Bachelor of Science

(B.Sc. CBZ)

Plant Ecology and Taxonomy

(DBSZCO202T24)

Self-Learning Material
( SEM II )

Jaipur National University

Centre for Distance and Online Education
_________________________________________
Established by Government of Rajasthan
Approved by UGC under Sec 2(f) of UGC ACT 1956
&
NAAC A+ Accredited
 PREFACE

Welcome to the fascinating world of angiosperms, the flowering plants that dominate the
landscape around us. This book is designed to provide a comprehensive understanding of
various aspects of angiosperms, ranging from their introduction and historical background to
their classification, tools and techniques for specimen collection, botanical gardens, and
herbaria.
This book delves into the Introduction, historical background, and evolution of angiosperms,
tracing their journey from ancient times to their current diverse forms and distributions.
Understanding this evolutionary history is crucial for appreciating the remarkable diversity
and adaptability of angiosperms. we explore the Classification of angiosperms, examining the
various systems and approaches used by botanists to organize these plants based on their
morphological, anatomical, and molecular characteristics. This classification serves as a
foundation for further studies in plant taxonomy and systematics.

This book discusses the Basic principles of plant nomenclature and the International Code of
Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), providing guidelines for the proper naming and
classification of plant species. A clear understanding of these principles is essential for
effective communication among botanists and conservationists worldwide. This book focuses
on the Tools and techniques employed in the collection and preservation of plant specimens,
essential for building herbarium collections and conducting taxonomic studies. Proper
collection and preservation methods ensure the integrity and longevity of botanical specimens
for future research. This book delve into various aspects of plant biology and ecology, ranging
from the study of plant families such as Ranunculaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Poaceae, and
Liliaceae to modern trends in taxonomy and ecological concepts such as organism and
population dynamics, ecosystem functioning, succession, adaptation, ecological factors, plant
communities, and phytogeography. This book aims to provide a comprehensive overview of
angiosperms and their ecological significance, serving as a valuable resource for students,
researchers, and anyone interested in the fascinating world of flowering plants and their
interactions with the environment.
We hope that this book will inspire readers to appreciate the beauty and complexity of
angiosperms and foster a deeper understanding of the natural world around us.
 Table of Contant

Unit Topic Page No.

Introduction, historical background & evolution of

1. 1-13
angiosperms

2. Classification of angiosperms 14-22

3. Basic principles, plant nomenclature & ICBN 23-41

Tools and techniques in collection & preservation of

4. 42-54
specimens

5. Botanical gardens and herbaria 55-73

Families: Ranunculaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Poaceae

6. 74-92
& Liliaceae

7. Modern trends of taxonomy 93-104

8. Introduction to Ecology 105-113

9. Organism and Population 114-128

10. Ecosystem 129-150

11. Succession and Adaption 151-174

12. Ecological Factors 175-196

13. Plant Communities and Ecotone 197-208

14. Phytogeography 209-226

 UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION, HISTORICAL BACKGROUND & EVOLUTION
OF ANGIOSPERMS

1.1 OBJECTIVES
The main goal of this chapter is to broaden your understanding about the following
issues:-
 Introdution of Systematics
 History of Systematics
 Objectives of Taxonomy

1.2 INTRODUCTION
Plant taxonomy is one of the earliest branches of Botany. It was began as ―Folk
Taxonomy‖ in early 15th century but it has expanded and gone very long way in the
previous 500 years. The breadth and idea of taxonomy have evolved significantly. Even
though the earth's flora was created during the previous three centuries, contemporary
taxonomists nevertheless face difficulties. Threats exist to the richly flora tropical
nations. There are now 4,000,000 plant species known, of which 2,866,000 are
angiosperms. About 70% of the plants that have been discovered are from tropical
climates.

Currently, most individuals are interested in applied sciences like cytology, genetics,
ecology, molecular biology, and experimental biology; however, very few are
considering the more fundamental or basic areas of botany like taxonomy and
morphology. It's now considered outdated. Without correctly identifying the plant
material they are dealing with, no applied branch can be tackled, which is why
taxonomists are crucial.
According to Simpson (1961), systematics is the scientific study of the many forms and
diversity of organisms as well as any and all relationships among them. It encompasses
identification, taxonomy, categorization, and nomenclature. It was de Candolle who first
used the word taxonomy in 1813.

1
Classification is the process of placing a single plant or a collection of plants into a
certain category according to a predetermined plan and a system of nomenclature.
Species, which are classified into genus and then suborders of families, orders,
subclasses, classes, and divisions, are the fundamental units of categorization.

The classification of organisms started in the distant past by primitive humans who used
it for their own purposes and language. As language developed, the differences between
predators and herbivores, as well as between deadly and edible plants, became evident.
They perceive the need for various flora and fauna to serve them. For their festivities,
they chose particular flora and fauna. In this sense, the categorization in its most basic
form entered society.
Among pre-civilized men, folk systematics is becoming more and more common. They
used gross morphology to identify groupings of plants. This marks the start of the
artificial categorization scheme. Their classification schemes are based on pragmatic
reasons. Classification's history dates back to the oldest Indian civilizations.
Philosophers such as Sushruta, Charak, and the early Greeks Aristotle, Plato, and Pliny,
among others, attempted to categorize plants based on their own perspectives, which
were inevitably more philosophical than scientific.

1.3 HISTORY OF PLANT TAXONOMY

Folk taxonomy's classification of valuable plants marks the beginning of taxonomy
history. They distinguished as economic plants by people. The path for herbal
taxonomy was thus paved. The following stages of the history can be studied:

I. The First Phase –

 Theophrastus, a Greek naturalist who is regarded as the Father of
Botany, wrote "Enquiry into Plants" between 370 and 285 BC. In his
writings, he suggested Crataegus, Daucus (daukan), Asparagus
(aspargos), and Narcissus, among other plants. He categorized plants
as herbs, undershrubs, shrubs, and trees based on their habits. In
HistoriaPlantarum, the oldest known botanical book, he provides the
names and descriptions of five hundred plants. He highlighted the
distinctions between monocots and dicots

2
 Pliny (c. 23–29 AD) produced a lengthy Natural History; there are
currently 37 volumes available.
 PedanionDioscorides, an Asian physician who lived from 62 to 128
AD, wrote around 600 therapeutic plants. The Greek title of his work
was MateriaMedica.
The Italian physician Andrea Caesalpino (1519–1603 AD) identified
1500 woody and herbaceous species in his work De Plantis (1583).
 Plants from Italy, France, and Switzerland were collected by Gaspard
Bauhin (1560-1624 AD). His books, ProdromusTheatiBotanici
(1620) and PenaxTheatiBotanici (1623), detail his collection. He
tried using the binomial method of naming for the first time.
 John Ray (1628 – 1705 AD). Three volumes of HistoriaPlantarum
were produced by British botanists (1686 - 1704). He was the first to
separate the plants and trees into dicotyledous and monocotyledous
groups based on the presence or absence of one or two cotyledons.
 J. P. de Tournefort (1656–1708) examined corolla and identified
plants and trees.
 In Padua, Italy, the first herbarium was founded in 1553.
During the mid-17th century, herbaria were founded in many regions
across the globe.
 The Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778) is regarded as
the founder of modern botany and taxonomy. His works include
Species Plantarum (1753), PhilosophiaBotanica (1751), Classes
Plantarum (1738), and Genera Plantarum (1737). A sexual system
was used to describe and order 7300 species. It was a made-up
system with a limited character set. He introduced binomial systems,
such as the arboreum rhododendron. (1) Monandria (one stamen), (2)
Diandria (two stamen), and (24) Cryptogamia (no blossom) are the
24 classifications of Linnaeus.
 Initially, taxonomy was only used for species name and exploration.

3
II. Natural System phase-
 In his 1758 publication Genera Plantarum, Antoine L. de Jussieu
categorized plants into fifteen groups.
 A French botanist named AugustinPyrame de Candolle (1778–1841)
created the morphological technique to categorization and published
Theorieelementaire de la botanique in 1813. Vasculares and
Cellulares, Monumental works -
ProdromusSystematisNaturalisRegniVegetabilis, were the
classifications he gave to plants. Alphonse de Candolle, A. P. de
Candolle's son, eventually finished the task that his father was unable
to finish.
 In Origin of Species, published in 1859, Charles Darwin proposed
the theory of natural selection and the evolution of species.
 Genera Plantarum (1862–1883), written by Bentham and Hooker
(1800–1884), provided a practical application of categorization and
has served as an inspiration to subsequent generations of Kew
Botanists.

III. Phylogenetic Stage –

 Evolutionary concepts served as the foundation for phylogenetic
categorization. With Endlichler (1804–1849) and Eichler (1837–
1887), it all began.
 Segle and Prantl (1887–1915) proposed a semi-phylogenetic
categorization scheme.
 Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien (1964) and Die
NatiirlichenPflanzenfamilien (1887–1899). He ranked monocots
ahead of dicots and thought orchids to be more advanced than
grasses.
 Class 1: Eleven orders of monocotyledons
 Class 2: Phytoplankton
 Subclass 1: Archichlamydeae, which include 29 orders.
 Subclass 2. Nine orders of Metachlamydeae (Sympetalae)

4
  Classification of flowering plants by A. B. Rendle (1865–1938). He
considered amentiferae and apetalous to be primitive dicots, and
monocots as primitive to dicots.
 Charles Edwin Bessey (1845–1915) presented the first completely
phylogenetic approach based on Dictas of Phylogeny, which
HansHallier (1868–1938) modified.
 In Families of Flowering Plants (1959), British scientist John
Hutchinson (1884–1972) proposed a phylogenetic classification of
value based on his 24 principles of phylogeny. He was categorized
using the same criteria as Bentham, Hooker, and Bessey. The first
book, released in 1928, covers dicots; the second, with monocots;
and the third, British Flowering Plants (1940)

IV. Current Phase-

 Modern botanists such as Takhtajan (1969), Cronquist (1981),
Stebbins (1974), Robert Thorne (1976), and others improved the
system.
 The classifications based on factors such as distribution, ecology,
anatomy, paleontology, cytology, and biochemistry in addition to
morphology.
 Methods for preparing and presenting herbarium specimens were
created and refined.

V. Biosystematic Phase
 The development of biosystematics over the past fifty years has led
to a qualitative improvement in the field of taxonomic idea and
application.
 The objective of ‎holotaxonomy‖ is the purpose of ‶new systematics‖.
 In 1940, Huxley coined the phrase "New systematics."
 The name "Biosystematics" was introduced to new systematics by
Camp and Gilly (1943).
 Cytotaxonomists regarded the quantity, dimensions, and
configuration of chromosomes as highly dependable factors for
5
 cytotaxonomic categorization. Chemotaxonomy was developed as a
result of the advancement of methods such as two-dimensional paper
chromatography and the discovery of chemicals in plants as
secondary metabolites.
 The novel methods, such as amino acid sequencing and nucleotide
sequence identification in DNA and RNA, can provide specifics.
 Cytotaxonomists regarded the quantity, dimensions, and
configuration of chromosomes as highly dependable factors
forcytotaxonomic categorization.
 Chemotaxonomy emerged as a result of the development of methods
such as two-dimensional paper chromatography and the discovery of
chemicals in plants as secondary metabolites.
 The novel methods, such as amino acid sequencing and nucleotide
sequence identification in DNA and RNA, can provide specifics.

VI. Phase of Holotaxonomic-

To comprehend phylogeny, data is obtained, examined, and a significant
conclusion is reached-
 Data collection, analysis, and synthesis are within the purview of
Numerical Taxonomy, a separate taxonomy discipline.
 The foundation of numerical taxonomy, also known as quantitative
taxonomy, is the numerical assessment of the similarity between
groups of organisms and the subsequent classification of these groups
into higher ranked taxa.
 The Alpha Taxonomy comprises the Exploration and Consolidation
phases, whereas the Omega Taxonomy comprises the Biosystematic
and Encyclopaedic phases.

1.4 BASIC COMPONENTS OF TAXONOMY

Taxonomy is a fundamental science with the increase in knowledge of various
components developed.
i. Alpha Taxonomy (Descriptive Taxonomy): This branch of taxonomy deals
with species designation and description. It evolved in the 19th century,
6
 usually on the basis of physical characteristics. The work of Tournefort, de
Jussieu, and Linnaeus served as its foundation.
ii. Beta Taxonomy (Macrotaxonomy)- The classification of species according
to a hierarchical structure of higher taxa. It evolved throughout the twentieth
century.
iii. Gamma Taxonomy: This taxonomy includes aspects related to evolutionary
patterns and intraspecific populations. An effort is made to explain the
emergence and evolution of species. A taxonomist must rely on paleobotany,
which covers all taxa of extinct plant groupings, to ascertain the origin of a
species.
iv. Omega taxonomy: Based on all characters that are accessible, it is the most
ideal system.
The Alpha-Omega Taxonomy idea is the best. While alphataxonomy serves
as a basis for biology, omega taxonomy is eventually formed by a collection
of all available fact

1.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TAXONOMY

Plant Taxonomy' operations constitute the basis for all other biological disciplines,
which in turn depend on them for any more data that might be helpful in creating a
classification. The following objectives are the focus of these activities:
1. To provide people an easy way to identify and communicate. Detailed and diagnostic
descriptions, together with a functional taxonomy with the taxa grouped in a hierarchy,
are needed for identification. Polyclaves, dichotomous keys, computer-aided
identification, and correctly labeled and placed herbarium specimens are crucial
identification aids. By working with the International Association of Plant Taxonomy
(IAPT), the Code (ICBN) was created and recorded to assist in determining the one
accurate name that is recognized by the whole botanical community.
2. To provide an inventory of the world‘s flora. Floristic records of continents
(Continental Floras; see also Flora Europaea by Tutin et al.), regions or countries
(Regional Floras; see also Flora of British India by J. D. Hooker), and even states or
counties (Local Floras; see also Flora of Delhi by J. K. Maheshwari) are well
documented, despite the difficulty of establishing a single world Flora. Furthermore,

7
there are World Monographs available for a few families (such as Das pflanzenreich ed.
by A. Engler) and few genera (such as the genus Crepis by Babcock).
3. To identify evolution in action; to piece together the history of evolution within the
kingdom of plants, ascertaining the order in which changes in evolution have occurred
and how characters have changed.
4. To provide a system of classification which depicts the evolution within the group. A
phylogram is sometimes used to illustrate the evolutionary connection between the
groups; the longer branches indicate more evolved groupings, while the shorter, closer
to the base, reflect more primitive ones. Furthermore, balloons of varying sizes that
correspond to the number of species within each group are used to symbolize the
groupings. A bubble diagram is the common term for this type of phylogram.
5. To provide an integration of all available information. To collect data from every area
of study, analyze it using computer-assisted statistical techniques, provide a summary of
the data, and create a categorization system based on general resemblance. But as
science will never stop, fresh data will keep coming in and creating new problems for
taxonomists, this synthesis will never finish..
6. To provide the process for storing, retrieving, exchanging, and using information in
order to serve as a reference. To supply extremely useful information on genetic and
ecological variety, unique elements, and endangered species.
7. To provide fresh ideas, reframe the classics, and create new methods for accurately
determining taxonomic affinities using phenetics and phylogeny.
8. To provide comprehensive databases encompassing every plant species (and maybe
every life) on the planet. Together, a number of sizable organizations have created
searchable online databases containing molecular data, synonyms, pictures,
descriptions, and taxon names.

There are three main objectives of taxonomy:

1. IDENTIFICATION
2. CLASSIFICATION
3. NOMENCLATURE

8
 1. IDENTIFICATION- The process of identifying or determining a specimen's
identity involves matching it to an existing taxon and allocating the appropriate
rank and location within the existing classification. In real life, it means giving a
name to a specimen that is unknown. One way to accomplish this is to visit a
herbarium and compare specimens that are unknown with well recognized
specimens that are kept there. An identification specialist in the field may also
get the specimen as an alternative.
Identification can also be accomplished by consulting a variety of literary
sources, including manuals, monographs, and floras, and employing the
identification keys these sources of information give. Once the unidentified
specimen has been tentatively recognized using a key, the identification may be
verified by cross-referencing it with the comprehensive taxonomic description
found in the relevant literature source.

2. CLASSIFICATION- Organisms are classified when they are arranged into

groups according to common characteristics. Until every organism is gathered
into a single, most inclusive group, the groupings are subsequently put together
into more inclusive groups. The groupings are placed into a predefined hierarchy
of categories, such as species, genus, family, order, class, and division, in
increasing order of inclusivity. This final arrangement creates a categorization
system.
A new taxon (a taxonomic group given to any rank; pl. taxa) can be classified by
assigning its proper location and rank. It can also be classified by splitting a
taxon into smaller units, combining two or more taxa into one, shifting its rank,
and shifting its position within a group. Once created, a categorization offers a
crucial method for storing, retrieving, and using information. The Linnaean
system is the common name for this ordered categorization scheme. Different
approaches are used to classify taxonomic entities:
1. Artificial classification, based on arbitrary, readily visible traits like habit, color,
quantity, form, or similar features, is utilitarian in nature. The number of stamens was
used by Linnaeus, whose sexual system falls under this category, to classify blooming
plants in the first place.

9
2. Natural classification, first proposed by M. Adanson and culminating in the widely
used classification of Bentham and Hooker, groups taxa based on their general
resemblance. Morphology was adopted by natural systems in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries to restrict their general resemblance. The notion of general
similarity has experienced significant enhancements in the past several years. Rather of
relying just on morphological characteristics to determine similarities between natural
systems, traits taken from all relevant taxonomic domains are now used to assess overall
similarity (phenetic connection).
3. Phenetic Classification, All available data from morphology, anatomy, embryology,
phytochemistry, ultrastructure, and really all other disciplines of research are used to
determine overall similarity in terms of a phenetic connection. Sneath and Sokal (1973)
vigorously defended phenetic classifications, although the major higher plant
categorization systems did not share their views. However, in contemporary
phylogenetic systems, phenotypic relationship has been heavily utilized to determine
realignments within the categorization scheme.
4. Phylogenetic classification phylogram, phylogenetic tree, or cladogram is used to
illustrate the evolutionary connection between a set of species, which forms the basis of
phylogenetic categorization. The idea behind classification is that all offspring of a
shared ancestor belong to the same group (i.e., the group should be monophyletic). In
order to make a group monophyletic, those descendants that have been excluded and
become paraphyletic are reintroduced (as in the case of the merging of Brassicaceae and
Capparaceae in recent classifications, and the union of Asclepiadaceae with
Apocynaceae). The group is divided into monophyletic taxa if it is polyphyletic,
meaning that its individuals come from many phyletic lines. For example, the genus
Arenaria separated into Arenaria and Minuartia.

3. NOMENCLATURE- Nomenclature deals with the determination of a correct

name for a taxon. For many categories of living things, there exist distinct sets
of regulations. The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN)
regulates the nomenclature of plants, including fungus, through its guidelines
and recommendations. The Botanical Code, which is updated approximately
every six years, assists in selecting the appropriate scientific name for a taxon
based on its specific characteristics, including location, rank, and

10
 circumscription, among many others. The Code includes a list of preserved
names to prevent awkward name changes for certain taxa. The International
Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP), which is mostly based on
the Botanical Code with minor modifications, governs plants that are grown
under cultivation.
The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) governs animal
names, whereas the International Code for the Nomenclature of Bacteria
(ICNB), presently known as the Bacteriological Code (BC), governs names of
bacteria. The International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature
(ICVCN) is a distinct code that is specifically designed for viruses.

SUMMARY
 Plant taxonomy aids in the preparation of a far from comprehensive inventory of
the world's flora, particularly that of the tropics.
 To create a logical and comprehensive system of plant classification, one must
have a thorough understanding of and familiarity with plant taxonomy.
 An essential tool for researching the evolutionary effects of plant variety is
plant taxonomy.
 Every plant species, whether extinct or currently living, has a single "Latin"
scientific name according to the concepts and regulations of plant taxonomy.
 One can categorize the study of plant taxonomy into pre- and post-evolutionary
periods. The pre-evolutionary time is further subdivided into four periods: the
Transition period, the Post-Herbal Era, the Greek and Roman era, and the
Herbalist period.
 In ancient India, plant taxonomy also thrived. Among the well-known ancient
Indian taxonomy writings are the Aryurveda, Charak-Samhita, and Shushruta-
Samhita.

Key words
Classification: Arrangement of a single plant or a collection of plants in a certain
category according to a naming system with a specific and well-established plan.
Taxonomy: Includes identification, taxonomy, classification and nomenclature.

11
Artificial: System with the use of a small number of characters in order to facilitate
identificatio
Nature:system based on form relationships.
Phylogenetic: System based on genetic relationship and evolution.

Q.1 Multiple Choice Questions

i) Natural system of classification was proposed by:

(a) Bentham & Hooker
(b) Hutchinson
(c) Theophrastus
(d) Cronquist
Ans. (a)

ii) Phylogenetic classification was proposed by……..

