Chapter 1.

4
Properties of Generic Coating Types
Richard W. Drisko and James F. Jenkins

Introduction The chief disadvantage of the above lacquers

This chapter describes the general properties is their high VOC content, which may completely
of various generic coating types. It focuses on the eliminate them from industrial and architectural use.
properties of protective films and how they contribute
to the formation of a total protective system. It also Advantages
gives examples of generic coating types that form • Rapid drying and recoating
protective films by each of these mechanisms. More • Good general chemical resistance
detailed information of this type is available in Refer- • Good in water immersion
ences 1, 2, and 3. • Good gloss retention possible
Special attention is given to the ease of • Good durability
formulating different generic types with low VOC • Ease of topcoat and repair
(organic solvent) content. Low VOC formulations such
as high solids coatings and water-borne coatings are Limitations
becoming increasingly important because of the need • High VOC contents
to satisfy VOC restrictions that are enacted to improve • Poor solvent and heat resistance
air quality. • Low film build
• Blasted surface necessary for coating
Non-Convertible Coatings • Occasional poor adhesion
Non-convertible coatings are not changed
chemically during film formation. Their binders are Bituminous Coatings
merely deposited from solution or dispersion during Bituminous (asphalt and coal tar) coatings are
the evaporation of organic solvent and/or water. also thermoplastic, non-convertible coatings. Asphalt is
petroleum-based, and coal tar is distilled from coal
Lacquers during the manufacture of coke. Each of these coat-
Lacquers are solutions of natural or synthetic ings is available in three different forms: enamels,
resins (e.g., vinyls, chlorinated rubbers, and acrylics) emulsions, and cutbacks.
in organic solvents. Upon coating application and
solvent evaporation, the resins are deposited on the Bituminous Enamels. Asphalt and coal tar enamels are
surface and are unchanged chemically during the solid products that must be melted by heating (e.g.,
formation of protective films. These durable films have asphalt, to 450–500oF [232–260oC]) before they are
good water and general chemical resistance (espe- applied. Both may contain fillers to add reinforcement.
cially to acids and alkalis), but, being thermoplastic,
poor solvent and heat resistance. Lacquers usually Bituminous Emulsions. Bituminous emulsions consist
have a low film build but dry so rapidly that they can be of fine particles dispersed in water. These may have a
quickly topcoated to build up the film thickness. They little better resistance to exterior weathering than the
require an abrasive blasted surface, and, in a few other two bituminous forms.
cases, pretreatment wash priming for good adhesion.
Applied in multiple coats and easy to topcoat and Bituminous Cutbacks. Bituminous cutbacks are
repair, they can also be formulated for good gloss solutions of the materials in organic solvent, permitting
retention. The good weathering of acrylic lacquers is application by conventional means. Thus, they are
duplicated in acrylic water-emulsion coatings. actually lacquers. Figure 1 shows an example of a
coal tar cutback in use on a galvanized steel pipeline. tible to blistering. Binder materials must be specially
selected for latex coatings to be used on steel.
Water-emulsion coatings have excellent
flexibility, relatively low cost, and ease of topcoating
and repair. Limitations include poor solvent and heat
resistance (as with all thermoplastics), poor perfor-
mance in immersion and other severe environments,
and difficulties in bonding to smooth surfaces. Poor
bonding to existing coatings is related to their limited
content of organic solvents, and thus limited ability to
soften a smooth coating to promote adhesion. Be-
cause of this limited adhesion, it is necessary to sand
enamels and/or use a surface conditioner or other
drying oil product before topcoating with a latex
coating. Also, latex coatings do not cure well at
Figure 1. Bituminous coating in use on an underground
temperatures below 50o F (10oC), as the dispersed
pipe.
particles do not coalesce to form a durable film.
Several types of water-borne emulsions (e.g.,
Bituminous coatings have found much use in
acrylics, polystyrene, butadiene-modified acrylics, etc.)
the past because they are inexpensive and easy to
are also available for use on atmospheric steel sur-
use. They also have good water resistance and can be
faces. These products retain the advantages of
applied as thick films. However, they weather poorly
previously described emulsion coatings, while
(become brittle and lose adhesion) in sunlight. They
providing protection to steel structures.
are used less now overall because of toxicity con-
cerns, particularly for coal tar coatings, and their
Advantages
limited durability. Bituminous coatings are still used
• Environmentally acceptable
extensively, however, to protect buried steel structures,
• Ease of application, topcoating, and repair
such as pipelines.
• Fast drying for recoating
• Reduced solvent odor
Advantages
• Excellent flexibility
• Low cost
• Low cost
• Ease of application, topcoating, and repair
• Safer (reduced flammability/solvent exposure)
• Good water resistance
• Good film build
Limitations
• Low level of surface preparation required
• Limited durability in severe service
• Poor chemical and solvent resistance
Limitations
• Poor wetting of surfaces
• Cutbacks may be high in VOCs
• Poor immersion service
• Poor solvent and heat resistance
• Best cured above 50oF (10oC)
• Poor weathering
• Poor heat resistance
• Available only in black
• Toxic; need personal protective equipment during
Convertible Coatings
application
Convertible coatings are changed by chemical
reaction during curing to a higher molecular weight,
Water Emulsion (Latex) Coatings
solid film. The reactions may be between separately
Latex coatings have been and continue to be
packaged coating components or between the coating
used successfully to coat wood and masonry struc-
and oxygen, water, or carbon dioxide from the atmo-
tures. The relatively porous nature of their films allows
sphere. The higher performance convertible coatings
water vapor to pass through them, i.e., they are
(e.g., epoxy, polyurethane, zinc-rich) usually require a
“breathing” coatings. This makes them less suscep-

