or simple frequency tables are common for presenting data on
categorical variables. When two one way or simple frequency tables are cross tabulated, we get a

two-way orcomplex frequency table or cross tabulation or x-tab such asin table 7.3 may be
constructed manually, but better still, to avoid the tedious work involved, is better generated
using a computer program (for example SPSS). Across tab is useful when studying co-relation

between two categorical variables (for example table

7.3) between attitude towards math and gender.

Table 7.3: Illustration of a cross tab

Attitude Gender Total

Male Female

Poor 34 31 65
Good 78 57 135
Total 112 88 200
a) Relative and Cumulative frequencies
Using frequency tables the research may be interested in computing “relative” frequencies
and “cumulative frequencies”.

Example
Consider the “absolute frequencies” pertaining to the distribution of teaching staff in
KIUby rank.

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Table 7.4: Illustration of computation of “relative frequencies”

Rank Absolute frequency Relative frequency (%)
Ass. Lecturer 52 (52/145) x100 = 35.9
Lecturer 54 (54/145) x100 = 37.2
Sir Lecturer 24 (24/145) x100 = 16.6
Ass. Prof 6 = 4.1
Prof 9 = 6.2
Total 145 100.0
In that case, we may wish to compare the absolute frequencies, in which case we may
express the absolute frequency of each category relative to the total number of respondents,
thus getting the “relative frequency” of each category (as in the 3rd column of table 7.4).

In interpreting the computed “relative frequency” (or percentage) we see that the lecturer
category contributes the highest percentage (over 37%) followed by assistant lecturer
(almost 36%) suggesting that, the respondents in the teaching category in KIUwere
dominated by lower ranking staff.

b) Cumulative frequencies
If the categories in the frequency table are not only normal but also ranked, then in addition
to “relative frequency” we can also use “cumulative frequencies” as tools of analysis.
Example
Reconsider the absolute and relative frequencies pertaining to the distribution of teaching
staff in IUU by rank as already given in table 7.4 but here below reproduced in the second
and fourth column of table 7.5;

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Table 7.5: Illustration of computation of cumulative frequencies

Rank Absolute Cumulative Relative Cumulative
frequency absolute frequency frequency (%) relative
frequency

Ass. Lecturer 52 52 35.9 35.9

Lecturer 54 106 37.2 73.9
Sir lecturer 24 130 16.2 89.7
Ass. Professor 6 136 4.1 93.8
Prof. 9 145 6.2 100.0
145 100.0
When interpreting the computed “cumulative frequencies” we see that 52 (almost 36%)
were in the lowest teaching category (assistant lecturer). Cumulatively 106 (over 78%)
were in the second category (lecturer) and less, suggesting respondents was dominated by
lower cadre.

Conclusion
This course has given the steps followed in writing a research. After defining concepts and giving
the purpose of research,the course dealt with, searching for research problem, types of variables
and their role in research; introducing a research; reviewing literature pertaining to a research;

proposing a methodology for a research; designing a research instrument, data analysis and ended
with academic writing. Research is wide and cannot be conceptualized at once. Thus constantly
refer to the content of this course as you are writing research proposals and other academic
documents where necessary.

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ELEMENTS OF ARESEARCHPROPOSAL

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ChapterEight:
ETHICALISSUES IN RESEARCH
Introduction
Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationships with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or suffers
adverse consequences from research activities. This objective is usually achieved. However,
unethical activities are pervasive and include violating nondisclosure agreements, breaking
respondent confidentiality, misrepresenting results, deceiving people, invoicing
irregularities,avoiding legal liability, and more.

General ethical principles applied to research with human

subjects.
• Autonomy refers to the right of an individual to determine what activities they will or will
not participate in. Implicitly, full autonomy requires that an individual be able to
understand what they are being asked to do, make a reasoned judgment about the effect
participation will have on them, and make a choice to participate free from coercive
influence. The cornerstone of protecting autonomy is the informed consent process,
whereby an investigator provides a potential research participant with full disclosure about
the nature of the study, the risks, benefits and alternatives, and an extended opportunity to
ask questions before deciding whether or not to participate. Populations presumed to have
diminished autonomy, by virtue of impaired cognition (for example, children,
cognitivelyimpaired elderly, or mentally ill subjects) or of circumstance (for example
prisoners or seriously ill people) are considered to be vulnerable populations. In some of
these cases (children and prisoners) special safeguards to protect their autonomy are
required by regulation.

• Beneficence refers to the obligation on the part of the investigator to maximize benefits
for the individual participant and/or society, while minimizing risk of harm to the
individual. Maximizing potential benefits is predicated on sound experimental design, thus
research proposals must undergo rigorous scientific review before proceeding to the IRB

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for ethical review. An honest enumeration of reasonably anticipated risks must be followed
by a thorough risk/benefit calculation.

• Justice demands equitable selection of participants, i.e., avoiding participant populations

that may be unfairly coerced into participating, such as prisoners and institutionalized
children. The principle of justice requires that those who undertake the burdens of research
must be likely to benefit from the research, and is a principle often violated by the export
of clinical trials to underdeveloped countries.

Designing ethical research studies.

• The primary concern of the investigator should be the safety of the research participant.
Protecting subject safety requires the investigator to use all available information to
identify potential risks to the subject, to establish means of minimizing those risks, and to
continually monitor the ongoing research for adverse events experienced by subjects. The
investigator must be prepared to stop the study if serious unanticipated risks are manifest.

• The scientific investigator must obtain informed consent from each research participant.
This should be obtained in writing (although oral consents are sometimes acceptable) after
the participant has had the opportunity to carefully consider the risks and benefits and to
ask any pertinent questions. Informed consent should be seen as an ongoing process, not a
single event or a mere formality. There are regulations and guidance documents that
govern exceptions to the requirement to obtain informed consent, for example in cases of
emergency or if the subject is unconscious and thereby unable to give consent.

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