(a) Bentham & Hooker
(b) Hutchinson
(c) Lawrence
(d) All of the above
Ans. (b)

iii) Artificial system of classification was proposed by:

(a) Linnaeus
(b) De Candolle
(c) Engler and prantl
(d) Cronquist
Ans. (a)

iv) What is the sequence of taxonomic hierarchy:

(a) division-class-order-family-tribe-genus-species
(b) division-class-family-order-tribe-genus-species
(c) division-class-family-tribe-order-genus-species
(d) division-order-class-family-genus-tribe-species
Ans. (a)

12
v) Taxonomy’ term was coined by:
(a) Linnaeus
(b) Bentham and Hooker
(c) A.P. de Candolle
(d) Juliane Huxley
Ans. (C)

13
 UNIT 2
CLASSIFICATION OF ANGIOSPERMS

2.1 OBJECTIVES
The main goal of this chapter is to broaden your understanding about the following
issues:-
 Introdution
 Natural System of classification
 Phylogenetic system of classification

2.2 INTRODUCTION:
The hundreds of living things on Earth are given some order by way of
classifications based on similarities. Classification is the process of placing a single
plant or a collection of plants into a certain category according to a predetermined
plan and a system of nomenclature. Species, which are classified into genus and then
suborders of families, orders, subclasses, classes, and divisions, are the fundamental
units of classification.
The categorization of organisms dates back to ancient times, when primitive
humans used their own language for practical purposes. As language evolved, the
differences between plants that are deadly or edible, carnivorous, and herbivorous
became evident. They sense that certain flora and animals are essential to their
needs. They chose certain flora and fauna for celebrations. In this sense, the
classification gained traction in society. Among pre-civilized men, folk systematics
is becoming more and more common. They used gross morphology to identify
groups of plants. This marks the start of the artificial classification scheme. Their
classification schemes are based on pragmatic reasons. Classification's history dates
back to the oldest Indian civilizations. Philosophers such as Sushruta, Charak, and
the early Greeks Aristotle, Plato, and Pliny, among others, attempted to categorize
plants based on their own perspectives, which were inevitably more philosophical
than scientific. The different plant classifications that have been suggested thus far
fall into one of three categories:

14
 (a) Artificial : Banhin, Tournefort, John Ray, Carl Linnaeus, and other systems
use one or a few features to categorize plants, mainly to make the organism easy to
identify.
(b) Natural : The system primarily relies on relationships to realize all of the
information that is accessible at any given moment. For example, de Candolle, Robert
Brown, Lamarck, Bentham, and Hooker's categorization.
(c) Phylogenetic : This system attempts to categorize plants by their
evolutionary sequences and genetic links. such as Bessey, Hutchinsm, and Eichler.
According to C. Jeffrey (1982), there are four primary categories into which the
classification system can be split:
(a) Artificial: Up until 1830, the classification was based on habit.
(b) Pre-evolutionary Natural Systems: These systems, such as those described
by Bentham & Hooker, A. P. de Candolle, and de Jussieu, were generally far more
natural between plants.
(c) Phylogenetic Systems: Naturally occurring groups with commendable or
shared traits are connected to one another by a common ancestor, such as Eichler
and Engler.
(d) Phenetic System: Optimal generalizations of all phenotypes' combined traits,
such as Hutchinson.

2.3 Bentham’s & Hooker’s System

Throughout the British Empire, the renowned English systematists who jointly
published "Genera Plantarum" (1862–1883) are still cited for their classification. This
approach is used in our nation to preserve the Central National Herbarium in Sibpur
(Howrah), West Bengal.
The classification scheme is based on de Candolle's, although it places more emphasis
on the difference between fused and free petals. The Polypetalae, Gamopetalae, and
Monochlamydeae are the three divisions of the dicots. Gymnosperms' placement
between dicots and monocots is merely a matter of convenience and does not signify
any affinities.
The categorization flow chart for Bentham and Hooker's system (1862–1883) is
shown below:

15
 Merits and Demerits of Bentham‘s and Hooker‘s Classification
One merit is that it offers simple methods for identifying plants.
The demerits are:
- Preservation of Monochamydeae, which normally biseriate perianth.
- Chenopodiaceae are apetalous friends of Caryophyllaceae; family Salicineae and
Cupuliferae are related to now extinct.
- Simple flower to Paronychieae as elaborate primitive.
Monocots place more importance on the relative position of the ovary; so,
Iridaceae and Amayllidaceae have a larger affinity to Liliaceae than do
Scitamineae and Bromelliaceae due to a shared epigyuous trait.
– Position of Monochlamydeae and delimitation owing to their affinities (Rendle).

16
Essential for recognizing the Families:
(a) The majority of flowers are penta or tetramerous, and
(b) the calyx and corolla are largely different.
(c) Most flowers are trimerous;
(d) The calyx and corolla are largely combined into one whorl; perianth is present;
and monocotyledons

2.4 Hutchinson’s Classification

John Hutchinson proposed the phylogenetic classification system in his book "The
Families of Flowering Plants." He was an English botanist who lived from 1884 until
1972. In line with Bessey's Dicta of Phylogeny, he put out 24 principles of phylogeny.
He released a book titled "Evolution and Phylogeny of Flowering Plants" in 1969.
Genera of Flowering Plants (1964–1967) are his other work. His classification
underwent several revisions (1955, 1969), before making a definitive appearance in
1973.
According to the categorization, angiosperms have a monophyletic origin, deriving from
hypothetical proangiosperms. Angiosperm evolution was first thought to have occurred
along two paths.
(a) Herbaceae (28 orders, comprising the herbaceous families Ranales through
Lamiales)
(b) Lignosae (woody or arborescent plants; 54 orders; Magnoliales to Verbenales)
He did, however, believe that monocots descended from Ranales. Within all 29 orders
and 69 families, monocots were categorized into three groups according to the nature of
the perianth: Calciferae, Corolliferae, and Glumiflorae.
Little changes were made to the 1973 revised taxonomy, which moved Lytherales from
Herbaceae to Myrtales in Lignosae. Currently, there are 342 families and 82 orders for
diptons, compared to 29 orders and 69 families for monocots.The crucial details are as
follows:
1. The system is built upon Bessey's architecture. Its foundation is the idea that
flowering plants with petals and sepals, together with other floral and anatomical
characteristics, are more phylogenetically primitive than non-petalled plants.
2. This approach is predicated on extensive Phylogenetic knowledge.

17
3. The Monocotyledons are arranged following the Dicotyledons, from which they
were thought to have originated early on.
4. The Magnoliales and Ranales are regarded as the most primordial orders of the
Dicotyledons; they have spirally formed carpels and bisexual blooms with lots of
free stamens.
5. Based on their relationships, the Gamopetalae and Monochlamydeae are placed
throughout the Polypetalae, emphasizing similarities rather than differences.
6. Based on a combination of characteristics, the flowering plants are grouped into
smaller groups, with closely related families grouped together.
7. The gymnosperms are regarded as a separate class.
8. He offered new theories for a number of the 29 orders in which the families of
monocotyledons are grouped, leading to more logical groupings.
9. The alismatales and butomales are at the beginning of the monocotyledons. They
resemble the Ranales androecium in having an apocarpous gynoecium, folicular
and achenial fruits,
and a great number of stamens.
10. The belief that the Gramineae is the most evolved family of monocotyledons is at
odds
with what is now known about the group.
11. He identified 411 Angiosperm families.

Classification Principles
The evolutionary organization of plants was highly valued by Hutchinson, who based
plant categorization on 24 principles, which are summarized below:
1. There are two types of evolution: upward and downward, with degradation and
degeneration in the latter.
2. Not every plant organ evolves at the same time; certain organs or groups of organs
may be progressing while others remain stable or regressing.
3. In general, evolution has been steady, and once a certain retrogression or
progression begins, it continues until the end of the phylum.
4. It's likely that trees and shrubs are more primature than herbs in some groups.
5. Shrubs and trees are more ancient than vines.
6. Annuals are descended from perennials, which are older than biennials.

18
7. Similar to terrestrial flowering plants, aquatic epiphytes, saprophytes, and
parasites are generally more recent.
8. Although it is not a given that plants with scattered vascular bundles, or
monocotyledons, are directly descended from those with ordered collateral
vascular bundles in a cylinder, the former are more primitive in origin.
9. The spiral arrangement of floral leaves, such as petals and sepals, and leaves on
stems came before the opposite and whorled forms.
10. The umbel and capitulum belong to the latter.
11. Compared to whorled and valvate, spirally imbricate floral portions are more
premature.
12. The type of flowers with few parts (oligomerous) comes after the type with many
parts (polymerous), and both types are accompanied by a gradual sterilization of
the reproductive organs.
13. Petaliferous flowers bloom before apetalous ones, with the latter coming from a
decrease.
14. Compared to sympetaly, polypetaly is more archaic.
15. Compared to zygomorphic flowers, actinomorphic blooms are more primitive.
16. The initial state is hypogyny, from which epigyny and perigyny eventually
developed.
17. Syncarpy is the outcome of apocarpy, which is more basic.
18. A few carpels follow a lot of carpels.
19. Non-endospermic seeds are more modern, while endospermic seeds with tiny
embryos are more archaic.
20. A lot of carpels come before a few.
21. Compared to zygomorphic flowers, actinomorphic flowers are more primitive.
22. A more sophisticated flower has fewer stamens than a primitive flower, which had
numerous stamens.
23. Connate stamens come after separate stamens.
24. The capsule usually appears before the drupe or berry, and aggregate fruits are
more recent than solitary.

19
Advantages of the Hutchinson System
1. It is a phylogenetic system that only uses phylogenetic principles.
2. The phylogenetic systems of Oswald Tippo, Cronquist, Takhtajan, Dahlgren, and
others were built upon this foundation.
3. According to the concept, Magnoliales are primitive lignoceous dicots, whereas
Ranales are primitive herbaceous dicots.
4. Only closely related taxa make up very small families and orders.
5. Families in monocots are generally recognized to be arranged that way.
6. It is thought that monocots are more evolved than diploids.

Disadvantages of the Hutchinson System

1. Dicots were separated into two main groupings, Lignosae and Herbaceae, based
on habit. Among the Lignosae are woody plants. Many did not accept this
because, in any other case, closely related plants were kept separate, making it
impossible to distinguish between the two evolutionary lines.
2. Based on floral structure, the two related families were divided; for example,
closely related Ranales families like Ranunculaceae and Magnoliaceae were kept
apart.
3. There are a number of herbaceous groups that are closely related to or even
descended from woody families. For example, the herbaceous Apiaceae
family is thought to have originated from the Cornaceae family,

20
 whereas the woody Araliaceae family or the herbaceous Brassicaceae family are
descended from the woody Capparidaceae family via the Cleomaceae family.
4. This approach is not particularly useful for classifying plants.

SUMMARY
Plant classifications were covered in this unit. One of the oldest fields of botany is
plant taxonomy. According to Simpson (1961), nomenclature, taxonomy,
classification, and identification are all part of systematics. Classification is the
process of placing an individual plant or a collection of plants into a certain category
according to a predetermined plan and a system of nomenclature. Species are the
fundamental unit of classification. The different plant classification schemes that
have been put forth thus far are either a part of natural, artificial, or phylogenetic
systems. Plants were first classified according to their own principles. This unit
covers the basic elements of taxonomy as well as its goals and terminology. The
natural system, based on free and fused petals, that Bentham and Hooker suggested
in Genera Plantarums (1862–1883) was covered in depth. There are also benefits
and drawbacks to Bentham & Hooker's classification. Dienaturlichen Pflanzen
Familien published Engler and Prantl's plant categorization in 1909. In this
hierarchy, monocots come before dicots. Hutchinson suggested classifying plants in
Families of Flowering Plants according to their phylogenetic relationships. Also
covered were the 24 fundamental ideas that Hutchinson presented to 411 families.

Key Words : Systematics, Phylognetic, Artificial, Polypetalae, Gamopetalae

Q.1 Multiple Choice Questions

(i) The sexual system of classification was given by:
(a) John Ray (b) Carolus Linnaeus
(c) Bentham and Hooker (d) Hutchinson

(ii) Die Naturlichen Pflanzen Familien‖ was written by:

(a) Engler and Prantl, (b) Carolus Linnaeus
(c) Bentham and Hooker (d) Hutchinson

21
(iii) Natural system of classification was proposed by:
(a) Engler and Prantl (b) Carolus Linnaeus
(c) Bentham and Hooker (d) Hutchinson

(iv) Systema naturae was written by:

(a) Engler and Prantl (b) Carolus Linnaeus
(c) Bentham and Hooker (d) Hutchinson

(v) Phylogenetic classification was proposed by:

(a) Engler and Prantl (b) Carolus Linnaeus
(c) Bentham and Hooker (d) Hutchinson
Answers: (i) b (ii) a (iii) c (iv) b (v) d

Q.2 Answer in 3-4 lines:

(i) Evolution and classification of flowering plants
(ii) Priority Principles
(iii) Genera Plantarum
(iv) Historia Plantarum
(v) Charaka Samhita

22
 UNIT-3
BASIC PRINCIPLES, PLANT NOMENCLATURE AND ICBN

3.1 OBJECTIVES
Students will comprehend the following after reading this chapter:
⚫ Introduction
⚫ Bionomial Nomenclature
⚫ ICBN (Principles and Rules)

3.2 INTRODUCTION
The term "name" refers to both living and non-living entities. Every known item to
humans has a name, which serves to both characterize and convey concepts about it. In
certain languages and locations, the name could be different. Nomenclature is the art of
naming objects; botanical nomenclature is the term used to refer to the naming of plants.
Botanical nomenclature is the practice of naming plants according to worldwide
guidelines put forward by botanists to provide a consistent, stable system that is
applicable to all countries.
Common Names
The term "common name" refers to the name that locals give to a particular plant in that
location. These names differ from one language and one area to another. Names in India
vary depending on the dialect.
Scientific Name
Scientists proposed a name that is widely recognized and used across national
boundaries. However, the issue still exists—that is, the language is not universal. Thus,
the botanists decided to establish certain guidelines and requirements. The primary
recommendation was for the name to be written in Latin. Worldwide, botanists utilize
Botanical Latin as a universal language for identifying and characterizing plants. It
comes from the Latin of the Roman authors of botanical literature, most notably Pliny
the Elder (c. 23–79 AD). The custom that all plants should have Latin names (or names
of Latin form) and that all literature on them should be written in Latin was formally
established by the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1799). It is because:

23
1. Word meanings in Latin do not change over time in the same way that they do in
living languages since Latin is a dead language.
2. Latin used in botany is very descriptive, having several adjectives for color, texture,
and form.
3. Political resentment that may arise if botanists converted to another language, such
Spanish or English, is not sparked by the Latin language.

3.3 BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE

For the first time, Linnaeus suggested that each living thing had a binomial name, or a
name that
consists of two epithets. One is a generic epithet, whereas the other is a specific one. An
organism's name becomes trinomial if it also has a variety. In his books Critica Botanica
(1737) and Fundamental Botanica (1736), Linnaeus provided some guidelines for plant
genus names. First laid out by A.P. de Candolle, the standards for plant nomenclature
were adopted at the International Botanical Congress in Paris in 1867. The Swedish
naturalist Carolus Linnaeus first using binomial nomenclature for plant names in 1753.
It was released in the edition of Species Plantarum.‖.
The generic name, such as Sarracenia, which bears the name of the scientist Michel
Sarracin, is always a word that expresses color, name, or adjective. A species is always
followed by an adjective, such as alba for white flowers, sativa for edible flowers,
nigrum for black flowers, etc.Not every time are these names utilized. A pronoun such
as "species" (americana, indica, benghalensis, etc.) may be used. It might be the name
of another scientist to whom the plant is dedicated, like Sahnii, or the form of a leaf (a
characteristic of the plant), like sagittifolia.

3.4 INTERNATIONAL CODE FOR NOMENCLATUE OF ALGAE, FUNGI AND

PLANTS (ICN)

By the middle of the eighteenth century, plant names were often polynomial, made up
of many words arranged in a sequence. The fundamental guidelines were put forward by
Linnaeus in Philosophia Botanica in 1751. A.P. de Candolle published The
orieelementaire de la botanique in 1813, outlining the guidelines for plant nomenclature.
A.P. de Candolle's son Alphonse de Candolle called a meeting of botanists worldwide to

24
propose new regulations. In 1867, Candolle called the inaugural International Botanical
Congress to be held in Paris. Prior to being adopted by the Melbourne Congress, the
International Code for Nomenclature of Algae, Fungi, and Plants (ICN) was known as
the International Code Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

1. Paris Code (1867)

The first International Botanical Congress was held at Paris in August 1861. About 150
American and European Botanists were invited to make laws for Botanical
Nomenclature (Lois delanomenclaturebotanique).The laws called Paris code, as they
were adopted at French capital. This code established Linnaeus as the initial source for
all naming. Author citation was crucial, and the Priority rule was seen to be fundamental
to a legitimate publishing. The Paris code is flawed in numerous ways. The Kew Rule
was a new regulation that American and British botanists began adhering to after a few
years of breaking from the original guidelines.

2. Rochester Code(1892)
In 1892, N.L. Britton presided over the United States Botanical Congress in Rochester,
New York. After modifications and additional recommendations, the Paris code was
renamed as the Rochester Code. Among the crucial suggestions were (
1. Adhering strictly to the Principles of Priority.
2. The publication name and date to determine priority.
3. Acceptance of alternative bionomials that arise from the application of priority
rules, even when tautonyms are involved.

3. ViennaCode(1905)
In June 1905, Vienna held the third International Botanical Congress. The basis for
identifying vascular plants is Linnaeus Species Plantarum (1753), as decided upon at
this convention. A nomenclature called as nomenclature genericaconservenda favors
widely used generic names over older, less well-known ones. Latin diagnosis must be
included with the names of new taxa, and tautonyms are prohibited.

4. AmericanCode(1907)
In 1907, the botanists who developed the Rochester Code declined to adopt the Vienna
Code because they were not happy with it. American Code was substituted for the
25
Rochester Code. Latin diagnosis is not required, nor does American code follow the
Nominagenericaconservenda concept. It acknowledges the idea of type. According to
American Code, a binomial that has been used for one plant cannot be used in any
fashion for that same species again.

5. BrusselsCode(1912)
In 1910, the Fourth International Botanical Congress was place in Brussels. Different
beginning points for the priority of non-vascular plant names are accepted under this
code. It acknowledges the Vienna rules' type idea and categorization.

6. CambridgeCode(1935)
The fifth Botanical Congress, held in Cambridge in 1930, eliminated the distinction
between the Vienna code and the American code. The following are the recommended
provisions in this code:
a. It is best to explore the type notion
b. It is necessary to include a list of Nominagenericaconservanda.
c. The use of tautonymsneed to end.
d. After January1,1932, plants must be diagnosed in Latin.

7. AmsterdamCode(1947)
The Sixth International Congress of Botany took place in Amsterdam in 1935. A
significant modification to the regulations was implemented in this regard, meaning that
beginning of January 1, 1935, names of newly discovered plant groups—aside from
bacteria—must only be deemed legitimately published if they bear a Latin diagnosis.

8. Stockholm Code(1952)
In 1952, Stockholm held the 7th International Botanical Congress. When referring to
any taxonomic group or entity, the term "Taxon" was originally used.

9. Paris Code(1956)
In July 1954, the 8th International Botanical Congress was held in Paris once more. In
this case, the requirement for a Latin diagnosis was dropped, and it was determined that
it should be released in German, French, and English. The Code's Preamble and

26
Principles were kept apart from its Rules and Recommendations. A supplement and
amendment were made to NominaGenericaConservendaetrejecienda.

10. Montreal Code(1961)

In August 1959, during the 9th International Botanical Congress in Montreal, a
committee was formed to look into the matter of family name protection.
Nominafamiliarumconservanda was introduced for the Angiospermae. The guideline
also said that names of plants from prehistoric times should correspond with those of
plants from more recent times.

11. Edinburgh Code(1966)

In August 1964, during the 10th Botanical Congress in Edinburgh, the committee's
report was delivered. As per its recommendation, A.L.de Jussieu's Genera Plantarum
(1789) should be the initial source for family names. In the list of
NominafamiliarumConservenda, a few family names were renamed, such as
Capparaceae for Capparidaceae and Cannabaceae for Cannabinaceae. An Annotated
Glossary of Botanical Nomenclature, a glossary of technical words, was to be prepared
by a newly established committee.

12. Seattle Code(1972)

August 1969 noted the 11th International Botanical Congress convene in Seattle. F.A.
Stafleu released the code in 1972. The tautonymous taxonomic designations between
genus and species and below it are included in the Seattle Code. Code created the term
"autonym," which refers to mechanically generated names.

3.5 PRINCIPLES
There are six principles-
I. Botanical nomenclature is independent of zoological nomenclature. The code
applies equally to names of taxonomic groups treated as plants whether or not
these groups were originally so treated (Plants do not include Bacteria).
II. Application of names of taxonomic groups is determined by means of
nomenclature types.
III. The nomenclature of a taxonomic group is based upon priority of publication.
27
 IV. Each taxonomic group with a particular circumscription, position, and rank can
bear only one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance with the rules,
except in specific cases.
V. Scientific names of taxonomic groups are treated as Latin regardless of their
derivation.
VI. The rules of nomenclature are retroactive unless expressly limited.
A taxon or group of plants may only have one correct name, and a name may be used to
a single group of plants, per the code. The guidelines or articles provide thorough
instructions on every topic related to plant naming. The suggestions are how the
guidelines should be used in practice.