30
higher level of cleanliness and greater application Oleoresinous Coatings. Oleoresinous (unmodified
skills. drying oil) coatings as initially developed were very
easily applied, didn’t require a high level of surface
Oil-Base Coatings preparation, and had good flexibility, so that they could
Coatings based on drying oils (e.g., linseed, readily expand and contract with the substrate. They
tung, soya, or fish oils) cure by reaction (cross-linking) did, however, have several drawbacks. They were
with oxygen from the atmosphere. Although these films slow to dry, had residual tack, and provided a limited
may be completely dry in less than a day, curing slowly degree of protection. They could not be used in sea
continues throughout the life of the coating. Because water immersion service or on alkaline substrates
the oxygen can enter the film only at its surface, the (e.g., concrete), because they are easily saponified
film thickness must be no more than that recom- (hydrolyzed) by alkalinity. Drying was accelerated by
mended by the supplier. If applied more thickly, the film incorporation of metal driers, but chemical modifica-
may preferentially at the surface leaving the underlying tions were required to significantly improve film
coating soft and uncured and the surface wrinkled properties.
(Figure 2).
Alkyd Coatings. Oil-modified alkyd coatings (simply
called “alkyd” coatings in this book) use resins formed
by the reaction of polyhydric alcohols (e.g., glycerin)
and polybasic acids (e.g., phthalic acid) followed by
modification with drying oils. They cure much faster
than unmodified drying oil formulations to form a
harder film and improved resistance properties. They
retain the good application properties of the unmodi-
fied coatings but with some loss in flexibility.

Silicone Alkyd Coatings. Silicone alkyd coatings were

developed by modifying oil-modified alkyd resins with
silicone (typically 30% of total resin) to provide greater
gloss retention and weather and heat resistance. They
are frequently used as finishes for alkyd systems to
increase gloss retention and general performance.