3.6 FOCAL POINTS OF ICN (2011)

1. To properly describe plants, botanists worldwide use a clear and straightforward
nomenclature system that deals with terms that indicate the ranks of taxonomic
groups or units as well as scientific names that correspond to specific
taxonomic groups of plants. A taxonomic group's name serves as a means of
reference and an indicator of its taxonomic rank, not to highlight its
characteristics or history. The goal of the code is to provide a consistent system
for naming taxonomic groupings while avoiding and rejecting names that might
lead to confusion, ambiguity, or mistakes in research. It saves time and effort
from needless name construction.
2. The Botanical Nomenclature system is based on the Principles.
3. Rules and Recommendations comprise the detailed provisions. To better
demonstrate the guidelines and recommendations, examples have been
provided.
4. Names that violate a rule cannot be kept; the purpose of the Rules is to organize
historical nomenclature and make provisions for the future.
5. The recommendations address ancillary issues and aim to increase uniformity
and clarity, particularly in future nomenclature. Names that conflict with
recommendations should not be disregarded for this reason, but they should not
be used as models.
6. The clauses govern how this code may be changed in light of its most recent
rulings.
28
 7. Both fossil and non-fossil species that are classified as plants are subject to the
Rules and Recommendations (with the exception of bacteria). Certain plant
groupings require special considerations. Established in 1980, the International
Commission for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants developed the
International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants.
8. The only valid justifications for renaming something are when one has sufficient
taxonomic research to have a deeper understanding of the facts or when one
must abandon terminology that defies established conventions.\
9. hen there is no pertinent rule or when the application of a rule is questionable,
established custom is followed.
10. All earlier iterations of the code are superseded by this one.
The Code

Principle (Basicpoint Rules (Articleforname) Recomendations

(Practical)

Some Important Rules and Recommendations

1. The source generic name must be used to identify all plants that are members of
the same genus (Rule 213)
2. Distinct generic names must be used to identify all plants that belong to distinct
genera (Rule 214)
3. The person who creates a new genus is responsible for naming it (Rule 218)
4. The finest generic names are those that accurately describe a plant's key
characteristics or appearance (Rule 240).
5. Avoid using generic names that are longer than one and a half feet, hard to say,
or offensive (Rule 249)
6. A plant's unique name has to set it apart from all of its relatives (Rule 257)
7. Size is not a factor in identifying species (Rule 260)
8. There is no discernible change based on the plant's initial location (Rule 264)
9. Requires that each species be given a generic name. (Rule 284)
10. The particular name must always come after the generic name. (Rule 285)

29
3.7 PHYLOCODE
Clade and species name is increasingly moving away from the Linnaean system of
binomial nomenclature. Agroup known as a "clade" is made up of all the members
which consist a single common ancestor. Any group that consists of all the offspring of
its members' last common ancestor is referred to as a clade.
Whenever a species is assigned to a different genus due to phylogenetic or phenetic
evaluation, its name in the pre-existing code changes. Because they are operationally
defined in terms of ranks and kinds, the supraspecific names in this case are linked to
the phylogeny.
The phylogenetic code, or phylocode, for botanical nomenclature is designed to
facilitate effective biological knowledge storage and retrieval as well as clear
communication. The first day of 2000 saw the code being cited. Currently, only clade
names are governed by phylocode.
Following the American Institute of Biological Sciences conference in San Diego,
California, USA (1995), phylogenetic terminology was developed. The first
symposium, titled "Translating Phylogenetic Analysis into Classification," was arranged
by Richard G. Olmstead. The second symposium, named "The Linnean Hierarchy: Past,
Present, and Future," was arranged by J. Mark Porter in 1996 at Ranchosanta Ana
Botanic Garden in Claremont, California, USA. The third symposium was held in 1999
in St. Louis, Missouri, USA, during the XVI International Botanical Congress. The title
of the article was "Overview and Practical."

Implications of phylogenetic Nomenclature

F. Pleijel, A. Minelli, and K. Kron drafted the first draft of Article 21, which M.
Donoghue and P. Cartino revised. I. Eriksson wrote the majority of the first versions of
Recommendations 10 D and 11.8 B, while W. M. Owens supplied the Latin
terminology used in Article 9.3.
Properties of Phylocode
The following are the properties of Phylogenetic system:
1. The system lacks hierarchy as the naming procedure does not include rank
assignment.
2. The name of clades is governed by rules.

30
 3. There is no ranking between the categories "species" and "clade". A clade is a
monophyletic group of related species, while a population lineage is composed
of species.A supraspecific term in Phylocode is assigned a phylogenetic
meaning and is used to refer to the clade that meets that definition, regardless
of the clade's estimated makeup. The species specimens and synapomorphies
that are mentioned in these definitions are referred to as specifiers since they
identify the clade to which the name belongs and perform a role akin to that of
types.
4. The use of names is limited based on the frame of the clade.

Regardless of past affiliation with specific clades, the pre-existing system proposes that
synonyms are names of the same rank depending on types within the group of interest.
Synonyms, as defined by the phylogenetic system, are terms that, independent of
previous affiliation with specific ranks, indicate the same clade.

Advantages of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (Phylocode)

1. Super family and other intermediary levels can be named using Phylocode.
2. It enhances the stability of nomenclature. It is simple to determine a species'
phylogenetic position by linking its name to the names of one or more clades that it
belongs to.
3. Phylocode's rejection of ranks also removes the inaccuracy that arises from many
taxonomists treating the same taxa at the same rank.
Hierarchy of Classification
Kingdom - Division - Class - Subclass - Order - Suborder - Family - Subfamily - Genus
- Subgenus - Section - Species - Categories - Subspecies (ssp) - Varieties (var.) - Sub
varieties (sub var.) - Forma (f.) - Clone (cl.)

3.8 THE RULES

Rank of Taxa
When classification of individual plants, the species is the fundamental unit of
categorization. Every species is a member of a group of taxa with progressively higher
ranks. The primary levels of taxa in Article 3 are species, genus, family, order, class,
division, and kingdom, listed in increasing order. The only way this code defines the

31
categories is by enumerating their order. For minor orders, families, or genuses, this
might not hold true, but the sequence must remain unchanged.
One may utilize categories like family (ending with aceae, Polygonaceae), suborder
(ending with ineae, Chenopodineae), order (ending with ales, Malvales), and so on. the
code gives the categories—from division to subtribe—standardized grammatical ends. It
is appropriate to modify the name of any taxonomic group that does not adhere to these
endings. After this process, the family name ends in aceae, and the alternative names of
the families whose endings are not confirmed are altered to those that do.
Graminae into Poaceae Palmae- Arecaceae Cruciferae-Brassicaceae Leguminosae-
Fabaceae Umbelliferae- Apiaceae Labiatae- Lamiaceae Compositae- Asteraceae
Aster, Asteraceae, Poa, Poaceae, and other generic names provide the basis for the
usage of the ending with- aceae. the subfamily Oideae, the tribe Oae, and the
subtribeInae.
The term Leguminosae is authorized under article 52 of the code, but only if it
encompasses the three subfamilies Papilionoideae, Caesalpinoideae, and Mimosoideae.
This is a singular exception to the rule. The subfamilies of Papilionaceae will become
the Fabaceae if they are elevated to family status.

Types of Taxon
The type approach is used to determine the names of various taxonomic groupings.
According to the ICBN's articles and guiding principles, all taxonomic categories shall
be founded on nomenclatural types,which means that all names will always be
associated with a taxon or specimen that has been recognized as a type. In the case of
species (and intraspecific taxa), the type is a specimen, or in other cases, only an
example. Attached should be the name of the first author.The names of the taxa above
the species level, such as Section, Subgenus, Genus, Tribe, and Family, are derived
from the name of the next lowest taxon that the group was initially founded on; for
example, the genus Lamium served as the basis for the Lamiaceae family. On the genera
Orchis, etc., Orchidaceae was established. When a new species is reported, the author
often possesses one or more specimens with characteristics that allow the species to be
distinguished from existing ones.
A taxon's type is the component element to which the taxon's name is attached
permanently. Principle II states that nomenclatural types are used to decide how

32
taxonomic group names are applied. This implies that the author of a description of a
new species must specify the kind of specimen that served as the basis for the new
species. When it comes to species or infra-specific designations, the type refers to a
single specimen that serves as the foundation for the new species. One herbarium sheet
may have little herbaceous plants put on it; the sheet as a whole may be designated as
the type.

Holotype: A single specimen—a plant as a whole or a portion of it—to which the

taxonomic name is attached permanently is referred to as a holotype.
Isotype or Cotype: A biological specimen that is identical to the holotype and was
obtained at the same location and time is called an isotype (at the type locality).
Paratype: Any biological specimen—other than the holotype—that is designated as
representative and utilized in the creation of the initial description of a species or
subspecies is referred to as a paratype.
Syntype: Syntypes are specimens that serve as a basis for new taxa when the author has
not chosen a holotype. All of these specimens become syntypes if the author decides to
create a new species after studying collections made by various collectors and from
various locations.
Lectotype: A specimen is selected by a specialist to serve as the type from the isotype,
paratype, or syntype in cases when an earlier designated holotype has been lost,
destroyed, or was never designated.
Neotype: A Neotype is selected from additional specimens to act as the Type in the
event that the Holotype, Isotype, Paratype, or Syntype are lost or unavailable. It is
known as Standard Specimen by certain taxonomists.
Topotype: Topotype refers to a specimen that is selected to serve as a type when no
original type material is available and it is obtained from the type locality.
It is also believed that a species may be going through certain natural changes in space
and time. Type has been a useful tool for accurately identifying specimens. It is also
generally acknowledged that an image or description of any taxonomic group is never
as accurate as a preserved specimen.

33
Principle of Priority
Principle of Priority refers to the process of choosing a single accurate taxonomic group
name. Illegitimate names ought to be discarded, and only legitimate names ought to be
kept. The following are the priority rules, per Article 11–12:
(i) There can only be one right name for each family or taxon of lower rank with a
certain circumscription, location, and rank (Art 11).
(ii) The right name for any taxon, ranging from family to genus, is the first accepted
name with the same rank that has been legally published (Art -11).
(iii) Unless a taxon's name is legitimately published, it has no legal standing under this
law (Art-12)
(iv) Nomenclatural type determines the application of both rejected and preserved
names (Art-14).
(v) Botanists are permitted to keep a name that has been suggested for conservation
once it has been temporarily accepted by the general committee, pending the outcome of
a subsequent international Botanical Congress.

Valid Publication of names is usually considered beginning inMay1753,the date of

publication of Species Plantarumvol. I by Linnaeus.
With many names of a taxon, the valid will be the earliest name which is regardedas
correct name. Rule of Priority provides stability to this name.
The principle that seniority isfixed by the date ofvalid publication is known as Principle
of Priority.

Limitations of the Principle of Priority

1. Starting dates : PrincipleofPrioritystartswiththeSpeciesPlantarumofLinnaeus
published on 1-5-1753.
2. Limited only upto family ranks: This principle does not apply over family
rank.
3. The correct name should not be outside the rank. Only when a correct name in
the taxon is not available, a combination with other rank is allowed.
4. The application of Principle of Priority resulted in numerous name changes. To
avoid it a list of conserved generic and family names has been prepared and
published in the code with some changes. Such Nominaconservanda(nom.

34
 Cons.) are to be used as correct name replacing earlier legitimate names, e.g.,
Sesbaniascop, 1777 is the conserved genus as against Sesbanadam1763 and
Agatiadam1763.

Effective and Valid Publication

From the discussion of the principles of priority, it seems that publication is the most
important step in nomenclatural procedures. The name is effectively published when the
published name should appear in printed and distributed to the botanical institutions.
The name is valid when the name is published in accordance with the provisions of the
code.

The code's "conditions and dates of valid publication of names" is the heading found in
section 6. Effective publication in this context refers to the need that the names be
published with a legitimate and effective publication.

Distribution of the publication in printed form, whether by sale, trade, or gift to the
general public, or at the very least to botanical institutes that have libraries open to all
botanists, is how it becomes effective. It is unaffected by the announcement of new
names at public gatherings, by the placement of names in public collections or gardens,
by the issuance of microfilm derived from unpublished manuscripts, typescripts, or
other materials, by online publication, or by the distribution of distributable electronic
media.
Publications in newspapers, catalogs, and seed exchange lists started on January 1,
1953, and completed on January 1, 1977, are ineffective. Theses submitted for a higher
degree on or after January 1, 1953, are only deemed successfully published if they
include an internal proof of publishing (such as an ISBN or a commercial publisher) or
a statement of publication. Publication of handwritten content before January 1, 1953,
that has been replicated by a mechanical or graphic method (indelible signature), such
as metallic etching, offset printing, or lithography, is enforceable.
The date is the one on which the final requirement was met in the event that all of the
requirements for a legal publication are not met concurrently. But in the site of its
validation, the name must always be properly acknowledged. If a name is published on
or after January 1, 1973, and all requirements for valid publication are not met at the

35
same time, it cannot be considered properly published. Instead, a complete and explicit
reference to the locations where these prerequisites were previously met must be
provided.
A Latin or English description or diagnosis, or a reference to a previously published and
successfully published Latin or English description or diagnosis, must accompany the
given names of a new taxon of fossil plants in order for it to be approved. This
publication date must be on or after January 1, 1996.
Groups that were not previously covered by the ICBN are now recognized as organisms
covered under the botanical Code, and the Code recognizes them as validly published if
they fit with the relevant non-botanical Code standards. This clause originally applied to
organisms that were later identified as algae, but the Vienna Code expanded its scope to
include organisms that were later identified as fungus. The inclusion has aided in the
identification of Microsporidia, which were formerly thought to be protozoa but are
now identified as fungus. Similar to this, the Pneumocystis species, which were first
classified as mammalian diseases but are now classified as fungi, are now considered to
properly published despite lack a Latin diagnosis or description. This is because the
Zoological Code does not need Latin to be used.
Tokyo Code stipulated that new names of plants and fungi were to be registered in order
for them to be legally published from January 1, 2000. This regulation was subject to
confirmation by the XVI International Botanical Congress (St Louis, 1999). An optional
two-year trial registration had already started on January 1, 1998, and would last for two
years. But in St. Louis, the plan was rejected by a vote, and the Code no longer contains
any mention of the registration. A name's date of valid publication is unaffected by a
spelling modification made to it.

Publication of Names
ThenameofaTaxonshouldfulfillcertainrequirementsbeforeitseffective publication as:
(i) Formulation:Itshouldindicate
(a) sp.nov.(species novum) foranew species
(b) Comb. nov.(combinationnovum) forchangein the epithet ofbasionym.
Thename of the original author should be kept in Parantheses.
(c) nom.nov.(Nomennovum) whentheoriginal nameiscompletelyreplaced.

36
 (ii) EnglishorLatin diagnosis: -Asper ICN(TheMelbourneCode)therequirementof
Latin diagnosis for Names of New Taxa has been changed. As per this code the
description of new names should be in English or Latin.
(iii) Typification: - Holotype should be designated. The name of new Taxon is
valid onlywhen the type of the name is mentioned after January 1, 1990. The
name of the taxon whose type is a specimen or unpublished illustration; the
herbarium or institution in which the type is conserved must be specified.
(iv) After January 1, 1996 the name of new taxon of fossil should be accompanied
by a Latinor English description of character.

Article 32,1-2 of Tokyo Code (ICBN) is amended as new names of plants and fungi will
have to be registered in order to be validly published after January 1, 2000.

Citation of Author’s Name

A name must be accompanied with the identity of the author or writers who first
published the name legally in order for it to be comprehensive, accurate, and easily
verifiable. The names of the authors are commonly abbreviated, e.g. L. for Carolus
Linnaeus, Benth. for G. Bentham, Hook. for William Hooker, Hook.f. for Sir J. D.
Hooker (f. stands for filius, the son; J. D. Hooker was son of William Hooker), R.Br. for
Robert Brown, Lam. for J. P. Lamarck, DC. for A. P. de Candolle, Wall. for Wallich, A.
DC. for Alphonse de Candolle, Scop. for G. A. Scopoli and Pers. for C. H. Persoon.

Single author- The name of a single author follows the name of a species (or any other
taxon) when a single author proposed a new name, e.g. Solanum nigrum L.

Multiple authors –when the name has more than two or more authors may be
associated with a name for a variety of reasons. These different situations are exhibited
by citing the name of the authors differently:
1. Use of et: When more than two authors publish propose a new name of species, their
names are connected by et, e.g. Delphinium viscosum Hook.f. et Thomson.
2. Use of parentheses: According to the conventions of botanical naming, the original
epithet of a taxon should always be used, even if the taxon is being transferred from one
genus to another or its level is being upgraded or downgraded. A basionym is the name

37
of the taxon that provides the epithet. Parentheses surround the name of the original
author or authors whose epithet appears in the changed name, and the name of the
author or authors who changed the name outside of them, e.g., Cynodon dactylon
(Linn.) Pers., based on the species' original basionym, Panicum dactylon Linn.
3. Use of ex: When a first author proposes a name but it is only legitimately published
by the second author, or when the first author fails to satisfy all or some of the
requirements of the Code, then the names of the two authors are connected by ex e.g.
Cerasus cornuta Wall. ex Royle.
4. Use of in: When an author publishes a new species or a name in another author's
publication, their names are connected using e.g. Carex kashmirensis Clarke in Hook.f.
Clarke published this new species in the Flora of British India whose author was Sir J.
D. Hooker.
5. Use of emend: The names of two authors are connected using emend. (emendavit:
person making the correction) when the second author modifies a taxon's
circumscription or diagnostic without changing the type, e.g. Phyllanthus Linn. emend.
Mull.
6. Use of square brackets: The prestarting point author is indicated by square brackets.
Since Tournefort effectively established the generic name Lupinus in 1719—prior to
1753, when Linnaeus's Species plantarum became the basis for botanical
nomenclature—the genus should properly be cited as Lupinus [Tourne.

Retention, Choice and Rejection of Names

The identification of illegitimate names—those that do not conform to the rules of
botanical nomenclature—is an essential stage in the process of choose the proper name
for a taxon. A legal name cannot be disregarded only because it is unsuitable or
offensive, because it has lost its original meaning, or because another is more popular or
preferred. It is not appropriate to disregard the name Scilla peruviana L. (1753) just
because the species is not found in Peru. Any one or more of the following
circumstances can result in a name being rejected:
1. Nomen nudum (abbreviated nom. nud.): A name without any explanation
attached. Numerous names included in Wallich's 1812 Catalogue (abbreviated
Wall. Cat.) were nomen nudum. A new name must be found because the nomen
nudum, even if validated, is rejected (e.g., Quercus dilatata Wall., a nom. nud.

38
 rejected and replaced by Q. himalayana Bahadur, 1972). Alternatively, these
were validated later on by another author by providing a description (e.g.,
Cerasus cornuta Wall. ex Royle).
2. Absence of typification, improper formulation, not effective publication, or
absence of a Latin diagnostic in the name.
3. Tautonym: While binomials with the same generic name and specific epithet
are permitted under the Zoological Code (e.g., Bison bison), they are prohibited
in Botanical nomenclature as tautonyms (e.g., Malus malus). Since the
tautonym's words are precisely the same, names like Cajanus cajan or Sesbania
sesban are obviously not tautonyms and are therefore acceptable. Repetition of a
certain epithet inside an infraspecific epithet (e.g. Acacia nilotica ssp. nilotica) is
a valid autonym rather than a tautonym.
4. Later homonym: The Code prohibits the use of the same name for two distinct
species (or taxa), just as a taxon should only have one valid name. If they exist,
they are homophones. The one that was published first is referred to as the
earlier homonym, and the one that was published later as the later homonym.
Even in cases when the earlier homonym is invalid, the Code prohibits
subsequent homonyms. Ziziphus jujuba Lam., 1789 had long been used as the
correct name for the cultivated fruit jujube. This, however, was ascertained to be
a later homonym of a related species Z. jujuba Mill., 1768. The binomial Z.
jujuba Lam., 1789 is thus rejected and jujube correctly named as Z. mauritiana
Lam., 1789. Similar to this, although the first known term for almonds is
Amygdalus communis L., 1753, Prunus communis (L.) Archangeli 1882, which
was later used to refer to a species of plum, Prunus communis Huds., 1762,
acquired the later name for almonds. Almonds' original name, P. communis (L.)
Archangeli, was therefore superseded by P. dulcis (Mill.) Webb, 1967. It is
necessary to treat two or more general or specialized names based on separate
kinds as homophones when they are so close that there is a possibility that
people may misunderstand them (either because they are applied to related taxa
or for some other reason). Some names that are handled as homophones are
Asterostemma Decne. Astrostemma Benth. (1880) and Eschweilera DC. (1828)
and Eschweileria Boerl. (1887); Pleuropetalum Hook. f. (1846) and
Pleuripetalum T. Durand (1888); Skytanthus Meyen (1834) and Scytanthus

39
 Hook. (1844). Three genus names honoring Richard Bradley are recognized as
homonyms: Bradlea Adans. (1763), Bradlea Banks ex Gaertn. (1790), and
Braddleya Vell. (1827). Only one of the names can be used without a significant
danger of misunderstanding. The specific epithets chinensis and sinensis,
ceylanica and zeylanica, napaulensis, nepalensis, and nipalensis, which belong
to the same genus, would also create homonyms.
5. Later isonym: If numerous authors independently publish the same name, based
on the same type, at various dates, only the oldest of these so-called "isonyms"
has nomenclatural significance. All references to the name must come from their
initial, legitimate publication; subsequent "isonyms" are acceptable. Another
name for A. podophylla Baker (1891) non Hook. (1857) was Alsophila
kalbreyeri, which was independently published by Baker (1892) and Christensen
(1905). A later "isonym" of A. kalbreyeri Baker, Alsophila kalbreyeri is not
recognized by any classification system, according to Christensen's publication.
6. Nomen superfluum (abbreviated as nom. superfl.): A name is not follow the
ICBN principles and rules and must be rejected, i.e., if the taxon to which it was
applied—as circumscribed by its author—included the type of a name or epithet
which ought to have been adopted under the rules. Physkium natans Lour., 1790
thus when transferred to the genus Vallisneria, the epithet natans should have
been retained but de Jussieu used the name Vallisneria physkium Juss., 1826 a
name which becomes superfluous. The species has accordingly been named
correctly as Vallisneria natans (Lour.) Hara, 1974. A combination based on a
superfluous name is also illegitimate. Picea excelsa (Lam.) Link is illegitimate
since it is based on a superfluous name Pinus excelsa Lam., 1778 for Pinus abies
Linn., 1753. The legitimate combination under Picea is thus Picea abies (Linn.)
Karst., 1880.
7. Nomen ambiguum (abbreviated as nom. ambig.): A name is rejected if it is
used in a different sense by different authors and has become a source of
persistent error. The name Rosa villosa L. is rejected because it has been applied
to several different species and has become a source of error.
8. Nomen confusum (abbreviated as nom. confus.): Selecting a good lectotype
is challenging since a name that is based on a type that consists of two or more
fully discordant parts is rejected. For example, the genus Actinotinus received its

40
 features from two genera, Viburnum and Aesculus, when a collector had
inserted the Viburnum inflorescence into the terminal bud of an Aesculus. It is
consequently necessary to drop the term Actinotinus.

SUMMARY
The method of plant nomenclature was covered in this chapter. Botanical nomenclature
is the system of plant name based on worldwide guidelines developed by botanists to
provide a consistent and global standard. Common names, scientific names, binomial
nomenclature, and various ICBN codes (such as Paris code 1067 to Vienna code 2005)
were also covered in this lesson. The principles (6), focal points of ICBN 1983,
phylocode, The rules, rank of taxa, principle of priority, effective and valid publication,
publications of names, citation of authors names, retention,choice and rejection of
names,rejectionofname,nameofcultivatedplantsandnames of hybrids in cultivation were
discussed in detail.

Key Words—
Scientific name: Name of the globally recognized and applied plan.
Binomial: A name consisting of two epithels (one specific and one generic)
ICBN: International Code of Botanical Nomenclature.
Species: A unit of classification.
Type: Name of the taxon is based on type.
ICNCP: International Code for Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants

41
 UNIT-4
TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS 0F COLLECTION& PRESERVATION
OF SPECIMENS

4.1 Objectives
4.2 Herbarium Introduction
4.3 Tools for Herbarium
4.4 Techniques in Collection
 Collection
 Field note
 Taking images
 Pressing
 Drying
 Poisoning
 Mounting
 Label
 Preservation of specimens
 Problems in Management
 Index Herbarium (IH)
 Important Herbarium of India
 Steps for Herbarium
 Functions of Herbarium

4.5 Summary

42
4.1 Objectives
After reading this chapter students will be able to understand-
 Definition of Herbarium
 Various types of plant collection
 Preservation of plant specimen
 Tools of Herbarium

4.2 Herbarium
A herbarium is a collection of dried and compressed plant specimens mounted
on suitable sheets, sorted in accordance with a recognized classification system, and
stored in wooden or steel cabinets with pigeon holes that are often expressly made
for this use. There are thousands of different types of plants in the universe, and
identifying them all without using a specific system is impossible. This marked the
start of systematic botany, and one of the processes involved was the arrangement of
plants in a certain manner. Plants must be gathered using a specific system before
being arranged. The plant specimen that has been obtained serves as the main source
of information for floristic investigations. Plant materials need to be chosen,
gathered, and stored with care so that they can be precisely arranged for
classification and serve as a clue for identification. The conserved specimen serves
as an enduring documentation for future research. This specimen comes from the
herbarium.
Luca Ghini (1490–1556) created the first herbarium, which marked the
beginning of the science behind herbarium development in the sixteenth century.
Subsequently, there has been a noteworthy advancement in the fields of plant
specimen collection and the methods employed by researchers over time to prolong
the preservation of herbarium specimens. It has been known for 450 years that plant
specimens can be preserved in dried form. The naturalist Gherardo Cibo, a student
of Luca Ghini, gathered the oldest intact herbarium specimen, which is housed in
Rome (1532). In Italy, Luca Ghini traveled extensively in search of plants. He
displayed the plants in this manner, and the University of Padua in Italy founded the
world's first herbarium in 1545. In that same year, the first Botanic Garden was
founded. The term "herbarium" was first used to refer to a book about therapeutic
43
 herbs rather than a collection of plants. Two words were employed by Tourneforte in
1700 as an equal to Hartussiccus, which was eventually taken up by Linnaeus. Three
of Ghini's students—Aldrovondi, Cesalpino, and Turner—made their herbaria in the
middle of the 16th century. Cesalpino was from Italy, while Turner was from
England. A scientific method to the study and classification of plants is introduced in
Cesalpino's work "De Plantis libri XVI," which is comparable to the significance of
Cesalpino's herbarium in Florence. Herbarium was created by John Falconer in
1553.About a hundred different plants are described as having medical uses in
Dioscorides' Materia Medica. Italy's Renaissance saw the establishment of the first
botanical garden as well as the teaching of botany. They created a book of mounted,
dried plant specimens, which they dubbed "dry gardens" or "Harti Sicci."

4.3 Herbarium Tools

The following lists the equipment used to create herbarium:
Pruning sheets, Newspaper, Plastic bags or vasculum (metal box), Plant press (Plywood
/ Iron), Digging Tool, Field note book, Lead pencil, Lox hand lens, String tags,
Collecting vials & jars, Fixing solution, Field note book

Field Equipment & Tools--All-Pro Trowel, Clippers, Field Bags, Forceps, Hori-Hori,
Manual Cover, Blotting, Mounting, Mounting Papers, Adhesives, Bryophyte
Packets,Seed Envelope, Bond Pape, Humidity Indicators

Methods of Collection
Collecting, drying, poisoning, mounting, stitching, labeling, depositing, and other
processes are involved in creating a herbarium.

Collection
It is necessary to select angiospermic material with features such as leaves, a fully
developed inflorescence, flowers, and fruit. One must return to the location multiple
times if necessary. The material's size is determined by availability and requirement.
For herbaceous tiny plants, two to four twigs are adequate; for woody plants,
however, one to two roots should also be harvested. Plant material that is unhealthy,
contaminated, or improper should not be collected. Field numbers ought to be

44
 assigned to the collection. At least four to six specimens of the same field number
should exist for the species. Notes on habits, habitat, flower color, notable aspects of
the locality, etc., should be made in the field notebook. When collecting plants for a
herbarium, the following equipment are very crucial: It could be very helpful to have
a tiny knife, scissors, gloves resistant to thorns, and a small, useful shovel. The
purpose of these containers is to shield plants from harm during your collection visit,
thus the specimens you have collected should be placed inside a sturdy bag made of
fabric or polythene. It is advisable to pack a folder that is at least 45x30 cm if your
trip is taking place during the summer or lasts for two or more days. The folder
needs to be sturdy, like cardboard or aluminum, and it needs to have some old
newspapers in it—the more plants you collect, the more newspapers you will
require. The folder should have a handle or shoulder belt attached for convenient
carrying. It can also be covered with cloth and fastened with straps or belts.

Field note
A field record is kept in a tiny, pocket-sized notebook following specimen
collection. The location (name of place or distance from specific point), date of
collection, collection number, and, if available, the specimen's name and
description—which may vary after drying—are all recorded. In addition, high-
quality specimens can deteriorate if their field performance is subpar. GPS (Global
Positioning System) and visual perception are required to record the plant's range,
latitude, longitude, and ecology. The microhabitat of the specimen should also be
mentioned, i.e., at least five related species. Lastly, it is important to note the plant's
distribution status: is the species that was collected uncommon, common, frequent,
local common, or sporadic? If two specimens of the same species are taken in the
same location and on the same day, they ought to be assigned the same collection
number.

Taking Images
Capturing color images of every plant in its natural habitat is another way to
significantly improve the herbarium's quality. This allows the dried specimen to be
arranged with one or more photos, which are especially useful for large plants like
trees or bushes that are obviously too big to fit in a herbarium completely. A

45
 photograph can also effectively depict a plant's habitat, provided that it is taken with
due consideration for the proximity of surrounding shrubs or trees.
A 35 mm single lens reflex camera with a regular lens and a macro lens—the
latter of which is highly helpful for close-ups of flowers and other particular
features—is the recommended equipment. If numerous close-ups are required, a
tripod can also be quite helpful in keeping the camera stable. Moreover, a tripod can
eliminate the need for a flash, which is useful in low light situations but has the
drawback of producing somewhat unnatural-looking photos. Print film speeds might
vary from 64 to 100 ISO to 200 or 400 if planned images in the forest are to be
taken.
It is advisable to document every shot you take in a notebook to supplement the
information used for categorization and to add to the herbarium. Take care to prevent
water damage and harm from hard handling to your camera and films.
Pressing
Newspaper is used to gently hold the specimens. The flower's parts are very
carefully dispersed, keeping their original shape without overlapping. The specimens
must be folded into a V, N, or Z shape if they are lengthy.
If the specimen is a gymnosperm, it must be dipped in glycerine before being
pressed. When dealing with flowers that have gamopetalous corollas, it is
recommended to crush a few of the blooms individually and to divide and disperse
some of them. Larger flowers can frequently be helped to dry faster by using cotton
cushioning. The specimens are thereafter stored inside flimsies, covered by blotters
on both sides, and placed in a herbarium press. The plant press is closed and
pressure is exerted by tightening the straps once the press is filled or all of the
specimens have been placed inside. Dried and hard fruits and cones must be stored
in specific boxes rather than being preserved or crushed.

pressing of specimen in press board

46
 Steps of pressing

Cardboard Cushions
Plywood
Cardboard/Newspaper layers

Cardboard Cushions

Plywood

Fig. Basic Structure of press

Drying
There are two kinds of drying methods: those that are carried out in the absence of heat
and those that make use of artificial heat. Artificial heating is the most common method
of drying. Heat-treated, dry air is forced up and through the corrugate's canal to achieve
this. In presses, corrugates—also called ventilators—are utilized to dry plants using
artificial heat. It is a thin aluminum metal sheet or pasteboard with fluted ducts. It
allows warm, dry air to travel through the press's air passageways. The most popular
way to dry is without using any heat. In the plant press, plants are arranged in pressing
sheets in between blotters. Corrugates are not utilized. There is a 24-hour lockdown on
the press. This is referred to as the sweating phase. It is then opened, and each pressing
sheet is flipped back as blotters are removed, specimens are inspected, and pieces are

47
rearranged as necessary.
The folder sheet is rearranged, then placed on a clean dry blotter and topped with
another dry blotter. After another 24 to 36 hours, the fresh stack of blotters and
specimens is secured inside the press, and the process of swapping out wet blotters for
dry ones is repeated. After two or three days, there is typically a third replacement of
blotters. Three to four changes of blotters are required; each wet blotter removed must
be dried, usually by sun exposure, before being repurposed. It takes around one week
for the drying process to be finished. Care is used when packing dried specimens. If
sufficient attention is not provided until the permanent storage, fungi and insects will
cause harm.

Poisoning
It is important to take precautions against insect pest damage to herbarium specimens.
The most destructive insects are silverfish, booklice, cigarette beetles, and herbarium
beetles. Sometimes, little amounts of insect repellents like para dichlorobenzene or
naphthalene balls are kept in herbarium cabinets. Mercuric chloride is thought to be
helpful despite being harmful and potentially harmful to health since it offers long-term
defense against insect attack. In addition to insects, materials stored in moist conditions
or in high humidity environments are constantly at risk from mold and mildew. It is
thought that LPCP and naphthalene have fungicidal qualities. Still, thymol works rather
well as a fungicide.

Mounting
The technique of mounting involves securing a specimen to a herbarium sheet and
placing a label in the lower right corner. Specimens are affixed onto herbarium paper
sheets that are standard size, measuring 29 by 43 cm.
The majority of herbaria adhere the specimens to the sheets using paste or glue. There
are several ways to attach the specimen. A typical procedure is to apply a water-soluble
paste to a glass plate, set the specimen on the paste, and then move the glued plant to the
mounting sheet. Fragment packets are little paper envelopes that are affixed to the sheet
for the purpose of containing seeds, additional blossoms, or any portion of the
specimen.

48
Label
An integral and crucial component of permanent plant specimens is the herbarium label.
Though they might differ significantly, labels are typically rectangular in shape and
size, measuring between 10 and 15 cm (4 and 6 in.). The bottom right location is often
considered to be the ideal for the main label; this makes the label easier to see when
stored in protective covers that open on the right side. In an ideal world, there would be
room above the label for determination slips to be attached in the future. In general, a
herbarium label ought to have the following details:
1. Heading- name of the institution in which the specimens originated /deposited.
2. Scientific name- Genus, specific epithet, author, or authors
3. Family-
4. Locality-
5. Range, latitude and longitude-
6. Habitat-
7. Date of collection-
8. Name of collector(s)-
9. Determined by-
10. Remarks-

Preservation of the specimens

Fumigants and heating repellents are utilized to stop the attack of these harmful
substances. The specimens can be heated for six hours at 60 degrees Celsius in a
specially designed cabinet to kill larvae, eggs, and other materials. One typical and
efficient method for fumigation in a closed chamber is to combine one part ethylene

49
dichloride with one part carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). DDT, or dichlorodiphenyl
trichloroethane, is a widely used insecticide.

Problems in Management
In the contemporary epoch of molecular biology and biotechnology, traditional
disciplines such as taxonomy and herbarium have undergone considerable turmoil.
Herbaria support the advancement of all fields related to biology. The so-called
modern biologists of today, who are least aware of the value of a herbarium
disregard herbaria.
Some herbaria, which have been built over many years by taxonomists, are
currently in danger of collapsing because of the false belief held by the ruling
biologists that herbaria are just repositories of collections of dead plants that cannot
advance national development or generate funding for research. In reality, herbaria
are simply a resource of plant databases from which biologists obtain basic
knowledge, either directly or indirectly, about the plant species that they study in
depth.
Due to a shortage of skilled labor, national herbariums such as the Central
National Herbarium (CAL), the Herbarium of the Forest Research Institute in
Dehradun, and the Herbarium of the National Botanical Research Institute in
Lucknow are in grave risk of closing.
A sizable structure, curators, a collection, researcher tables, and funding are
needed for an ongoing herbarium. These days, funding for this topic is scarce,
making maintenance extremely challenging. Policymakers need to be aware of this
and take action to preserve the significant herbaria. Taxonomists should also be
contacted to assist with herbarium care and exploration.

Index Hebariorum (IH)

For the past three centuries, herbaria—collections of dried reference specimens—
have been used by scientists to catalog the diversity of plants and fungi on Earth.
Currently, there are about 3,990 herbaria worldwide, and about 10,000 curators and
experts in biodiversity work with them. An estimated 350,000,000 specimens total
from all of the world's herbaria record the vegetation of the planet over the previous
400 years. An overview of this essential tool for biodiversity research and

50
conservation is provided by Index Herbariorum.
An herbarium's physical location, Web URL, contents (such as the quantity and kind
of specimens), history, and the names, contact details, and areas of specialty of
related staff are all included in the Index Herbariorum (IH) entry for that herbarium.
IH includes only those collections that are permanent scientific repositories. In order
to be accepted, new registrants must show that their collection is sizable—5,000
specimens at the very least—actively managed, and available to scientists. Since the
establishment of IH in 1935, every institution has been given a permanent, unique
identification in the form of a four- to eight-letter code.
The International Association for Plant Taxonomy in the Netherlands produced the
first six editions of Index Herbariorum (1952–1974). As co-editor of edition 6, Dr.
Patricia Holmgren, who was the director of the New York Botanical Garden
(NYBG) at the time, went on to become the senior editor of IH. She was in charge
of compiling the hard copy volumes 7 and 8, while Dr. Noel Holmgren, a scientist
employed by the NYBG, was in charge of developing the IH database, which went
online in 1997.

Important Herbaria of India

Year of
S. Name of No. of Abbre
Specimens
No. Herbarium Places plants viation
founding
Central National
1 2,500,00 1793 CAL
Herbarium,Calcutta
Forest Research
2 3,000,00 1816 DD
Institute,Dehradun
Herbarium of the
3 NationalBotanic 1,00,000 1984 NBG
Garden, Lucknow
Botanical Survey of
4 India, Dehradun 60,000 1956 BSD
Northerncircle

51
 Important World’s Herbaria
2 New York Botanical Garden 7,200,000 USA
4 Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 7,000,000 UK; Kew, England
6 Missouri Botanical Garden 5,870,000 USA; St. Louis,
Missouri
7 British Museum of Natural 5,200,000 UK; London,
History England

Steps for Herbarium Preparation

– Preparation of specimen
– Drying of specimen
– Preservation of specimen
– Mounting of the specimen
– Labeling of the specimen
– Filing of the specimen
Collection - Drying - Preservation - Mounting - Labeling – Filing

Functions of Herbarium
A contemporary herbarium has useful purposes or functionality. A herbarium serves
the key purposes listed below:
1. It offers the data required to confirm and identify recently obtained plants.
2. It is a priceless repository for plant information and material.
3. It is a collection storage facility that houses priceless type specimens. Research
on taxonomy is considerably aided by the herbaria.
4 Acts as a vital source for identifying every plant on the planet.
5. It provides a source for biodiversity gathering. Today, the majority of estimates
of biodiversity worldwide are based only on herbarium collections.
6. It supports biodiversity monitoring by executing secure herbarium collection,
which is necessary for all monitoring programs in order to get quantitative
baseline data on the distribution and abundance of keystone species.
7. It acts as a repository for voucher specimens used in different botanical studies.

52
 8. Supports the evaluation of a taxon's conservation status.
9. A herbarium's extensive collection of a certain species helps with population
biology research by evaluating the diversity or variability exhibited by a species
throughout its distributional range.
10. It provides a source for the hunt for novel genetic material to enhance
domesticated stock.

4.5 SUMMARY
This unit included the topics of herbarium, museum, and herbarium techniques. An
assortment of dried and compressed plant specimens mounted on suitable sheets and
stored in pigeon holes according to a recognized classification system is called a
herbarium. Luca Ghini is credited with founding the science of herbarium. The purpose
of a herbarium, its classification, its instruments, its methods of collecting, its index,
and the significant Indian herbarium were all covered. A museum is an organization that
does botany-related scientific and instructional activities in addition to gathering,
conserving, and displaying botanical collections.

Key words: DDT, Museum, Taxon, Ethnobotany, Systematics.

Q.1 Multiple Choice Questions

(i) The standard size of a herbarium sheet is:
(a) 28.75x41.25 cm. (b) 25.15x40.25 cm.
(c) 18.75x41.25 cm. (d) 28.75x35.25 cm.
(ii) The largest Herbaria in the world located at:
(a) Royal Botanical Garden, England
(b) National Botanical Garden, India
(c) New York Botanical Garden, New York
(d) Komarov Botanical Institute, Russia
(iii) What is the primary purpose of a herbarium?
(a) To grow plants for research
(b) To store dried plant specimens
(c) To cultivate rare plant species
(d) To study live plants in controlled environments

53
(iv) Which scientist is often credited with pioneering the use of herbaria in botanical
research?
(a) Charles Darwin (b) Gregor Mendel
(c) Carl Linnaeus (d) Albert Einstein
(v) What is the term for a person who specializes in the collection and study of plant
specimens for a herbarium?
(a) Botanist (b) Herbariologist (c) Horticulturist (d) Taxonomist
Answers: (i) a (ii) a (iii) b (iv) c (v) a

Q.2 Answer in 3-4 lines:

(i) Field note book
(ii) Plant press
(iii) Pruning shears
(iv) Endangered species
(v) Digger

54
 UNIT-5
BOTANICAL GARDENS AND HERBARIA

5.1 Objectives

5.2 Introduction
5.2.1 Important Herbaria of India/World

5.3. Taxonomic literature

5.3.1 Flora writing
5.3.2 Monograph

5.4 Botanical Gardens

5.4.1 History
5.4.2 Functions of Botanic garden
5.4.3 Special kinds or sections of garden
5.4.4 Botanical gardens in India

5.5 BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (BSI)

5.6 Summary

55
5.1 Objectives
This chapter's primary objectives are to increase your knowledge of the following
topics:
The definitions of a herbarium and a botanic garden, as well as what it means to be
familiar with both.