Epoxy Ester Coatings. Epoxy ester coatings are a

modification of drying oils with epoxy resin to improve
Figure 2. Wrinkling. performance, particularly chemical resistance. How-
ever, the expense of this improvement was a loss
Air-oxidizing coatings have limited solvent of gloss retention in exterior (ultraviolet) exposure.
resistance. However, as they continue to oxidize and These products should not be confused with the two-
cross-link, they become harder, more brittle, and less component epoxies that normally provide a higher
soluble in solvent, i.e., they attain more thermosetting level of performance.
properties.
Unmodified drying oil coatings can be formu- Uralkyd Coatings. Uralkyd (oil-modified polyurethane)
lated to have a low VOC content by using low viscosity coatings have properties similar to those of alkyds, but
oils. However, as the oil content is reduced by chemi- form a harder film, so that they can be used on wood
cal modification, formulation of low VOC coatings with floors or furniture. They usually also have decreased
a low viscosity becomes much more difficult. Thus, the drying time and enhanced resistance to chemicals,
current wide use of alkyd and other modified drying oil moisture, and weathering.
products may be curtailed by future VOC limitations.
Oleoresinous Phenolic Coatings. Oleoresinous

31
phenolic (oil-modified phenolic) coatings are made by and more resilient and flexible than those of amine-
cooking phenolic resins with drying oils. They have cured epoxies but having less chemical, particularly
good water resistance and can be used in water acid, resistance. They are used mostly extensively on
immersion. However, they tend to discolor with age ship hulls, water and fuel tank interiors, and marine
and become hard and brittle. steel pilings (Figure 3).

Advantages
• Ease of application, topcoating, and repair
• Good flexibility possible
• Good surface wetting and adhesion
• Good gloss retention possible
• Relatively inexpensive
• From renewable source

Limitations
• Anticipated lower VOC limits
• Poor chemical and solvent resistance
• Poor water immersion resistance
• Poor alkali resistance
• Long time for complete curing Figure 3. Applying an epoxy-polyamide coating to sheet
piling in a cofferdam.
Epoxy Coatings
Epoxy coatings are the most commonly used
Amine-Cured Epoxies. Amine-cure epoxy coatings are
two-component convertible coatings today. One
hard, tightly-bonded, chemically resistant products that
component is commonly called the base and the other,
are used extensively to line chemical storage tanks
the curing agent, although they are both best de-
and in other severe environments. An oily, amber film
scribed as co-reactants. By modifying the epoxy
of amine may rise to the surface of the coating,
component and/or the co-reactant, a variety of prod-
especially when applied in cold, damp weather. It then
ucts with differing properties can be obtained.
reacts with carbon dioxide and water in the air to form
Epoxy coatings bond well to abrasive blasted
a glossy product. This “amine blush” must be removed
steel and clean concrete and are very durable in most
before topcoating to permit good topcoat adhesion.
environments. Their films are hard and relatively
Amine curing agents are usually toxic and may cause
inflexible. Thus, they cannot expand or contract much
skin irritation. Thus, special safety precautions must be
without cracking. They chalk freely in sunlight, some
taken during their use.
losing over a mil of thickness a year. An aliphatic
Cycloaliphatic amine-cured epoxy coatings are
polyurethane finish coat is frequently applied over an
very high-solids products with a high film build, short
epoxy coating to impart resistance to the sun’s ultra-
pot life, and rapid curing. It has good low-temperature
violet light .
application and curing properties.
New high-solids epoxy products are available that
are wedge retentive. Their coating thicknesses at
Amine Adduct Epoxies. Amine adduct epoxy coatings
edges is at least 70% of that on adjacent flat surfaces.
are products in which the amine curing agent has been
partially reacted with a relatively low molecular weight
Epoxy-Polyamide Coatings. Epoxy-polyamide coatings epoxy resin. This reduces the health hazards, lessens
are probably the most widely used epoxy because of
the tendency to blush, and makes mixing ratios less
their good water and corrosion resistance and their
critical, since a greater volume of curing agent is used.
relative tolerance to moisture and incompletely
Cured products have properties similar to those of
cleaned surfaces. The polyamide curing agents are
amine-cured epoxies.
actually resinous products with attached amino
groups. This makes the cured films somewhat softer
Ketimine Epoxies. Ketimine epoxy coatings utilize a

32
“blocked” ketimine curing agent formed chemically by Limitations
reaction between a primary amine and a ketone. After • Limited pot life
mixing of components and application, moisture from • Poor resistance to ultraviolet light
the atmosphere reacts with the ketimine to regenerate • Limited flexibility
the amine and the ketone. The ketone is merely lost by • Cure best above 50oF (10oC)
evaporation, but the amine reacts with the epoxy • Recoat window limit
component as normally occurs with amine-curing • Amine curing agents toxic
epoxies. The low viscosity of the amine curing agent • Amine-cured coatings subject to amine blush
permits formulation of high-solids products. Ketimine
epoxies also have long storage lives, pot lives, and Coal-Tar Epoxy Coatings
curing times. Coal-tar epoxy coatings are basically combi-
nations of epoxies and coal tar that take advantage of
Phenolic Epoxy Coatings. Phenolic epoxy coatings the good properties of both. The coal tar reduces cost,
are specially formulated to produce hard, dense, improves water resistance, and provides for greater
chemically resistant films. Indeed, they have the best film build. However, because of the coal tar, these
combination of chemical, solvent, and heat-resistance products tend to become brittle in sunlight, causing
of all epoxies. It should be noted that “phenolic loss of adhesion. There is also concern about toxic
epoxies” comprise a whole family of hybrid coatings effects of certain constituents in the coal tar. They are
made by reacting phenolic resins with epoxy resins. used today mostly on steel piling, tank linings, and
Depending on the relative proportions of the two resins buried piping.
and consequently their method of curing, these may
be called “phenolic epoxies” or “epoxy phenolics.” Advantages
• Low VOC formulations possible
Novolac Epoxy Coatings. Novolac epoxy coatings • Good water resistance
have the best combination of chemical, solvent, and • Good film build
heat resistance of all the epoxies. These high molecu- • Good abrasion resistance
lar weight, highly cross-linked products, however, are • Relatively low cost
hard, dense, and brittle.
Limitations
Epoxy Mastic Coatings. Epoxy mastic coatings are • Toxic; need personal protective equipment during
high-solids, high-build epoxy coatings, usually at least application
5 mils (125 micrometers) dry film thickness, and often • Limited pot life
aluminum filled. Since they have good wetting proper- • Poor resistance to ultraviolet light
ties, they are “surface tolerant” and can often be • Limited recoat window
applied successfully over incompletely cleaned steel. • Toxicity of coal tar
Because of their relatively weak solvents, they are • Available only in black or dark red
compatible with most other coatings. They may be
formulated for use with various amine-based curing Polyurethane Coatings
agents. Polyurethane (sometimes simply called
“urethane”) coatings are usually two-package systems,
Advantages one an isocyanate component and the other a polyol
• Low VOC formulations possible component. These coatings are available in a variety
• Good solvent and water resistance of formulations, giving rise to a variety of properties,
• Generally good chemical resistance (e.g., they may be hard/brittle or elastomeric). Low-
• Tough, durable, slick film formed temperature curing is achievable for polyurethane
• Good adhesion coatings, and they perform well in most environments.
• Good abrasion resistance possible The toxicity of the isocyanate component is, however,
• Wide range of properties available of great concern, and personal protective equipment,
including respirators, must be used when applying