5.2 Introduction
A herbarium is a collection of dried and compressed plant specimens mounted on
suitable sheets, sorted in accordance with a recognized classification system, and stored
in wooden or steel cabinets with pigeon holes that are often expressly made for this use.
There are thousands of different types of plants in the universe, and identifying them all
without using a specific system is impossible. This marked the start of systematic
botany, and one of the processes involved was the arrangement of plants in a certain
manner. Plants must be gathered using a specific system before being arranged. The
plant specimen that has been obtained serves as the main source of information for
floristic investigations. Plant materials need to be chosen, gathered, and stored with care
so that they can be precisely arranged for classification and serve as a clue for
identification. The conserved specimen serves as an enduring documentation for future
research. This specimen comes from the herbarium.
Luca Ghini (1490–1556) created the first herbarium, which marked the beginning of the
science behind herbarium development in the sixteenth century. Subsequently, there has
been a noteworthy advancement in the fields of plant specimen collection and the
methods employed by researchers over time to prolong the preservation of herbarium
specimens. It has been known for 450 years that plant specimens can be preserved in
dried form. The naturalist Gherardo Cibo, a student of Luca Ghini, gathered the oldest
intact herbarium specimen, which is housed in Rome (1532). In Italy, Luca Ghini
traveled extensively in search of plants. He displayed the plants in this manner, and the
University of Padua in Italy founded the world's first herbarium in 1545. In that same
year, the first Botanic Garden was founded. The term "herbarium" was first used to refer
to a book about therapeutic herbs rather than a collection of plants. About 1700,
Tourneforte employed two words to replace Hartussiccus, a term that Linnaeus
eventually embraced. Three of Ghini's students, Aldrovondi, Cesalpino, and Turner (all

56
from Italy) also created herbariums around the middle of the 16th century. The
importance of Cesalpino's herbarium in Florence is comparable to his book "De
plantislibri XVI," which established a scientific method for the study and classification
of plants. In 1553, John Falcener created the Herbarium.About a hundred plants'
medical uses are described in Dioscorides' Materia Medica. Italy's Renaissance saw the
establishment of the first botanical garden as well as the teaching of botany. They
created a "Book" of mounted, dried plant specimens, which they dubbed "Dry gardens"
or "HartiSicci."

The categories for the herbaria are:

(a) Major or National Herbaria, which cover the entire world's flora and are used for
both identification and study.
(b) Minor Herbaria: These comprise scaled-down versions of regional, local, and
College/University herbaria.

Figure 5.1: Pressing the specimen into the press board

57
 5.2.1 Important Herbaria of India/World
No. of
S. Name of Year of Abbrev
Places plants
N Herbarium foundng iation
specimens
Central
1. National Kolkata 2,500,00 1793 Kol
Herbarium
Forest
2. Research Dehradun 3,000,00 1816 DD
Institute
Botanical
Survey of
3. India, Dehradun 60,000 1956 BSD
Northern
circle
Herbarium
of the
National
4. Lucknow 1,00,000 1984 NBG
Botanic
Gardens,
Lucknow
Botanical
Survey of
5. Allahabad 40,000 1955 BSA
India Central
Circle
Madras
6. Coimbatore 1,50,000 1874 NH
Herbarium

58
 Significant Herbaria in the World
S. Name No. of Location
No. Specimens
Muséum National d‗Histoire
1. 9,500,000 France; Paris
Naturelle
2. New York Botanical Garden 7,200,000 USA
Russia; St.
3. Komarov Botanical Institute 7,160,000
Petersburg
UK; Kew,
4. Royal Botanic Gardens Kew 7,000,000
England
Conservatoire et
5. Jardinbotaniques de la Ville de Switzerland;
6,000,000
Genève Geneva
USA; St.
6. Missouri Botanical Garden 5,870,000 Louis,
Missouri
British Museum of Natural UK; London,
7. 5,200,000
History England
USA;
8. Harvard University Herbaria 5,005,000
Cambridge
Swedish Museum of Natural Sweden;
9. 4,400,000
History Stockholm
United States National
10. Herbarium, Smithsonian 4,340,000 USA
Institution
National Herbarium of the Netherlands;
11. 4,000,000
Netherlands Leiden
National Botanic Garden of Belgium,
12. 3,500,000
Belgium Meise
Zentraleinrichtung der Freien Germany,
13. 3,000,000
Universität Berlin Berlin

59
 Botanische Staatssammlung Germany,
14. 3,000,000
München Munich
15. Chinese National Herbarium 2,470,000 China
UK;
Royal Botanic Garden,
16. 2,000,000 Edinburgh,
Edinburgh
Scotland
17. Herbarium Bogoriense 2,000,000 Indonesia
Royal Botanic Gardens, National
18.
Herbarium of Victoria 1,200,000 Australia
National Herbarium of New
19. 1,000,000 Australia
South Wales

National Herbarium Nederland,

20. Netherlands;
Utrecht University branch 800,000
Utrecht
Spain;
21. Institute Botànic de Barcelona 700,000
Barcelona
National Botanic Gardens, Ireland;
22. 600,000
Ireland Dublin
Zimbabwe;
23. Zimbabwe National Herbarium 513,700
Harare
24. Bolus Herbarium 373,000 South Africa

5.3. Taxonomic literature

There are vast literatures on taxonomic botany is available and the literatures are in
various forms:
General Taxonomic indexes
World floras and manuals
Monographs and revisions
Bibliographic, catalogues and review series
Periodicals
References
60
Maps and Catalogues
Biographic reference
Data of Publication
Location of type specimen
Directories, addresses and Colour Charts
Outstanding botanical libraries

Flora: The term "flora" describes both the plants that grow in a certain area and the
publications that provide scientific descriptions of those plants. Anything from a basic
list of the plants that grow in a region to an in-depth description of those species can be
found in a flora. Unlike popular handbooks, floras make an effort to include every plant,
not just the most prevalent or noticeable ones. Scientific names are nearly usually
included in a flora; additional information that may be included is common names,
habitats, literature references, flowering periods, blossoming distribution, images, and
notes. Depending on the situation, the plants may be arranged alphabetically or they
may be shown in a classification scheme that shows which plants are most similar to
one another or are believed to be related. Additionally, floras frequently contain
identifiers, or "keys," that allow the user to recognize an unfamiliar plant.

5.3.1 Flora writing

1. First, the location for the flora study must be determined.
2. The defined geography of the designated area must be provided, together with a map.
3. Give a thorough description of the area's ecology, including the highest and lowest
temperatures, rainfall, water bodies, main habitats, soil conditions, physiographic
regions, etc.
4. Determine the area's floristic zones or biological ecosystems.
5. Thorough field research to examine the vegetation and periodically gather every
plant.
6. A field book must be kept up to date with information on the plants that were
collected, such as the local name, frequency, phenology, and field number and
description.

61
7. Other local and regional flora will be used to help identify plant specimens that have
been collected. The specimen needs to be verified by comparing it to genuine sheets in
any Botanical Survey of India regional herbarium.
8. The ICBN should verify the species' nomenclature.
9. For a new species, the author reference needs to be verified.
10. Provide botanical keys so that all families, genera, and species may be identified.
11. The species description ought to match the real specimen that was taken from the
location.
12. If any new species are discovered, they should be described and made public in
accordance with ICBN guidelines.
13. Families in flora are often grouped in accordance with a recognized categorization.
For the most part, it was Bentham and Hooker's approach; however some plants have
recently started using Cronquist's classification scheme.
A species is must have the following: (a) a correct name; (b) a vernacular name; (c) a
clear description with variation; (d) distributional data; and (e) Environmental state
Utilizations (g) Status of conservation (h). Origin: native or exotic (i) specimens from
the region that were analyzed.
Flora should contain
(a) Title
(b) Geography
(c) Environmental condition
(d) Taxonomic treatment
(i) Nomenclature
(ii) Vernacular name
(iii) Description
(iv) Cultivar, if any
(v) Phenology
(vi) Distribution
(vii) Ecological data
(viii) Use
(ix) Conservation status
(x) Origin
(xi) List of voucher specimens

62
 (e) Summary statistics
(f) Bibliography
(g) Illustration
(h) Index

A two to three page synopsis of the work should be provided, and it should include a
visual or tabular representation of the total number of families, genera, species, and both
native and invasive species, as well as rare and endemic species. Modern computers are
employed to solve it.

Palmer and associates (1995) An abundance scale is provided.

Density Score Description
Dominant in one or more common
(1) Abundant 5
habitats
Easily found but not dominant in
(2) Frequent 4
common habitats.
Widely scattered but not very
(3) Occassional 3
difficult to find.
Difficult to find with few
(4) Infrequent 2 individuals or colonies but found
in several locations
Very difficult to find only few
(5) Rare 1
specimens is found in the area.
Not found in the area presently But it
(6) Absent 0 might be present in the previous
survey.

The use of plants

Flora is an important source for academic research, lecturers at universities, and
students studying agriculture and botany. It's employed for plant identification. It is
helpful for managing and assessing biodiversity. Flora is helpful in managing
ecosystems, forests, and land. It offers a general overview of the local plant life. The
development of botanical gardens and parks benefits from flora. Plants that are
63
specifically cultivated for medicinal or drug purposes can be used by pharmaceutical,
Ayurvedic, and seed firms, among others. Planning a city, hamlet, or town is aided by
the flora. It is helpful for studying vegetation, assessing rare and endangered species,
and other related tasks. The assessment of phytogeography patterns is aided by flora.
5.3.2 Monograph- It is the study of a taxon, or genus, or family, independent of its
place of occurrence. Keys, descriptions, accurate nomenclature, and even the taxon's
evolutionary history are provided by monograph.
The monograph is written following a thorough examination and study of the subject. It
also includes studies on seed dispersal, pollination behavior, and physiological
adaptability.

Difference between monograph and flora

Monograph Flora
Broad account of the taxonomic data Taxonomically less critical and
superficial
Provide the whole range of a taxon Excludes all taxonomic variations.
Infraspecific variation and Not found in the flora
biosystematics data are carefully
analyzed.
It provides an organized synthesis of all It is a method of data identification.
Taxonomic data that is presently
accessible.

5.4 BOTANICAL GARDEN

Botanical gardens, often called botanic gardens, are typically well-kept parks that
feature a variety of plants labeled with their scientific names. They could have
collections of rare plants like succulents, cactus, and orchids. Essentially, botanic
gardens and arboretums are outdoor collections of identified live plants, with a carefully
planned environment that serves as a passive component of the communities in which
they are located. For those who have chosen gardening as their pastime, they are the
primary source of plants and plant-related information. They serve as the primary
source of newly discovered knowledge about a wide variety of plants.

64
They display the indigenous flora of the area and occasionally serve as ―outdoor
laboratories‖ for researchers and students. Some botanic gardens are large enough to
provide for a pleasant drive through them during the blossoming season and serve as a
tranquil place of leisure. They add beauty to the institution to which they belong. We
may learn what plants to use in our little home gardens and in what combinations to
create eye-catching designs from these unique exhibits, which include hedge displays
and smaller gardens that are part of larger gardens.
Regular public lectures are held in a number of public or government gardens, where
anyone may learn about gardens in general, and in particular about houseplants, home
landscaping, and Christmas flower arrangements, both conceptually and practically.

The following should be on exhibit in a contemporary botanical or botanic garden:

(1) Groups of various kinds of domesticated plants, particularly decorative ones as
dahlias, poppies, cannas, lilies, primulas, violas, crotons, coleus, ferns, palms, orchids,
etc.
(2) Special interest, medicinal, and economically valuable plants.
(3) Particular geographic plant forms, such as aquatic, marsh, alpine, desert, and so on.
(4) Weeds and how they are controlled.
(5) Plants that have been referenced in ancient and holy literature, as well as state
flowers, national flowers, and local favorites

5.4.1 HISTORY
According to a number of accounts, gardens of all kinds were seen within and
surrounding the temples prior to the arrival of Christianity. The cultivation of edible,
medicinal, and beautiful plants is a fantastic practice that the Romans, Chinese, and
Persians had. This marked the start of gardens being established. Following the arrival
of Christianity, the usage of medicinal plants multiplied and their cultivation was
pursued as a means of treating illness. The fact that the herbalists knew so many
different plants made them respected. Subsequently, the value of study plants drew a
large audience, and the need to create learning gardens was recognized. This resulted in
the establishment of academic institutions and gardens. Gardens began to contribute to
the knowledge of botany from 300–200 BC. Long before recorded history began, people

65
grew plants in their gardens. In ancient India, food and medicinal plants were cultivated
and kept between 4000 and 2000 BC. Gardens were common elements of temple and
religious site grounds throughout the Mediterranean culture. An outstanding illustration
of this construction is the Hanging Garden of Babylon. Plants from the conquered
territories were collected by the Romans, who grew them mostly in Italy. Later,
Persians, Aztecs, and Chinese began cultivating flowers for fragrance and decoration.
Plants received little attention throughout the middle ages, between 600 and 1600 AD.
The look Garcia d'Orta's on medicinal plants in 1565 was translated into Latin in the
seventeenth century. This brought a lot of tourists from Europe to India, and in the
sixteenth century, many nations began to cultivate medical herbs; many plants were
produced in the garden. The 16th and 17th centuries saw a shift in the uses of botanic
gardens after then.
It was also the era of discovery and the start of global trade. To attempt and develop
new species that were being brought back from trips to the tropics, gardens like the Real
Jardín Botánico de Madrid and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, were established. In
addition to fostering and supporting botanical research in the tropics, these gardens
assisted in the establishment of new botanical gardens there to aid in the cultivation of
these recently discovered plant species. The Botanic Gardens of Calcutta founded by
the British in 1787, whilst the Botanic Gardens of Pamplemousse in Mauritius were
developed by the French in 1735, and the Botanic Gardens of La Oroava in Tenerife
were constructed by the Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid. Almost entirely, the purpose
of these tropical gardens was to accept and grow commercial products including cloves,
tea, coffee, breadfruit, cinchona, palm oil, and chocolate.
During this period, teak and tea were brought to India, star fruit, pepper, and breadfruit
were brought to the Caribbean, and para rubber was brought to Singapore. Since there
was no true scientific foundation for these tropical gardens, they could not be properly
referred to as "Botanic Gardens," which nearly caused them to fail. The development of
independent organizations and agricultural colleges rendered these "cultivational"
gardens essentially obsolete. In Europe and the British Commonwealth, municipal and
civic gardens were established in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Very few of these gardens had any scientific programming; the majority of them were
only designed for enjoyment. The first botanic garden to be established in the United
States of America was the Missouri Botanic Garden, which opened its doors in 1859.

66
The only true scientific endeavors carried out by gardens during this period of botanic
garden history were the accurate labeling of collections and the global seed exchange.
Because of the rise of the conservation movement, botanic gardens have seen a
renaissance as academic institutions throughout the past 30 years. Because of their
current collections and the significance they presently hold, scientific expertise in the
propagation of plant species that they possess. Nowadays, many gardens view
conservation as their raison d'être. This started when the IUCN started promoting the ex
situ conservation of vulnerable plants in the 1970s. Currently there are 1775 botanic
gardens and arboreta in 148 countries, and there are many more planned or under
development, including the first botanic garden in Oman, which will be among the
When completed, it will be the largest gardens in the world and have the first inside fog
forest on a significant scale, housed inside a massive glasshouse.

5.4.2 FUNCTIONS OF BOTANIC GARDEN

1. Provide a basis for contemporary taxonomic research, such as morphological
character comparisons between preserved and live individuals.
2. Provide suitable conditions for the introduction and acclimation of plants, making
them a crucial instrument for the development of profitable plants.
3. The collections of germplasm found in botanical gardens serve as the foundation for
improvement and hybridization.
4. Various rare and endangered plant species of the globe that are in risk of becoming
extinct in their native habitat are housed in botanical gardens thanks to their intricate
glass homes, green houses, and in some cases even phytotrons. Thus, gardens contribute
to the preservation of the global plant life.
5. Materials for those plants that are not normally available in that area or location for
study and research.
6. Offers training facilities for horticulture, gardening, landscape, and other related
fields.
7. Well-established botanic gardens sustain ties of exchange with other gardens
worldwide, therefore dispersing seeds, saplings, and other propagules to remote
locations. Moreover, some botanic gardens periodically publish lists of plants that are
available for exchange and distribution. Such catalogs of available seeds are sometimes
referred to as "Index Seminum."

67
8. The archives of regional flora that botanic gardens provide are nevertheless valuable
for ongoing monographic research. It is a fundamental foundation for all other plant
research, according to Holttum (1970). In order to gather live plant material for
biosystematic research, the gardens also offer facilities. For botanical research, several
of these gardens provide materials and seeds. Haywood (1964) includes a list of the
seed supply. The research laboratory, library, herbaria, and green houses. The year 1962
saw the founding of the International Association of Botanic Gardens. Such recorded
collections are currently found in over 125 botanic gardens. The 1963 International
Directory of Botanic Gardens was issued by this organization.
9. Botanical gardens are peaceful havens with stunning scenery.

5.4.3 SPECIAL KINDS OR SECTIONS OF GARDENS

a. Arboretum (Arboreta): Arboreta are botanical gardens or sections of botanic
gardens with a predominately woody plant collection. Arboreta duties can be fulfilled
by small portions of woods reserved for the conservation of arborescent species.
b. Pinetum (Pineta): Consists primarily of conifers. The Indian Botanical Garden in
Calcutta looks after one such pinetum.
c. Orchidarium (Orchidaria): An orchidarium is a garden filled with collections of
orchids. BSI founded in Coimbatore and Shillong..
d. Bambusetum (BambusetaBamboos are the main plant groups. An excellent
bambusetum is kept up in the Indian Botanic Garden in Kolkata.

5.4.4 IMPORTANT BOTANIC GARDENS OF THE INDIA

Australia Botanic Gardens of the New South Wales, Sydney.
Indian botanic garden, Howrah; Lloyd botanic garden,
India Darjeeling; National botanic
gardens, Lucknow.
Scotland Royal botanic garden, Edinburgh.
England Royal botanic gardens, Kew; Oxford, Cambridge.
Arnold Arboratum of Harvard University, Brooklyn, Cambridge,
Washington New York,
United States
Long Wood, Missouri, Strybing Arboratum, Huntington,
Fairchild botanic gardens.

68
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England-- Sir Henry Capel, an enthusiastic gardener
who passed away in 1696, first planted his own garden at Kew, the site of the famous
Royal Botanic Gardens in England.
Directors of Kew Gardens included Sir Geoffrey Evans, Edward James Salisbury
(knighted in 1946), and Arthur William Hill (knighted in 1931). The current director of
Kew is George Taylor. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, now span over 300 acres and
are governed by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food, but with some
autonomy for the Director.
Kew Bulletin and Index Kewensis are two of the more significant publications of
botanical study conducted at Kew. In addition to papers in various scientific journals
and official publications, there are publications such as Hooker's Leaves Plantarum
(which has black and white drawings and full descriptions of the plants conserved at
Kew), Botanical Magazine (which has colored plants of living plants with descriptions),
etc. Books in their whole on a wide range of botanical topics are also written and
published.

BOTANICAL GARDENS IN INDIA

There are several botanical gardens with a wide variety of plants and trees in India. Both
native plant species and exotic floral specimens are preserved in the Botanical Gardens.
Research on fruit and flower quality and quantity, as well as plantation and culture, is
conducted in the Botanical Gardens. Regular flower shows are also organized by it.
State Name of the garden
University of Rajasthan Botanic Garden, Jaipur
Desert Botanic Garden, Cazri, Jodhpur
BSI Arid Zone Botanic Garden, Jodhpur
Rajasthan
Ganga Niwas Garden, Jodhpur
Mandore Garden, Jodhpur
Nehru Park and Umaid Garden, Jodhpur
Assam Guwahati University Botanic Garden
Bhagalpur University Botanical Garden, Post Graduate, Magadh University
Bihar
Botanical Garden, Jubilee Park Telco Garden and Nursery
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources Botanical Garden Delhi
Delhi
University Botanical Garden

69
National Botanic Gardens, Lucknow, India-- The public of Lucknow know the site of
the National Botanic Gardens as Sikander Bagh. In the southeast corner of the current
National Botanic Gardens lies a historic garden. Nawab Saadat Ali Khan (1789–1814)
constructed it. Situated on the Gomti River's southern bank, the National Botanic
Gardens, now headed by K.N. Kaul, span around 75 acres.

Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah-- The Lieutenant Colonel Robert Kyd founded the
Indian Botanic Garden in 1787. It is located on the Hooghly River's west bank (Ganga).
Spanning 273 acres, the garden is vast.
Initiated by Sir George King in 1872, its distinctive landscape design—which has
undulating land surfaces, man-made lakes and moats connected by subterranean
pipelines that draw water from the Hooghly River—is regarded as one of the greatest in
the world's botanic gardens.
The garden was originally called the East India Company's Garden, the Company
Bagan, or the Calcutta Garden. Later, it was called the Royal Botanic Garden, and in
1950, upon independence, it was renamed the Indian Botanic Garden. On January 1,
1963, the Botanical Survey of India took over administration of it. Thousands of
herbaceous plants and more than 12,000 trees and shrubs from 1400 species are grown
outdoors in 25 Divisions, glass houses, green houses, and conservatories. The garden is
home to the richest collection of palm trees (about 109 species) in all of South East Asia
in addition to maintaining the germplasm collections of bamboos, bougainvillea, citrus,
jasmine, pandanus, and water lilies.
In its Flower Garden, National Orchidarium, and Student Garden, among other
botanical and arboricultural plants, are cultivated succulents, Hibiscus, Ficus, Aromatic
plants, Gymnosperms (in two Pinetums), Creepers, Ferns, and some other species. The
Medicinal Plant Garden, known as ‗Charak Udyan, is enriched with a multitude of
medicinal plants. A handful of the garden's intriguing flora are the Mad Tree, Shivalinga
tree, Branched Palm, Bread Fruit Tree, Double Coconut, Giant Water Lilies,
Krishnabot, and so on. Additionally, studies on the introduction, growth, and
conservation of plants are carried out. Every year, millions of people go to the Indian
Botanic Garden to see the Great Banyan Tree (Ficus bengalensis L.). With 2800 prop
roots covering 1.5 hectares, it is nearly 250 years old and has the appearance of a tiny

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forest. This garden's big palm house is home to a number of unusual species, such as the
Double Coconut (Lodoiceamaldivica), which is known to generate the largest seeds in
the entire plant kingdom.

Lloyd’s Botanical Garden-- In the West Bengali city of Darjeeling, there is a unique
botanical garden called Lloyd's Botanical Garden. An area of around forty acres,
donated by William Lloyd in 1878, was established as a branch institution of the Royal
Botanic Garden Calcutta.

5.5 BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (BSI) -- A government organization called

the Botanical Survey of India conducts systematic surveys to investigate the nation's
botanical resources. For the benefit of science and the personnel who work in
universities and other academic institutions, it obtains precise and comprehensive
information about the occurrence, distribution, ecology, and economic usefulness of
plants in India. Plant material that may be used for teaching and research is gathered,
identified, and distributed by it.

5.5.1 HISTORY
Established in 1890, the Botanical Survey of India and reorganized in 1954. Because its
size and the wide range of geographical features it possesses, India offers a diversity of
flora and forest kinds inside its borders that may not be found in any other country in
the world. India's abundant vegetable resources have drawn people from all over the
world since ancient times. Egypt was the first country to initiate commerce with India
for luxury goods derived from vegetables and other sources.
In the 18th century, there was a growing interest in India's botanical collections. Many
individuals, including missionaries, doctors, employees of the Hon'ble East India
Company, and the governments of Madras, Bombay, and Bengal, were actively
involved in exploring various forest regions and compiling priceless collections. Among
them were Koenig, Roxburg, Heyne, Wight, Campbell, Klein, Rottler, Gibson, and so
on; these were more significant.
Additionally, plans were made to move the Linneaus collection to Hooker, Sir Joseph
Banks, India House, the Linnean Society, and a few other locations. Horticulture also
gained prominence alongside these botanical endeavors, and new botanical gardens

71
were established at several significant locations with the goal of introducing and raising
exotic species.
The Hon'ble East India Company was given 350 acres of land at Sibpur, Calcutta, in
1857, to establish a garden. In addition, comparable gardens were established in
Bombay, Saharanpur, Madras, and a few other locations at the same time. Every garden
of the type has its own herbarium. Assist in the study of vegetable taxonomy, forest
flora taxonomy, horticultural methods, and forest usage and conservation. These
endeavors are founded on individual endeavors.
After the country's governance was transferred from the Hon'ble East India Company to
the Crown in 1858, the serious endeavor to establish a central survey for a coordinated
activity for an in-depth study of the flora of the nation began.

5.5.2 Botanical Survey of India (Between 1937 - 1952)

Mr. C. C. Calder was the last incumbent to the post of the Director, BSI. In 1936 the
govt. Of India sanctioned the post of Superintendent for four zone instead of Director
BSI.From 1930 forward, the survey's condition of affairs was gradually decline and
deteriorate.
The social and economic goals of a free India emerged with World War II and India's
declaration of independence, creating the conditions for both scientific and economic
growth. When the Botanical Survey was to be reformed in 1952–1953, the Indian
Botanic Gardens' Systematic Division, Indian Museum, and Industrial Section made up
the new organization.

5.5.3 ACTIVITIES OF THE BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

1. Currently, the primary goal of the Survey is to provide an inventory of India's flora.
Experts from various parties involved are compiling the narratives of numerous families
for this reason. Universities and other researchers have also been given access to family
accounts. A large number of family accounts have already been resolved and released.
2. Manuals and Editorials - Research on certain genera and families is also being done
monographically.
3. The Botanical Survey of India has worked on cryptogams in addition to higher plant
surveys.

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4. The current work of the survey also includes supplementary laboratories for study on
anatomy, phytochemistry, cytotaxonomy, palynology, biosystematics, and ecology.
5. The Survey offers comprehensive research on economic and therapeutic plants
through its own museums and herbarium.
6. Research on ethnobotany and the preservation of uncommon and endangered plant
species has also been conducted by the Survey.
7. The Survey has established many scholarships for research on India's flora. The
scholarships are offered by some colleges and by a number of Survey offices.
8. The Survey conducts studies in nearly every field of botany and provides researchers
and the general public with information on every facet of plant life. Additionally, towns,
other organizations, and garden enthusiasts receive seedlings and plant materials.

5.6 SUMMARY
This chapter covered the Botanical Survey of India (BSI), living plant collections
(botanical gardens), and the preservation of plant material as herbarium. Luca Ghini
(1490–1556) created the first herbarium, which marked the beginning of the science of
herbarium.
Herbarium covered significant collections of plants from over the world, taxonomic
literature, flora writing, flora usefulness, and monographs. The history, purpose, unique
varieties, and significance of botanical gardens were discussed. The Botanical Survey of
India (BSI) covered a number of topics, including its history, current organizational
structure, impact from regional flora, restructuring, four regional centers, and
operations.

Key Words-
Herbarium: Collection of dried and pressed plant specimens placed on suitable sheets
and grouped in accordance with a recognized classification system.
Flora: Plant occurring in a given regions with systematic study
BSI: Botanical Survey of India.

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 UNIT-6
RANUNCULACEAE CARYOPHYLLACEAE LILIACEAE AND POACEAE

6.1 Objectives
 Ranunculaceae Family
 Caryophyllaceae Family
 Liliaceae Family
 Poaceae Family

6.2 Family- Ranunculaceae

Systematics
General characters
Economic importance

Bentham and Hooker classified the Ranunculaceae family, one of the eight orders,
under the family Ranales. The family is referred to as the Buttercup family. Dr. John
David (2010) states that the Ranunculaceae are a part of the Ranunculales, which is the
only order in the superorder Ranunculanae, together with the Eupteleaceae,
Lardizabalaceae, Menispermaceae, Berberidaceae, and Papaveraceae.

The Ranunculaceae is the only family in the Ranunculales that Takhtajan (1997)
classified as belonging to a subclass, the Ranunculidae, rather than a superorder. Prior to
this, Thorn (1992) classified the Ranunculaceae as belonging to the Superorder
Magnolianae's Berberidales order. Prior to this, in 1981, Cronquist classified the
Magnoliidae, which he considered to be a subclass, to comprise the Ranunculaceae and
seven additional families in the Rancunculales.

Diagnostic characteristics - Herbaceous; leaves are divided palmately; flowers contain

multiple stamens; the gynoecium is made up of numerous simple pistils; the fruit is a
collection of achenes or follicles.

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Distribution pattern
There are 1900 species in 50 genera, it is a large family. It is primarily found in the
Northern Hemisphere's temperate zones. This family is represented by 20 genera and
165 species in India, the majority of which are found in the Himalayan area that
separates Pakistan and India.

6.2.1 Classification

Bentham & Hooker Engler & Prantl Hutchinson

Dicotyledons Dicotyledons Dicotyledons

Polypetalae Archichlamydeae Herbaceae

Thalamiflorae Ranales Ranales

Ranales Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae

Ranunculaceae

6.2.2 General Characteristics

Habit: Herbs ( Annual or Perennial) , rarely vines ( Clematis). Aquatic herbs

(Rannunculas aquatilis), Perennial species ( Aconitum & Ranunculus)
Root: Tap root, tuberous root (Aconitum)
Stem: Woody (Paeonia), Herbaceous (Rannunculas)
Leaves: Cauline or ramal, Petiolate. Exstipulate or stipulate ( Ranunculus) , Simple,
pinnately compound( Clematis), generally simple,alternate or opposite (Clematis),
unicostate or multicostate reticulate venation.
Inflorescence: Solitary terminal ( Nigella), axillary (Clematis), raceme ( Delphinium),
Dichasial Cyme (Rannunculas sp.).
Flower: Pedicillate, ebracteate rarely bractate, hermaphrodite, (unisexual in Thalictrum).
Mostly actinomorphic (Ranunculus) rarely zygomorphic (Aconitum) hypogynous,
complete, pentamerous, Regular. Spiral arrangement , an involucres of leaves is position
outside the calyx.

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Calyx: Sepals 5 distinct and usually deciduous, free, In Delphinium the sepals are
petaloid and the posterior sepal is spurred. Imbricate aestivation.
Corolla: 5 or more petals or sometimes petals may be absent, polypetalous, variously
colored, Sometimes, petals are changed into nectaries, The posterior pair of petals forms
spur (Delphinium), other pair of the petal if present is very much reduced (Aconitum).
Petals are altogether absent and sepals become petaloid (Clematis).
Androecium: Stamens are indefinite, polyandrous. Arrangement of stamens are spirally
on the thalamus, The stamens are arranged in definite rings (Nigella and Aquilegia),
anthers adnate, dithecous, extrose, dehiscent longitudinally.
Gynoecium: Indefinite free carpels (Polycarpellary) spirally arranged on thalamus
(carpels in Delphinium), apocarpous rarely syncarpous (Nigella), ovary superior, one to
several ovules in each ovary. Basal placentation or marginal. style and stigma one.

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Fruits: An etaerio of achenes or follicles, sometimes berry or capsule.
Seed: Endospermic seed
Pollination: Entomophilous

Floral Formula: Br Brl ⊕ K 5 C5 Aα Gα ( Ranunculus)

Br Brl ⊕ K 5 C5 Aα G1 (Delphinium)

6.2.3 Economic importance

1-Ornamental plants: The majority of plants, such Clematis, Thylictrum, and
Ranunculus (buttercup), are grown for their exquisite blossoms.
2-Medicinal plants: Certain members are utilized as herbal remedies. Aconitum
napellus produces aconite, an alkaloid used as a nerve relaxant and for rheumatism.
Mamira yields thallicorm. The purpose of its usage is to treat ophthalmia. Certain
clematis species are used to treat blood disorders and leprosy. Some species of
Ranunculus juice is used to treat sporadic fever. The Hydrastis canadensis root is used
as a snake bite remedy.
3-Condiments: Some members are used as condiments for flavoring. Seeds of Nigella
(Black fennel, Kala jeera) are used as drug for bronchial asthma, fever and cough

4-Importance for honey: This family's majority of members have nectaries. For honey
bees to produce honey, flower nectaries are very important.

5. Poisonous species: This family includes several individuals that secrete an acrid
liquid. It is extremely toxic.

6.3 Family- Caryophyllaceae

Systematics
General characters
Economic importance
The Caryophyllaceae family of flowering plants is also referred to as the pink or
carnation family.
Bentham and Hooker propose that it is a member of the Caryophyllales order.
Amaranthaceae and Caryophyllaceae are currently sister groups.

77
Because Caryophyllaceae pigments are anthocyanins rather than betalins, However,
cladistic studies support betalin as a true synapomorphy of the suborder, showing that
Caryophyllaceae developed from ancestors that possessed betalin. Traditionally, there
are three subfamilies within this family:Alsinoidae: no stipules, petals not united
Silenoideae: no stipules, petals united Paronychioideae: fleshy stipules, petals separate
or united.

Diagnostic characteristics: The members vary widely in habitat and appearance; most
have enlarged stem and leaf joints. Although they contain five petals and five sepals, it
is believed that the petals originated as modified stamens. An ovary is borne above the
stamens, which are typically 5 or 10. The ovarian cavity often has no walls separating it
from the ovules, which are carried at its center.

Distribution: Caryophyllaceae is a family herbaceous annuals and perennials, mostly

found in north temperate regions, that is made up of about 86 genera and 2,200 species.
The temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere are home to many members of this
family. A few taxa are found in the highlands of tropical climates, while others are
found in the Southern Hemisphere. This family of plants, which includes Stellaria,
Spergula, Dianthus, and others, grows in our country's hilly areas or on the plains in the
winter.

6.3.1 Classification

Bentham & Hooker Engler& Prantl Hutchinson

Dicotyledons Dicotyledoneae Dicotyledones

Polypetalae Archichlamydeae Herbaceae

Thalamiflorae Centrospermae Caryophyllales

Caryophyllinaeae Caryophyllaceae Caryophyllaceae

Caryophyllaceae

78
6.3.2 General Characteristics

Habit: Annual or perennial herbs. small shrubs,e.g., Acanthophyllum

Stem: Erect, branched, green, herbaceous, solid and mostly swollen at the nodes.
Leaves: Simple, opposite decussate (rarely alternate), entire and stipules ansent. The
leaves sometimes possess shortly connate perfoliate base, e.g., in Dianthus. linear to
lanceolate in shape.

Inflorescence: Dichasial cyme, rarely solitary.

Flower: Bisexual rarely unisexual Pedicellate, actinomorphic, pentamerous., complete

and hypogynous

Calyx: 5 sepals. free or united together into a tube.. imbricate (quincuncial) aestivation.

Corolla: 5 and rarely of 4 petals. free and usually differentiated into lomb and claw.
aestivation is imbricate.

Androecium: Stamens are twice the number of petals (ten or eight) in two equal and
alternate whorls. Sometimes the number of stamens reduces to eight, five, four, three or
even
one. Polyandrous, obdiplostemonous. The filaments are distinct or slightly connate at
the base. Dithecous, introrse and dehiscence longitudinal.

Gynoecium: two carpels (Dianthus) or three to five (Cerastium, Spergula and Stellaria)
carpels; syncarpous. The styles are free. Ovary superior and unilocular; free-central
placentation characteristic of the family.In Stellaria the number of carpels is
reduced to three. A disc is present at the base of the stamens which is annular or divided
into
glands.

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Floral formula: Br Brl ⊕ K 5 C5 A5+5 G(3) (Stellaria media)

Fruit: Capsule, e.g., Stellaria, Arenaria, Spergula, etc. In some cases the fruit, may be
an achene or a nut, e.g., Herniaria, Dysphania, Scleranthus, etc.

Stellaria media

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 Dianthus

Seeds- Small and endospermic. In embryo curved endosperm found.

Pollination: Entomophily.

6.3.3 Economic Importance of Family

The members of the family are important as ornamentals and as the source of medicines
(I) Ornamental-Species of Dianthus , Gypsophila and Agrostemma represented
by several ornamental plants.

(II) Medicinal
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* Stellaria semivestita shows anti- cancer activity
* Decoction of Stellaria vestita relieves bone ache and rheumatic pain
* Seeds of Spergula arvensis are employed against pulmonary tuberculosis

(III) Other uses

* The plant juice of Saponaria vaccaria, Lychnis etc. are used as a substitute of soap.
* The shoots of Stellaria aquatica (Eng.-Chick weed; Verna.-Badeola) are eaten as
vegetable.
* Spergula arvensis is used as fodder. It is diuretic.

6.4 Family- Poaceae

Systematics
General characters
Economic importance

The vast and almost universal family of monocotyledonous flowering plants known as
grasses is called Poaceae, or Gramineae. The Poaceae family of grasses comprises of
cereal grasses, bamboos, and grasses found in natural grasslands as well as developed
pastures and lawns. Grasses feature thin, alternating leaves that are borne in two rows,
and hollow stems that are only present at the nodes. Each leaf has a bottom portion that
forms a leaf sheath that encloses the stem.

Diagnostic characteristics
A mostly herbaceous plant with a fistular, cylindrical stem, simple, alternate leaves,
sheathing, sheath open, ligulate, compound spike inflorescence, zygomorphic,
hypogynous flowers shielded by palea, three versatile stamens, one carpel, two or three
styles, feathery stigma, basal placentation, fruit caryopsis, and testa fused with pericarp.
Distribution: Poaceae is one of the biggest families of monocots, with over 6000
species and 620 genera. The distribution of members is global. As hydrophytes,
xerophytes, and mesophytes, the plants embody the three ecological categories.
Roughly 900 species are in existence in India.

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 6.4.1 Classification-
6.4.2

Bentham and Hooker Engler & Prantl Hutchinson

Monocotyledons Monocotyledoneae Monocotyledons

Glumaceae Glumiflorae Glumiflorae

Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae

Poaceae and Cyperaceae are closely related families; Engler and Prantl put Poaceae and
Glumiflorae in the same order, but Bentham and Hooker placed Glumaceae. Hutchinson
(1964) and other contemporary botanists divided the family into the Cyperales and
Graminales orders based on a number of distinctions, including: 1. Leaf sheath; 2. Joint
and unjointed stem 3. Lemma, palea, and a single bract 4. Seed covering, etc. According
to Hutchinson (1959), the formation of grasses occurred parallel to the Cyperaceae
family tree.

6.4.2 General Characteristics-

Habit: Herbs (annuals or perennials) or shrubs, rarely trees like (Bamboos).
Root: Fibrous, Adventitious
Stem: Herbaceous or woody ,cylindrical; jointed, hollow at internodes. Sometimes,
forms rhizome or runner. Stem of grasses is called a culm.
Leaves: Alternate, simple, exstipulate, sessile, ligulate. The sheath and the blade
(lamina) are the two main components of every leaf. The sheath that forms the base of
the leaf encircles the culm to produce an open, tubular sheath. The blade is the leaf's
uppermost part; it is typically flat but can occasionally be long, whole, hairy, or rough,
with a linear, parallel venation. A ligule, a fragile membrane protrusion with a highly
variable morphology among taxa, is located at the inner surface junction of the sheath
and blade.

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 Spikelet of family Poaceae

Inflorescence: Spike of spikelets or panicles of spiklets. Each spikelet is composed of

2-5 flowers. It is enclosed by a pair of bracts called glumes. Spike of spikelets: The
spiklets form dense clusters in sessile manner on main axis as in wheat. Panicles of
spikelets: The spiklets are arranged on a branched axis-panicle as in oat.

Flower: Pedicillate bracteate, bracteolate, sessile, incomplete, bisexual or unisexual

(Zea mays), irregular, zygomorphic, hypogynous, cyclic.

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 Floral details of Triticum aestivum (Wheat)

Perianth: Lodicules are small, fleshy, hyaline membrane-like structures that resemble
scales and are typically used to show it. The lodicules are position above and to the
back of the superior palea; they may be absent, many (Ochlandra), three, or two.
Androecium: 3 Stamens in whorl sometimes 1,2 or 6; polyandrous; anther , filaments
are long and free, basifixed, anthers dithecous, versatile and linear, extrorse.
Gynoecium: Monocarpellary, ovary superior unilocular with single anatropous ovule
adnate to the adaxial side of the ovary, stigma usually 2; feathery; basal placentation.
Fruit: A caryopsis (fruit wall is completely fused with the seed coat) .
Seed: Endospermic .
Floral Formula: % P 0 or 2 (Lodicules) A 3 or 6 G1

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6.4.3 Economic Importance
Among all angiosperm families, Poaceae is the most important in terms of economic
significance. The world's population uses rice (Oryza sativa) and wheat (Triticum
aestivum) as basic foods. They raised from the beginning of time. Economic categories
of the family are as follows.
Food: This family includes all millets and grains. These form the staple diet of
humankind. These are Triticum sp. (wheat) plants. Zea mays (corn), Oryza sativa (rice),
and Avena sativa (oats). Pennisetum, Sorghum vulgare (Jowar), Hordeum vulgare
(Barley), and Scale cereale (rye) typhoides (Bajra), Eleusine coracana (Finger millet,
Ragi), Panicum miliaceum (common millet), and Setaria italica (Italian millet).
Fodder plants: This family provides the majority of the animal feed. Numerous
grasses, including Poa, Panicum, Cymbopogon, and Cynodon dactylon, are used for
feed. The cattle are fed with the dried leaves and stems of the grain harvests.
Sugar: Sugar is obtained from the juice of Saccharum officinarum .
Aromatic oils: Numerous grasses produce fragrant oils that are used in perfumery, such
as Andopogon odoratus (ginger grass), Cymbopogon citratus (lemon grass), and
Cymbopogon martinii. Vetiveria zizaniodes (Khus-khus) yields vetiver oil from its
roots. Lemon grass, or Cymbopogon throws, provide lemon grass oil. This oil is used to
make infusions in the soap and perfume industries.
Paper industry: Paper is made from a few types of bamboo and grasses.
Ropes: Fibre is obtained from the leaves of Saccharum munjo. Ropes are made with
this fiber.
Uses of Bamboo: Bamboo, or bambusa, is utilized in construction. Bamboo is used to
thatch homes, make canoes, carts, pipes, and other items. Their broken stems are woven
into hats, fans, course umbrellas, and mats. Horses are given its leaves to treat colds and
coughs.