33
polyurethane coatings. cally to polyurethanes. They are produced by the
Two basic chemical types of polyurethanes reaction of an isocyanate with an amine-terminated co-
are aliphatic and aromatic. Aliphatic polyurethanes reactant rather than a polyol, as with polyurethanes.
have excellent weathering in sunlight. Aromatic Polyureas can be used by themselves or as a hybrid
polyurethanes chalk and discolor in sunlight, but they with polyurethanes. They cure very rapidly to form soft
have better chemical resistance in immersion. Both to hard elastomers for use on concrete floors and
types can readily be formulated to be low in VOCs. containments and have the advantages of other 100%
Because the isocyanate component may react with solids coatings.
water, polyurethanes are moisture sensitive during
storage and application. Also, the gloss of polyure- Polyester and Vinyl Ester Coatings
thane coatings may drop when the wet film is exposed Polyester and vinyl ester films are formed by
to high humidity. reactions of multiple components. In both cases,
unsaturated thermosetting resins (as pre-polymers)
Advantages dissolved in an unsaturated polymer (usually styrene),
• Low VOC formulations available upon the addition of a peroxide catalyst, undergo an
• Good water resistance addition reaction to form a solid film.3 These films can
• Good hardness or flexibility possible have relatively high thicknesses (up to 80 mils; 2 mm).
• Aliphatics have good gloss and color retention They frequently are reinforced with fiberglass or glass
• Aromatics have good chemical resistance flakes (Figure 4). They have excellent chemical
• Good durability resistance, especially acid resistance, and good
• Good abrasion resistance solvent and water resistance.
• Low-temperature curing achievable Polyester and vinyl ester films are frequently
used as special linings such as on tank bottoms.
Limitations Because it only takes a small amount of the peroxide
• Toxic; need personal protective equipment during catalyst to greatly accelerate curing, the proportioning
application specified by the manufacturer must be carefully
• Skilled applicator needed followed.
• Limited pot life
• Blasted surface required when used as primer
• More expensive than epoxies

Another type, moisture-curing polyurethanes,

is available as a one-component product that cures by
a series of reactions, initiated by the reaction of water
with a portion of the isocyanate to produce an amine
and carbon dioxide. The amine then react with other
isocyanate groups to form a urea.3 The relative
humidity must be within a certain range for them to
cure properly. A minimum relative humidity of 30 to
50% is normally required for complete curing. For Figure 4. Diagram of a fabric-reinforced troweled lining.
some products, the maximum relative humidity is 75%, These linings combine chemical resistance and physical
while others can be used in up to 99% relative humid- durability. The reinforced cloth is rolled into the fresh
ity. As with oil-modified polyurethanes, moisture-curing basecoat and saturated with catalyzed resin.
polyurethanes are frequently used as clear or pig-
mented coatings for wood floors. Advantages
• Low VOC formulations available
Polyurea Coatings • High film build
The relatively new polyurea two-component • Good abrasion resistance
thermosetting coatings are somewhat similar chemi- • Good water resistance

34
• Good solvent and chemical resistance and dry fast (in less than a half hour) to provide good
• Temperature resistant formulations available temporary protection from corrosion. Pretreatment
wash primers are very high in VOCs, but they usually
Limitations have a temporary exemption from VOC regulations.
• Limited pot life
• Skilled operator needed Advantages
• Blasted surface required • Promote adhesion of primers
• Hazardous peroxide component • Provide temporary corrosion protection
• Special application equipment required • Fast Drying

Siloxanes Limitations
Siloxanes, sometimes called siloxiranes, are • When applied too thickly, film may fail cohesively
relatively new two-component thermosetting coatings. • High in VOCs
They have a silicone-oxygen backbone that can be • Contains toxic chromate pigment
modified by combining with organic binders, notably • Uses are limited
epoxies. Coatings with epoxy silane binders have
good chemical, weather, and heat resistance. They Phenolic and Epoxy Phenolic Coatings
usually have 80–85% solids and are applied at 4–4 Phenolic resins are generally based on the
mils (75–100 µm). reaction of a phenol with formaldehyde. Phenolic
Siloxanes have a relatively short pot life (e.g., coatings are usually heat-cured in multiple thin coats
4 hours at 80oF [27oC]) but may take several days to to provide products with good adhesion and resistance
fully cure unless heated. They are relatively expensive, to water, chemicals, and heat. They discolor during the
but this may be offset by a fewer number of coats for heat-curing and have poor resistance to exterior
protection or longer service life. They have been used weathering because of the aromatic group in the
successfully on bridges, anchor chains, stacks, and phenol molecule. Baked phenolic coatings are used to
chemical process equipment. line cans, drums, piping, and tanks.
Epoxy phenolics are epoxy modifications of
Advantages phenolic coatings. They are hard but flexible and
• Low VOC formulations available resistant to abrasion, water, solvents, chemicals, and
• Good chemical/weather/heat resistance heat. Like phenolics, they also discolor during heat-
• Good general Industrial use curing and have poor resistance to exterior weather-
ing. They are available as air-dry or heat cured-
Limitations formulations. The uses of epoxy phenolic coatings are
• High level of surface preparation required similar to those of phenolic coatings.
• Relatively Relatively short pot life
• Relatively slow final cure Advantages
• Relatively high cost per coat • Hard coatings
• Good chemical resistance
Pretreatment Wash Primers • Good heat resistance
Pretreatment wash primers for steel and • Good solvent resistance
aluminum (e.g., DOD-P-15328 and SSPC Paint 27)
are used to promote adhesion or provide temporary Limitations
corrosion protection before applying a full coat of • Require heat to cure
primer. They are two-component products: polyvinyl • Discolor during heat curing
butyral in alcohol solution with a corrosion inhibitor • Poor exterior weathering
(basic zinc chromate) and a solution of phosphoric • Low film build
acid. Upon mixing, the components react with each
other and with the metal to form a tightly adhering film. Zinc-Rich Coatings
They are applied at 0.3 to 0.5 mils (7.5 to 12.5 µm) In zinc-rich coatings, the zinc loading must be

35
high enough that the zinc particles are in electrical
contact with each other and with the steel surface. A
combination of zinc particles of different sizes provides
a greater, more uniform loading; however, there are
differences of opinion as to how much zinc loading is
required for satisfactory performance. Thus, in docu-
ments such as SSPC Paint 20 and 29, the zinc content
requirements are different. Indeed, some of the zinc
may be replaced with other conductive pigments (e.g.,
di-iron phosphide) to provide the necessary electrical
continuity. The zinc in both inorganic and organic zinc-
rich coatings is attacked by acid or alkali.

Inorganic Zinc-Rich Coatings. Inorganic zinc-rich Figure 5. Mudcracking.

coatings are tough, abrasion-resistant silicates con-
taining very high loadings of zinc dust. They usually allowing it to dry, before applying a full topcoat.
cure by reaction with moisture or carbon dioxide in the However, inorganic zinc-rich coatings perform well
atmosphere. Most types of inorganic zinc-rich coat- without a topcoat in a variety of services. Thus, in a
ings, particularly the water-borne products, can be marine environment and elsewhere where color and
formulated to be acceptably low in VOCs. gloss are not important, it is often best not to topcoat
Inorganic zinc-rich coatings form relatively porous films them. Inorganic zinc-rich silicate coatings frequently do
that initially protect steel by galvanic protection. As the not bond well to each other, and it is safest to repair
zinc is sacrificed (reacts with the atmosphere), its them using organic zinc-rich coatings.
corrosion products fill these “pores” or voids to form a
barrier coating. If this barrier is broken by impact, Advantages
galvanic protection will again take over until the break • Low VOC formulations available
(up to 0.125 inch; 3.18 mm wide) is healed by filling • Excellent abrasion resistance
with zinc corrosion products. Their alkalinity of inor- • Excellent heat resistance
ganic zinc-rich coatings also improves the resistance • Good good atmospheric durability
of steel to corrosion. • Useful as shop primer
Inorganic zinc-rich coatings require greater • Fast dry
steel surface cleanliness than do most other generic • Can be used untopcoated
coating types. Water-borne inorganic zinc-rich coat- • Provides galvanic in addition to barrier protection
ings are the most sensitive of the inorganic zinc-rich
coatings to surface contaminants, particularly oil or Limitations
grease. • Very clean, blasted surface required
Inorganic zinc-rich coatings must be applied • Skilled applicator, agitated coating required
by a skilled applicator using a constantly agitated • Difficult to topcoat
container to keep the heavy zinc particles suspended. • Attacked by acid and alkali
Films of inorganic zinc-rich coatings are brittle and • High initial cost
may crack when applied too thickly (Figure 5). Thus, • Limited color selection
they are generally applied at less than 5 mils (125 µm)
dry film thickness, although some products can Organic Zinc-Rich Coatings. Organic zinc-rich coatings
successfully be applied at greater thicknesses. utilize an organic resin rather than an inorganic silicate
When topcoating inorganic zinc-rich films, binder for film formation. They protect steel galvani-
small bubbles may form in the wet topcoat from cally (to a lesser level than inorganic zinc-rich
escape of air or solvent vapors entrapped in the coatings), as well as by barrier protection. Organic
porous binder. Many painters attempt to minimize this zinc-rich coating films may form by simple solvent
problem by applying a mist coat (thin, quick coat) and evaporation (e.g., those that utilize phenoxy, vinyl or