6.5 Family- Liliaceae

Systematics
General characters
Economic importance

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It is commonly known as Lily Family‖. Considered to be a typical monocot family,
Liliaceae is the fundamental monocot stock from which many other families have
formed.

Diagnostic characteristics: Rarely are herbs shrubs with underground stems like corn
or bulbs; the leaves are alternate; the flowers are actinomorphic, trimerous, hypogynous,
with six segments of the perianth, each of which can be free or fused; the stamen is 3+3,
epiphyllous, and antiphyllous; the gynoecium is tricarpellary, syncarpous, with superior
ovary, axile placentation, and two to many ovules per loculus; the fruits are capsules or
berries; the seeds are endospermic.

Distribution: A large, globally distributed family. In temperate and tropical climates,

they are widely distributed. Four thousand species, belonging to 250 genera, are
distributed all over the world. There are 169 species that are found in India. Perennial
and annual herbs are typically found among the plants. Mostly in the Himalayas, it
arises in our nation. Asparagus spp., Dracaena spp., Lily spp., and Onion (Allium cepa)
are examples.

6.5.1 Classification:
Bentham and Hooker Engler & Prantl Hutchinson
Monocotyledons Monocotyledoneae Monocotyledons
Coronarieae Liliflorae Corolliferae
Liliaceae Liliaceae Liliales
Liliaceae

20 tribes divided by Bentham and Hooker from the family. The family divided into 12
smaller families by Engler and Krause. The absence of a corona and the presence of a
superior ovary distinguish the family apart from Amaryllidaceae, with which it has
close affinities. Although their seeds differ in their petaloid perianth, they are similar to
Juncaceae . The cytological, embryological, and anatomical features of the family
exhibit significant variety, suggesting a polyphyletic origin.

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6.5.2 General Characteristics
Habit: Herbs (Asphodelus), rhizome (Aloe), bulbs (Lilium, Tulipa, Allium), climber
(Asparagus, Smilax), tree (Dracena), xerophytic plants like Yucca, Aloe; cladodes in
Asparagus.
Root: Adventitious, Fibrous,tuberous (Asparagus)
Stem: herbaceous or woody, solid or fistular, underground; aerial, climbing or erect;
underground stem may be corm, bulb or rhizome.
Leaves: Alternate, opposite o, basal (Allium and Lilium) or cauline, sessile
or petiolate, simple, entire venation parallel, stipules absent
Inflorescence: Usually racemose (Lilium) solitary (Tulipa), panicled raceme
(Asphodelus), solitary axillary (Gloriosa).
Flower: Pedicellate, bracteate , actinomorphic rarely zygomorphic,bisexual,
hypogynous, complete or incomplete (in unisexual flowers), trimerous.
Perianth: 6 tepals arranged in two whorls, polyphyllous (Lilium, Tulipa) or
gamophyllous (Aloe, Asparagus) and of various shapes, petaloid or sepaloid, imbricate
in bud, valvate in aestivation ,
Androecium: Stamens 6 arranged in two alternate whorl. Opposite to the tepals and
sometimes adnate to perianth or 3 (Ruscus), 8 in Paris; polyandrous, epiphyllous,
filaments long, anthers versatile or basifixed, dithecous, introrse or extrorse.
Gynoecium: 3 carpels, united, ovary superior , trilocular, axile placentation, style
simple; stigma trilobed or 3-parted.
Seed: Endospermic.
Pollination: Entomophilous.
Floral Formula: Br ⊕ P 3+ 3 or (3+3) A 3+3 G(3)

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 Asphodelus tenufolius

6.5.3 Economic Importance: The Liliaceae family produces fiber, food, medicine, and
decorative plants.
1. Edibles: Onions, or Allium cepa, are widely used as vegetables, pickles, and
flavorings. Fresh garlic juice has antibacterial qualities. Allium sativum, or garlic, is
primarily grown as a spice and condiment crop. It is a vermifuge, a stomach stimulant, a
tonic, and heart-healthy. Asparagus officinalis fleshy shoots are used as a vegetable.
2- Medicinal- Useful medications are produced by Smilax, Aloe, Gloriosa, Veratrum,
Colchicum, Scilla, and Urginea. Scilla bulbs and urgine are sources of rat poison. Aloe
vera is used to cure fissures and piles, and it generates aloin. Asparagus racemosus roots
89
are used to make a tonic. Colchicum luteum seeds and corms are beneficial for liver and
rheumatism. In plant breeding, an alkaloid called "Cochicine" is extracted and utilized
to promote polyploidy.
3-Fibres- fibre of commerce used in cordage obtain from Yucca and Phormium tenax.
4-Resin-Dracaena and Xanthorrhoea yield resin. From the acrid resin of Xanthorrhoea
sealing wax is prepared.
5-Ornamentals-The common cultivated garden plants are Tulipa, Lillium, Gloriosa,
Aloe, Ruscus, Dracaena, Asparagus, Yucca, Hemerocallis etc.

Summary
You can now summarize the key characteristics of the families whose students were
investigated in this chapter. The characteristics of Ranunculaceae exhibit a combination
of primitive and advanced traits. Because of its mostly herbaceous habit, bisexual and
actinomorphic flower, many free and spirally distributed stamens and capels, and
follicular fruit, the Ranunculaceae family is regarded as primitive. Their zygomorphy,
connation in the gynoecium, whorled appendages, unisexuality, and achenial fruit are
examples of their advanced characteristics.
It is believed that the family Caryophyllaceae evolved from either ranalian ancestors or
the order Ranunculales. It is a member of the Caryophyllinae order, which is
characterized by actionomorphic blooms, ovary unilocular with free center placentation,
and stamens that are often twice as many as petals. Herbs with opposite and simple
leaves, an inflorescence that splits into a dichasial and monochasial cyme,
actionomorphic, pentamerous, hypogynous flowers with sepals and petals numbered 4-5
and obdiplostemonous stamens, an ovary that is unilocular with free central
placentation, and capsules with two to six valves are the distinguishing characteristics of
this family.
monocotyledons characterized by a single cotyledon, a fibrous and adventitious root that
emerges from the base of the stem, narrow leaves with parallel veins, a herbaceous
stem, an uneven distribution of vascular bundles within the stem, a trimerous flower,
and a perianth that is frequently difficult to separate into the calyx and corolla.Poaceae
is classified under Series Glumaceae, Liliaceae under Series Coronarieae, and Family
Orchidaceae under Series Microspermae.

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The Liliaceae family is considered to be a typical monocot family, representing the
fundamental monocot stock from which several other families have sprung. Almost
never shrubs, herbs have underground stems in the form of rhizomes, corms, or bulbs;
leaves are alternate; flowers are actinomorphic, trimerous, hypogynous, with six whorls
of three each, free or fused; stamens are 3+3, epiphyllous, and antiphyllous; gynoecium
is tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, axile placentation, and contains two to
numerous ovules per loculus; fruits are capsules or berries, and seeds are endospermic.

Key words-
Actinomorphic- A flower with radial symmetry
Adnate – Grown together or fused, used only to describe unlike parts. For comparison,
connate.
Bract – A very smaller leaf, typically resembling scales, and generally connected to
flower or inflorescence
Bracteole- Secondary bract at the base of individual flower
Calyx – The sepals that make up the outer whorl of the perianth are typically smaller
and greener than those in the inner group.
Capsule – A dry dehiscent fruit produced from a compound pistil.
Complete- The flower with all the four whorls i.e. calyx, corolla, androecium and
gynoecium.
Hypogynous- Situated below the gynoecium or ovary referring to stamens, petals and
sepals.

Multiple Choice Questions:

i) Which one of the following is more primitive than others.
(i) Ranunculaceae (ii) Caryophyllaceae
(iii) Rutaceae (iv) Fabaceae
Ans. (i)

ii) Which one of the following is commonly known as Pink family.

(i) Ranunculaceae (ii) Caryophyllaceae
(iii) Rutaceae (iv) Fabaceae
Ans. (ii)
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iii) Aconite, an alkaloid is present in
(i) Thalictrum (ii) Aconitum napellus
(iii) Clematis (iv) Ranunculus
Ans. (ii)
iv) Obdiplostemonous condition of stamens is general criterion of which one of the
following families
(i) Ranunculaceae (ii) Caryophyllaceae
(iii) Rutaceae (iv) Fabaceae
Ans.(ii)
v) In Poaceae the fruits are usually
(i) Follicle (ii) Nutlets
(iii) Capsule (iv) Caryopsis
Ans. (iv)
vi) Botanical name of onion is
(i) Solanum tuberosum (ii) Lycopersicon esculentum
(iii) Allium cepa (iv) Nicotiana tabacum
Ans. (iii)
vii) A plant that belongs to Liliaceae in which stipules are modified into tendrils is
(i) Gloriosa (ii) Yucca
(iii) Lilium (iv) Smilax
Ans. (iv)
viii) The inflorescence of Paddy is
(i) racemose (ii) catkin
(iii) panicle (iv) verticillaste
Ans. (iii)
ix) Poaceae the Lodicules are
(i) Petals (ii) Perianth leaves
(iii) Sepals (iv) Bracts
Ans. (ii)

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 UNIT-7
MODERN TRENDS OF PLANT TAXONOMY

Today, taxonomists accept that physical traits alone should not be taken into account
when classifying plants in a systematic manner. The fundamentals of many different
fields, including cytology, genetics, anatomy, physiology, geographic distribution,
embryology, ecology, paleontology, phenology, biochemistry, numerical taxonomy, and
transplant experiments, can be used to fully understand taxonomy. By offering extra
characters, these have been proven to be helpful in resolving some of the taxonomy
issues. Classification's appearance has shifted from alpha, or classical, to omega, or
modern. As a result, the new systematic has improved as a taxonomy.

 Chemotaxonomy
 Cytotaxonomy
 Numerical taxonomy

7.1 Chemotaxonomy- The area of plant taxonomy, or chemotaxonomy, is growing and

aims to use chemical data to enhance plant classification. Since man first began to
categorize plants as edible or inedible, presumably based on their chemical distinctions,
chemical evidence has actually been used. In herbals written about five centuries ago,
chemical information about therapeutic plants focused on the location and use of
physiologically active secondary metabolites such alkaloids and saponins.
Chemotaxonomy is a scientific field that use chemical data as a taxonomic
characteristic. Let us take a minute to consider the many types of plants in before we
examine the foundation of this contemporary movement in plant taxonomy. Our regular
existence. We distinguish between tea and coffee based on their distinct flavors and
aromas, which we enjoy in our drinks. In a similar vein, we discover that fruits like
apples, bananas, and mangoes have distinct flavors when we consume them.
The roots of chemotaxonomy may be found in very early classical taxonomy, despite
the fact that it is thought to be a very new addition to modern taxonomy.
It is likely that the medical plants were recognized for their potential to treat ailments,
while the spice plants were recognized for their fragrant qualities. The chemical
components of the plants, which have been used by taxonomists to classify them since
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ancient times together with morphological characteristics, are primarily responsible for
the aromatic qualities or therapeutic value of these plants.
But chemotaxonomy are not recognized as a significant subject of research until
recently.
All of a plant's chemical components may be useful to a taxonomist in theory, there are
certain compounds that are more beneficial than others in real life. Thus, we may
employ chemical characteristics that are directly observable, such crystals, raphides, or
starch grains found in many plants.
As an alternative, we may employ chemical analysis to determine the various chemical
elements of plant material and utilize this knowledge for taxonomic reasons. The
majority of chemotaxonomists identify primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and
semantides as the three major classes of chemical substances that are significant from a
taxonomy standpoint.

7.1.1 Directly Visible Chemical Characters

The majority of green plants have food reserves in the form of starch grains, one of the
very few chemical components that can be directly viewed; these molecules have been
employed for chemotaxonomic reasons (fig. 14.4). There is no room for doubt when
using the knowledge on the very distinct starch grain types found in various plants. In
order to provide chemotaxonomic information, Reichert (1913) studied the starch
granules in 350 distinct plant species and determined their differentiation and specificity
of occurrence in respect to genera and species. Tateoka (1962) examined the starch
grain morphology in the Poaceae family of grasses and utilized this knowledge together
with other data to create tribes within the family. For instance, while other genera, like
Lolium, Nardus, and Papapholis, have simple starch grains, the Tribe Hordeae's typical
members, such Hordeum, have complicated starch grains.
The calcium oxalate crystals known as raphides are visible and found in big cells in
many plant tissues. They are easily recognized because they are long, needle-shaped
crystals that are pointed at both ends and typically appear in bundles. They are widely
distributed throughout the Araceae family of plants, including Pistia and Eichhornia,
which are water plants.

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Among a few other important characteristics, the presence or absence of raphides is
crucial to the family Rubiaceae's natural categorization. The tribe Rubioideae is made
up of all members of the Rubiaceae family that have raphides.

Druses, a different kind of crystal composed of calcium oxalate, offer strong taxonomic
support. An enormous number of crystals gathered together is called a druse. They
belong to the family Apocyanaceae, Caricaceae, etc.

7.1.2 Primary Metabolites

Primary metabolites are substances that play a key role in metabolic processes, as their
name suggests. They are ubiquitous and have minimal significance in chemotaxonomy.
But when their abundance changes significantly between species, these compounds
become valuable as chemotaxonomic characteristics. In the genus Sedum, for instance,
vast amounts of the sugar "sedoheptulose" are kept as a reserve food. This major
metabolite's existence so makes it simple to identify members of this genus.
Amino acids are the components that make up proteins. For chemotaxonomy, they can
offer valuable macromolecular data. Different proteins may have their amino acid
sequences examined, and the degree of similarity between them is probably correlated
with their genetic relatedness. But of the approximately 3 lakh species of angiosperms,
very few have had their amino acid sequences examined. For instance, the link between
the genera of wheat and barley, as proposed by traditional taxonomists, is confirmed by
the amino acid data.

7.1.3 Secondary Metabolites- The macromolecules known as secondary metabolites,

sometimes known as secondary plant products, are more significant from a taxonomic
standpoint than primary metabolites since they are rare and nitrogen-free. Numerous
chemical types, including flavonoids, terpenes, iridoids, alkaloids, anthocyanins,
glucosinolates, cyanogenic glycosides, polyacetelenes, etc., are included in this
category. They are mostly used for storage and often do not perform essential tasks.

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FLAVONOIDS- Secondary metabolites, flavonoids—the most prevalent phenolic
chemicals found in leaves—have shown to be extremely helpful in the field of
chemotaxonomy. For these chemicals, which exhibit worldwide distribution, structural
variety, and chemical stability, both monocots and dicots have been thoroughly
investigated. They give crucial chemical features for taxonomic purposes and are
quickly and simply identifiable. Giannasi, for instance, studied the flavonoid chemistry
of 80 species of plants belonging to the Ulmaceae family (1978). The majority of
species have flavonols, but a small number also have glyco-flavonols, and no species
ever contains both types of flavonoid molecules at the same time.Interestingly enough,
the family Ulmaceae is classified into two subfamilies, Ulmoideae and Celtoideae, in
most traditional classification systems. These subfamilies are likewise distinguished by
their flavonoid chemistry. Consequently, the family Ulmaceae may be divided into two
separate families using morphological criteria and flavonoid dichotomy: family
Ulmaceae is characterized by the presence of flavonols, whereas family Celtaceae is
characterized by the presence of glucoflavonols.
The taxonomy of several families, including the Orchidaceae, Rutaceae, Lemnaceae,
Labiatae (Lamiaceae), Arilidaceae, and others, has been studied using flavonoid
chemistry in a number of different research.

TERPENES- Terpenes are a second class of secondary metabolites that

chemotaxonomists frequently study. Essential (ethereal) oils, which belong to the orders
Laurales, Piperales, Austrobaileales, and Magnoliales, are mostly composed of volatile
terpenes. Families Myrtaceae, Rutaceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Asteraceae have
also been found to include them.
These substances may be categorized as monoterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes,
sesquiterpenes, etc. based on their molecular structures, and each category can be
utilized for taxonomic purposes. For instance, on the basis of monoterpenes
genus Salvia 19 species distinctly identify and classify. Similarly, the taxonomy of the
families Cucurbitaceae and Compositae (Asteraceae) has benefited greatly from the
presence of triterpenes and sesquiterpenes.

ALKALOIDS
Alkaloids are a class of structurally varied compounds that are produced from

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mevalonic acid or amino acids. Colchicines, atropine, morphine, codeine, and cocaine
Among the significant alkaloid plant compounds are quinines. Because of their great
diversity, the plant groupings in which they are biosynthesized are not of systematic
interest.

ANTHOCYANINS AND BETALAINS

Only the families Caryophyllaceae and Molluginaceae, as well as the Order
Caryophyllales, contain betalains, which are nitrogenous red and yellow pigments.
On the other hand, most other plants include pigments called anthocyanins, which are
red, yellow, blue, or purple.
Because they have never been discovered together in the same species, betalins and
anthocyanins are mutually.

7.2 Cytotaxonomy-- The study of cell shape and physiology is known as cytology. For
the purpose of categorization, the number, shape, and pairing of chromosomes during
meiosis are recorded. chromosomal number, morphology, ploidy level, ploidy type, and
chromosomal aberrations are all used as data for categorization in cytotaxonomy.
Studies involving observations of chromosomal pairing or behavior during meiosis are
included in the field of cytogenetics.
You will learn about the significance of chromosomal number, structure, and behavior
during meiosis as taxonomic evidence in the subsections that follow.

7.2.1 Chromosome Numbers- Each cell in each individual of a single species contains
the same number of chromosomes. The more closely related species are also expected to
have a higher number of chromosomes, whilst the more distantly related species will
have a lower number. Chromosome number becomes a significant and often utilized
taxonomic characteristic as a result of this relative conservatism. Furthermore, the
angiosperms have a very wide range of chromosomal counts, ranging from 2n=530 in
Poa litorosa (Poaceae) to as low as 2n=4 in Haplopappus gracilis (Asteraceae).
Numerous angiosperms have had their chromosome counts examined, yielding valuable
taxonomic data
For instance, different species in the genus Festuca have various numbers of
chromosomes, which combine to generate a mathematical series (See Table 14.2). The

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numbers of the chromosomes are 2n = 14, 28, 42, 56, 70, and so forth. It is possible to
draw the generalization that several species may share some characteristics based on
this knowledge. Given that x = 7 serves as the common denominator for all of these
chromosomal values, we may see the various species as having multiples of x. This
denominator, or base number (x = 7), can be thought of as the fundamental genetic
information that plants carry. As a result of this fundamental genetic information being
multiplied, several species have evolved. When the basic number (x) in a series is equal
to the haploid number of chromosomes in a diploid animal (for example, x = n = 7), the
series is said to be polyploid. Tetraploid (4x = 2n), hexaploid (6x = 2n), octaploid (8x =
2n), and decaploid (10x = 2n) would then be the other species.

7.2.2 Chromosome Structure- Studies on chromosomal morphology have revealed

that the centromere's location is the most important aspect of chromosome structure.
The link between the two arms of the chromosomes is revealed by the centromere, or
constriction, in the length of the chromosome. So, chromosomes are classified as
metacentric, acrocentric, or telocentric based on where the centromere is located.
Chromosomes that are metacentric are thought to be more evolved than those that are
acrocentric.The appearance of the basic chromosome set in a dividing cell is known as
the karyotype of the cell. This can be analysed to provide information not only of the
chromosome number, but also about the chromosome size,chromosome volume, and
type of chromosomes in the cell. This information is used by taxonomists for
identifying plants and understanding relationships. The karyotype can be represented
diagrammatically as an idiogram or karyogram, and these diagrams can be compared for
taxonomic purposes. Another interesting observation is that the absolute size of the
chromosomes of a karyotype is fairly constant since it is controlled by the genotype.
Taxonomists have found that monocots generally have larger chromosomes than dicots,
and that smaller chromosomes are found in hardwood plants in comparison to their
herbaceous relatives.
Polygonum plants occurring in three distinct habitats were thought to belong to separate
species because of their morphological differences. It's interesting to note that
chromosomal morphology was identical across all of them. As a result, Polygonum
amphibium is the collective name given to them.

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According to chromosome karyotype studies, Limnocharis, Hydrocharis, and
Tenagocharis should remain in the family Alismataceae, while the genus Butomus
should be placed in its own family, the Butomaceae. Because members of the groups
Cyperaceae and Juncaceae share homocentric chromosomes, closer affinities between
them have been determined.
The Agavaceae family identified as distinct from the Amaryllidaceae family based on
karyotype investigations. Yucca's move from the family Liliaceae to the family
Agavaceae was aided by the presence of five large and twenty-five small chromosomes
in their cells.

7.3 Numerical Taxonomy-- The term "numerical taxonomy," also known as

"taximetrics," is used to describe the use of various mathematical techniques to
numerically encoded character state data for organisms under investigation. Phenetics is
a more relevant term presently.