36
chlorinated rubber resins) or by chemical reaction of minimal if the area of any defects or damage is small
components (e.g., those that utilize epoxy or polyure- relative to the overall surface area, i.e., if the anode/
thane resins). Epoxies are the most commonly used cathode area ratio is favorable. Zinc and aluminum
binders. coatings on steel are examples of metallic coatings
Organic zinc-rich coatings require an alkali- that are anodic to the steel and provide effective
resistant binder because of the alkalinity produced in protection even when damaged.
the cathodic reaction (in this case, on the surface of The effectiveness of anodic metallic coatings
the protected steel). Organic zinc-rich coatings are depends on their thickness and their ability to provide
usually topcoated to extend their service lives. a barrier. In general, hot dip coatings are thicker, and
Film properties of organic zinc-rich coatings thus are more effective barriers than electroplated
are similar in most respects to those of zinc-free coatings. Thermal spray coatings are less effective
organic coatings using the same resin. Organic zinc- barriers as they are more porous. The barrier proper-
rich coatings do not require as high a level of cleanli- ties of anodic metallic coatings can sometimes be
ness of blasted steel surface as do zinc-rich inorganic improved by topcoating. For example, electroplated
coatings, and they are easier to topcoat. They can be anodic coatings are frequently topcoated with a paint
used to repair damaged galvanizing or inorganic zinc and thermal spray coatings are commonly sealed with
coatings on steel. paint. These combinations of an anodic metallic
coating with paint can provide control of corrosion for
Advantages long periods and can be much more effective than
• Good atmospheric durability either the metallic coating or the paint when used
• Relatively easily topcoated alone. The use of the metallic coatings without topcoat
• Moderate surface preparation required is also limited by the resistance of the zinc or alumi-
• Can be used to repair galvanizing or inorganic zinc num to the exposure environment.
coatings on steel

Limitations
• Requires constant agitation during application
• Attacked by acid and alkali
• High initial cost
• Normally requires topcoat
• Lower abrasion and temperature resistance than
inorganic zinc-rich products

Metallic Coatings
There are two generic types of metallic
coatings, those that are anodic to the underlying metal
(called here “anodic metallic coatings”) and those that Figure 6. Galvanized guardrail.
are cathodic to the underlying metal (called here
“cathodic metallic coatings”). Both of these generic In galvanizing, the zinc layer provides barrier
types provide barrier protection, but they differ in their protection to the steel (Figure 6). However, if the
ability to provide corrosion protection when they are barrier is compromised (i.e., if a discontinuity forms in
damaged or contain localized defects. the barrier), galvanic (cathodic) protection will protect
the steel from corrosion. The amount of protection
Anodic Metallic Coatings. When an anodic metallic provided by the layer of zinc is directly proportional to
coating (i.e., one high in the galvanic series) is dam- its thickness.
aged or defective and the underlying metal is exposed, In thermal spray metallizing, a thin, relatively
the underlying metal will act as a cathode and have a porous coating of metal, most commonly zinc, alumi-
reduced rate of corrosion. The coating itself will have num, or zinc-aluminum alloy wire is melted in a hot
an accelerated rate of corrosion, but this effect will be flame or electric arc and sprayed onto clean steel

37
(Figure 7). When metallized structures are to be in Pretreatment wash primers, used to promote
severe service such as immersion, additional corro- adhesion or provide temporary corrosion protection,
sion protection is almost always obtained by sealing are also convertible coatings.
the metallizing with a low-viscosity coating. This fills There are many factors that contribute to the
the pores to provide barrier protection. satisfactory performance of a protective coating.
These include surface preparation or application
characteristics, resistance to exposure conditions,
esthetic considerations, safety and environmental
considerations, cost, and maintainability. While some
generic coating types are clearly best for certain
uses, each coating type has its advantages and
disadvantages.

References
1. Hare, Clive L. Protective Coatings. In Fundamentals
of Chemistry and Composition; Technology Publishing
Figure 7. Thermal spray metallizing in the field. Company: Pittsburgh, 1994.
2. Munger, Charles G. Corrosion Prevention by
Cathodic Metallic Coatings. When a cathodic metallic Protective Coatings; NACE: Houston, 1986.
coating is damaged or defective and the underlying 3. Generic Coating Types; Lloyd M.Smith, ed., Tech-
metal is exposed, the underlying metal will act as an nology Publishing Company: Pittsburgh, 1996.
anode and have an accelerated rate of corrosion. In 4. Journal of Protective Coatings and Linings Tips: Tip
this case, the anode/cathode area ratio is unfavor- 10 Waterborne Coatings; Tip 11 Generic Coating
able and the acceleration of the rate of attack of the Systems and Their Uses; Tip 28 Zinc-Rich Coatings;
underlying metal can be very high. Tip 45 Polyurethane Coatings; Tip 47 Epoxy and Coal
Nickel and chromium coatings on steel are Tar Epoxy Coatings; Technology Publishing Company:
examples of metallic coatings that are cathodic with Pittsburgh.
respect to the steel. Where defects occur or where
such coatings are damaged, rapid corrosion of the
underlying metal can occur. The effectiveness of
cathodic metallic coatings depends on the complete-
ness and durability of the barrier that they provide.
Cathodic metallic coatings are often selected
because of their resistance to highly corrosive
environments.

Summary
There are many different generic coating
types, which vary widely in their physical and chemi-
cal properties. Non-convertible coatings (those that
are not changed chemically during film formation)
include: lacquers, bituminous coatings, and water
emulsion (latex) coatings.
Convertible coatings (those that are changed
chemically during film formation) include: oil based
coatings, epoxies, coal-tar epoxies, polyurethanes,
polyureas, siloxanes, polyester and vinyl ester
coatings, phenolics and epoxy phenolics, inorganic
zinc-rich coatings, and organic zinc-rich coatings.

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About the Authors

Richard W. Drisko
Dr. Richard W. Drisko has been the senior technical
advisor to SSPC: The Society for Protective Coatings
since January 1995. Prior to this, he was employed for
over 40 years at the Naval Civil Engineering Labora-
tory, Port Hueneme, California, where he conducted
research, evaluation, and testing, and served as the
Navy’s center of expertise on coatings for shore
structures. He is a professional corrosion engineer in
the state of California, an SSPC certified protective
coating specialist (PCS), and a NACE International
certificated corrosion specialist. Dr. Drisko received his
BS, MS, and PhD dgrees from Stanford.

James F. Jenkins
James F. Jenkins retired in 1995 after 30 years of
service to the U.S. Navy in corrosion control for shore
and ocean-based facilities. Now a consultant, he is a
registered corrosion engineer in the state of California.
Mr. Jenkins received his BS degree in metallurgical
engineering from the University of Arizona.

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