In other words, it involves the numerical analysis of the similarities or affinities of

taxonomic units, which are subsequently grouped into taxa based on these affinities, and
the examination of various forms of taxonomic data using mathematical or electronic
techniques.
Therefore, numerical taxonomy is a biological systematics classification system that
deals with the numerical grouping of taxonomic entities according to their character
states. Instead of classifying them according to a subjective assessment of their
attributes, it attempts to classify them using numerical procedures such as cluster
analysis.
The notion was initially formulated in 1963 by Robert R. Sokal and Peter H. A. Sneath,
who further refined it.They separated the science into two categories: cladistics, which
bases classifications on the branching patterns of the estimated evolutionary history of
the species, and phenetics, which bases classifications on patterns of general similarity.
Heywood defines numerical taxonomy as the process of placing organism groupings
into higher ranked taxa based on a numerical assessment of their resemblance to one
another.

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The initial approaches and theories of numerical taxonomy developed between 1957
and 1961. Plants are categorized according to their characteristics. The first person to
propose a system for valuing an organism's resemblance to another was the French
botanist Michel Adanson. He suggested that all characteristics should be given the same
weight when categorizing plants.

7.3.1 Principles of Numerical Taxonomy:

Numerical taxonomy involves two aspects:
(a) Construction of Taxonomic Groups:
i. In numerical taxonomy, characteristics are initially identified by selecting
individuals. The maximum character count that is taken into consideration is
unlimited. Nonetheless, a greater character count indicates a more effective
method for taxonomic generalization.
ii. The similarity between individuals is then determined by character analysis,
which frequently occurs with computer aid; the accuracy of this analysis is
dependent upon the suitability of the characters. Using the most characteristics
possible and giving each one an equal amount of weight is the best method for
classify taxa.
(b) Discrimination of the Taxonomic Groups: Discrimination should be utilized
to choose the taxonomic categories for the research when they exhibit character
overlap. Numerous methods that have been specifically developed for this
purpose can be used to do discrimination analysis. Therefore, the foundation of
numerical taxonomy is a set of ideas known as neo Adansonian principles.

7.3.2 Sneath and Sokal specified the following seven numerical taxonomy
principles:
(i) A classification system's accuracy increases with the quantity of information
it includes and the number of characters it takes into account.
(ii) When establishing new taxa, each character needs to be given the same
weight.
(iii) The specific similarities in each of the numerous characteristics that are
taken into consideration for comparison determine the overall similarity
between any two things.

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 (iv) Character correlation varies among the research organism groups. Different
taxa can therefore be identified.
(v) Character correlations and the taxonomic organization of a group can be
used to predict phylogenetic conclusions, provided that certain evolutionary
paths and processes are present.
(vi) The study and application of taxonomy are seen as empirical sciences.
(vii) The basis for categorization is phenotypic similarity.

7.3.3 Merits of Numerical Taxonomy

 Sokal and Sneath list the following benefits of numerical taxonomy over
traditional taxonomy:
 Numerical taxonomy uses a higher quality and quantity of specified
characteristics than traditional taxonomy, hence its data is superior. The
information is gathered from many different sources, including morphology,
chemistry, physiology, and more.
 Numerical method is more accurate in defining taxa, the information gathered
may be effectively utilized with the aid of computer data processing systems
to build improved keys and classification schemes, as well as to create maps,
descriptions, catalogues, and other materials. In actuality, there have been a
number of significant adjustments to the traditional classification schemes
provided by numerical taxonomy.
 Numerous biological ideas have undergone reinterpretation in light of
numerical taxonomy.
 Numerical taxonomy allows more taxonomic work to be done by less highly
skilled workers

7.3.4 Demerits of Numerical Taxonomy:

Numerical taxonomy has the following disadvantages---
Phenetic classifications benefit from the use of numerical method, not phylogenetic
ones.
The proponents of ―biological‖ species concept, may not accept the specific limits
bound by these methods.

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The main drawback of this approach is character chosen Inadequate character selection
for comparison may result in a less than ideal outcome when using statistical
approaches.

Various taxonometric methods may provide various outcomes, according to Steam.

Choose the right process and character count for these mechanical assistance to provide
excellent results is a significant challenge. It is imperative to determine if utilizing a
larger character count would yield more satisfying outcomes than use a smaller one.

7.3.5 Applications of Numerical Taxonomy:

 Analyse the similarities and differences between various animal groups,
bacteria, and other microorganisms.
 Delimitation of a number of angiospermic genera, including Farinosae of Engler
and a few others, as well as Oryza and Sarcostemma Solarium.
 In the investigation of several additional angiospermic genera, such as cultivars
of maize, wheat, oenothera, zinc, chenopodium, crotalaria, cucurbita, oenothera,
and salix.
 Mondal et al. used a numerical analysis of phytochemical data from study using
seed proteins and mitochondrial DNA RELP tests to examine the interspecitic
differences between eight species of cassia L.Following Sokal & Sneth and
Romero Lopes et al.'s methodology, the degree of pairing affinity (PA), also
known as the similarity index, was computed using the electrophoretic pattern
data.

PA= Bands common to species A and B

× 100
Total bands in A and B
Summary
The characteristics, character states, and qualities offer helpful inputs for identifying
and categorizing plants. They are collectively referred to as taxonomic evidences. These
kinds of proofs might be chemical, biological, or physical.
Physical taxonomic evidence is comprised of taxonomic evidence derived from several
fields like as morphology, anatomy, embryology, palynology, and cytology.

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Chemical taxonomic evidence consists of primary and secondary metabolites.
Biological taxonomic evidences are biomacromolecules that convey information, such
proteins and nucleic acids. Another name for them is semantides.
The study of pollen grain morphology, size, polarity, symmetry, and structure is
known as palynology. Palynological data from extant and extinct plants is a crucial
source of physical taxonomic information.
Very instructive taxonomic evidences include chromosomal morphology, karyotype
studies (idiograms), centromere location inside a chromosome, and chromosome
behavior during meiosis.
In plants, directly visible compounds found within cells, such as starch grains and
crystals, can also be used to identify and decipher connections. Secondary metabolic
taxonomic evidences include substances like flavonoids, iridioids, alkaloids, betalains,
anthocyanins, glucosinates, polyacetylenes, cyanogeneic glycosides, terpenes, etc.

Multiple Choice Questions:

i) A taxonomic system based only on the traits that reflect the order in which
branches arose in a phylogenetic tree is called:
A) Phylogeny
B) Cladistic
C) Classical evolutionary taxonomy
D) Phenetics

ii) The lowest ranking taxa in numerical taxonomy is:

A) Species
B) Operational taxonomic unit
C) Character states
D) Variety

iii) Taxonomy, when strengthened by incorporating data from semantides and non-s
emantides, is called:
A) Numerical taxonomy
B) Cytotaxonomy
C) Chemotaxonomy
D) Alpha taxonomy
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iv) Cladistic relationship is expressed in terms of correlation amongst individuals
with regard to:
A) Phenotypic characters
B) Their evolutionary history
C) Relationship between operational taxonomic unit
D) Their chromosomal behaviour

v) The principles of Numerical taxonomy were developed by:

A) Bentham and Hooker
B) Engler and Prantl
C) Sneath and Sokal
D) Takhtajan and Cronquist

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 UNIT- 8
INTRODUCTIONS to ECOLOGY

8.1 Objectives
• Explain the scope of ecology;
• Describe the types of ecology;
• Explain the aspects and importance of ecology
What are your thoughts about ecology? The study that examines the interactions
between organisms and their surroundings is known as ecology. Although the word
"ecology" derives from the Greek words "Oikos," which means "place to live," and
"Logos," which means "science," The science of the interaction between organisms and
their surroundings is thus what is meant to be understood when one speaks about
ecology. Some ecologists define ecology as the entire study of the link between
organisms and their environment (Ernest Heackel, 1866), whereas C.J. Krebs (1972)
defined ecology as the study of the abundance and interactions of organisms.

8.2 Plant ecology

The range of interactions between related plants, other plants, and their physical
environments is the subject of the scientific field of plant ecology.
This knowledge leads to the conclusion that plants affect one another's daily activities.
One unique aspect of plant ecology is the ability of plants to transform inorganic
elements into organic matter and chemical energy into potential energy.
When talking about plant ecology, ecosystems and plant ecology go hand in hand.
Abiotic (temperature, water, soil, humidity, and light) and biotic (living things, such as
humans, animals, plants, and microorganisms) variables all have an impact on
ecosystems.

8.3 Ecological Scope

The following is the ecological scope:
1. Individual: a solitary member of each specific species. A person, a lion, a cat, a fish,
and so forth are examples.
2. Population: a collection of members of the same species living in the same location at
the same time. For instance, a group of people, an ant colony, a cluster of trees, and so
on.
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3.Community: a group of people who communicate with one another.
As an illustration, consider the populations of birds, caterpillars, snakes, and prairie
communities.
4. Ecosystem: Living organisms and their surroundings are mutually dependent. for
instance, ecosystems found in forests, the ocean, and other places.
5. Biosphere: Earth's highest organizational level where life exists

8.3.1 Aspects About Plant Ecology

There are three primary components of ecology, and they are as follows:
Agronomic features.
The term "agronomic aspect" refers to the science or study that addresses how to
manage production and the surrounding environment in order to achieve higher and
more optimum output or outcomes than previously.
This seeks to determine the link between a place or site and the environment, as well as
the effects it has on the environment, when it comes to using it as a venue for
production processes. The practice of agronomy itself has many drawbacks or deadly
outcomes since improper management and usage of the environment might upset the
existing organisms or even lead the poorly managed soil to fail to produce.
This means that there are still a lot of unknown variables that might arise while applying
the agronomy approach, particularly for those who lived in earlier eras or before the
invention of contemporary technologies. Back then, people didn't give a damn about the
land that had been utilized; they just wanted to take the product that they had grown.
They are forced to relocate when the processing yields less money than they might have
made otherwise in order to accommodate the crops.
Customs that date back thousands of years, followed by people who are unaware of the
potential consequences of processing a place before abandoning it, can have
catastrophic consequences. It's also possible that not all of the locations they utilize are
able to provide products that are superior. due to damage and lack of treatment, which
prevents it from being used again

8.3.2 Aspects of Plant Physiology

Plant physiology is the study, investigation, and application of processes or procedures
that take place in the interior sections of plants, especially higher plants, that are not

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visible without harming or inspecting the internal organs in question.
Based on the "karim" statement, it can be inferred that the science of plant physiology
originates from structural observations and how those observations are linked to the
function of the plant, making it easier to understand the traits and features of the plant
itself.
The arrangement of the plants themselves allows for the identification of factors that
affect the plant's growth and yield, as well as the knowledge of how to increase the
plant's potential yield. This allows for the eventual use of the obtained potential to
enhance the quality and manner in which the plant is grown, and finally, the influence
of the environment in which the plant grows.

Agricultural Climatological Aspects

The scientific field of climatology examines how one location differs from another in
terms of environmental conditions and factors that affect plant growth. Once a
relationship has been established, this knowledge is linked to human activity in the
surrounding area. What elements can therefore have an impact on the plant itself
depending on the condition of the surrounding environment and the plant's specific
location? This climatology also covers the reasons for regional variations in the weather
and climate, as well as the variables that affect and contribute to these variations.
This climatology has many advantages for agriculture, forestry, transportation,
telecommunications, tourism, and trade. It is highly influential on a plant's growth
period because it is focused on the climate, and the measurement of the climate controls
the growth rate experienced by a group of plants.
Based on these three factors, it can be concluded that the three factors are related, which
progressively clarifies how the management process is followed by how to understand
the characteristics of the plant itself. It is also evident how the plant's internal organs
and the surrounding weather or climate affect the plant's ability to grow.

8.4 Benefits of Plant Ecology

Humans utilize plant ecology for the following purposes:
1. Understanding Biodiversity
Understanding ecology helps people appreciate the variety of life on Earth and the
habitats that each one of them has. For instance, penguins are evolved to live in

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extremely cold temperatures, whereas camels are able to survive in the hot heat of the
desert.

2. Understanding How Living Things Act

Through ecology, humans may learn about the behaviors of other living creatures and
apply that knowledge to improve their own quality of life. Take bats as an example,
whose behavior can adapt to submerged solar systems.

3. Understanding Humans' Role in the Environment

Ecology allows people to understand how a product affects its surroundings. For
instance, using High Level Disinfection (DTT) to get rid of bugs might contaminate the
environment and affect both people and other living things.

4. Mapping Food Consumption

The composition and size of food in all living things are known to humans.
For instance, decomposers will create breakdown, which will be used again by
producers as a source of energy, while plants act as producers, herbivores as first-level
consumers, carnivores as second-order consumers, and humans as third-order
consumers.

5. Resolving Issues in Agriculture

Humans may assist in resolving agricultural issues that arise. For instance, keeping the
soil fertile might introduce some microorganisms that can nitrate and ammonium create.

6. Resolving Energy-Related Issues

The availability of energy to maintain life may be ensured in part by humans. One
instance of alternative energy utilization is the generation of electrical energy using
solar power.

7. Resolving Health Issues

Humans can assist in resolving the health issues they have encountered. For instance,
dengue disease, which is spread by the Aedes aegypti mosquito, can be eliminated by
humans by medication or other measures.

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8.5 Ecology Types
The types of ecology are as follows:

1. Human Ecology
The study of the status of the human environment is known as human ecology. The first
people to propose the idea of human ecology were sociologists Ernest W. Burgess and
Robert E. Park. Hawley (1950) asserts that the ecology of plants and animals that might
symbolize the unique application of a broad viewpoint in a life is the scope of human
ecology.

2. Plant Ecology
Plant ecology is a subfield of ecology that focuses only on plants as living things,
ignoring animals and people. Plant ecology, according to Keddy (2004), is the study of
all environmental elements that have an impact on a plant species' (species ecology) or a
plant community's (community ecology) ability to exist in a particular location. The
following environmental elements have an impact on plant ecology: people, animals,
plants, and microbes.

3. Animal Ecology
Animal ecology is a subfield of ecology that focuses only on animals as living things,
excluding plants and people. Understanding the fundamental components of an animal's
performance base as an individual, a population, a community, or an inhabited
ecosystem—such as pattern recognition and interaction recognition—is the aim of
animal ecology.
Autecology and synecology encompass animal ecology. A synecological community is
one in which there are interactions between different demographic groups. For instance,
looking at the quantity of a specific kind of fish in a tidal zone. On the other hand,
autecology is an ecological feature of individual animals or groups of animals.
Investigating the nuances of Drosophila spp. life, including as food, habitat,
reproduction, behavior, and reaction, among other things, is one example.

4. Population Ecology

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A subfield of ecology known as population ecology examines the relationships between
populations of species, their individual numbers, and the factors that affect population
size and dispersion. For instance, populations of fish and sumpil are found in river
ecosystems because they have fulfilled the necessary conditions to exist as populations.
For more precise data, the population can conduct experiments, observe events, and
conduct surveys.

5. Habitat Ecology
A subfield of ecology called "habitat ecology" studies the characteristics of a habitat.
Habitat, in the words of Sambas Wirakusumah, is a species' ability to tolerate
environmental conditions inside its orbit. A species' orbit is its living area against a
large geographic backdrop, whereas its habitat is the actual area it inhabits.

6. Social Ecology
The study of the interaction between people and technology and the natural world is
known as social ecology. The Chicago school of social ecology theory was developed
by Mr. R.E. Park (1864–1944). The structure of the intercity in terms of how the various
areas of the city interact is addressed by social ecology theory. The biotic and social
levels are the two layers of society that are explained by social ecology theory. The
biotic level serves as both society's foundation and the sub-social structure that
implements the dependent and competitive principles and causes society to evolve
according to predetermined patterns. Although the social level is associated with the
sociocultural aspects of society, which are governed by community, communication,
values, norms, and changes that take place in society.

7. Language Ecology
The study of the interaction between language and the human environment, as seen in
ethnolinguistics and sociolinguistics, is known as language ecology. The dialectical
ecolinguistic perspective (Steffensen, 2007) holds that language is both shaped and
formed by social activity. The term "social praxis" describes all of the community's
behaviors, actions, and interactions with other communities as well as the environment.

8. Space Ecology

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The field of ecology known as "space ecology" focuses on ecosystems that support
human existence while in orbit. A subfield of ecology known as "space ecology" studies
the creation of ecosystems that can partly or fully regenerate to sustain human existence
during extended space travel.

Summary
Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships that exist between living things and
their surroundings, including both biotic (non-living) and abiotic (living) elements. Its
purview include comprehending how these interplays mold ecosystems, impact
biodiversity, and propel mechanisms like nutrient cycle and energy transfer. Population
dynamics, community structure, ecosystem functioning, and the effects of human
activity on natural systems are important facets of ecology. There are several categories
of ecology, such as population, community, behavioral, ecosystem, and global ecology.
It is crucial for maintaining the sustainability of life on Earth by offering insights into
conservation, managing natural resources, and tackling environmental issues like
climate change.

Keywords
Ecology: Ecology is the study of the interactions between living things and their
surroundings.
Environment: surrounds and affects organisms is the culmination of all biotic and
abiotic forces.
Atmosphere: The gaseous envelope around a planet is called its.
Biosphere: biosphere is the planet Earth plus its atmosphere, which supports life on
Earth.
Hydrosphere: it is the portion of the globe that is made up of water (lake, river, ice cap,
ocean, etc.).
Lithosphere: Earth's outer solid shell is known as the lithosphere.

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MCQ
1. What is ecology?
A) The study of rocks and minerals
B) The study of human history
C) The study of interactions between organisms and their environment
D) The study of celestial bodies
Answer: C)

2. Which of the following is an abiotic factor?

A) Plants
B) Animals
C) Microorganisms
D) Temperature
Answer: D)

3. What does population ecology focus on?

A) Individual organisms
B) Groups of organisms and their interactions
C) The dynamics of species populations
D) The biosphere and global patterns
Answer: C)

4. Which type of ecology studies energy flow and nutrient cycling within
ecosystems?
A) Autecology
B) Community Ecology
C) Ecosystem Ecology
D) Global Ecology
Answer: C)

5. Why is ecology important for environmental conservation?

A) It helps in studying rocks
B) It helps in conserving biodiversity
C) It focuses on ancient civilizations
D) It explores the universe
Answer: B)
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Short questions:
1. Define ecology and explain its significance.
2. Describe the scope of ecology and list its major levels of study.
3. What is the difference between autecology and synecology?
4. Explain the importance of studying nutrient cycling within an ecosystem.
5. How does landscape ecology differ from ecosystem ecology?

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 UNIT-9
ORGANISM & POPULATION

9.1 Objectives
• Explain Population growth;
• Describe the characteristics of growth;
• Explain the plant interaction

9.2 Organisms
A biological system that is linked to its surroundings is called an organism. Certain
structures and behaviors can be retained by these living organisms. Humans, animals,
plants, fungus, and bacteria are a few examples of biological entities. Populations are
made up of a grouping of these creatures. A community is formed by the aggregation of
people and helps ecosystems function. Every living thing is capable of adjusting to
different environmental circumstances. Because of their genetic differences, organisms
have this ability. Their survival chances only rise as a result of this. example: polar
bears' thick fur coat allows them to withstand the bitter cold, whereas camels adapt to
live in arid environments.

9.2.1 Organisms and Environment

Many variables influence how organisms grow and develop in their specific
surroundings. The environment and the creatures who inhabit it are impacted by certain
differences.
One of the geological elements is the earth's rotation around the sun.
The temperature fluctuations are caused by the axis' tilt.
These are the elements that cause different seasons to exist on Earth.
The primary biomes' creation is influenced by variations in the aforementioned
variables as well as the yearly change in precipitation (deserts, rainforests, and tundras).
It is significant to remember that the development of habitat in biomes is influenced by
certain biotic and abiotic elements.
Variations result from the various ways in which these components interact with one
another. The biotic elements of the ecosystem consist of diseases, parasites, predators,
and rivals. They communicate with the physio-chemical elements of their environment.
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Known as abiotic factors, these physio-chemical elements are essential to the creation of
habitats.

9.3 Introduction to Population

"Populus" is derived from the Latin word "populus," which means "people." In ecology,
the term "population" refers to the collective of species or kinds of organisms. A
population is an assembly of unique creatures in one location that share traits, are of the
same origin, and are able to freely create children due to no barriers between their
individual members.
A population is a collection of individuals belonging to the same species that are
present in the same area at a given moment. Similar to individual creatures, populations
possess distinct features and/or traits including growth rate, age distribution, gender
ratio, and death rate. These people belong to heterosexual groupings. Approximately
5,000,000 plant species, 10,000,000 animal species, and 2-3 million or less microbes are
thought to exist on Earth today; of these, only 10% have been recognized and given
names. i.e., the remaining 90% is a substantial amount that has not yet been identified.
Communities always undergo periodic changes as a result of variables including births,
deaths, migrations, and the spread of individuals among other communities. The
population can grow quickly if the resources that organisms require are plentiful and the
environmental circumstances are favorable. Biotic potential is the capacity of a
population to grow to its maximum under ideal circumstances. The majority of the time,
environmental resistance limits the availability of scarce resources, unfavorable
environmental conditions, climate, food, habitat, water, and other elements that promote
population expansion. There is a maximum number of people that the environment can
sustain in a population. Carrying capacity is the maximum number of people that a
habitat or ecosystem can support. Numerous demographic traits are associated with
ecology, including population density, population increase, and the actual population's
composition.

9.3.1 Population Growth

Living organisms are known to grow and develop. For example, an expanding plant
population will produce more new individuals in order to prevent the extinction of the
species. The formula (Number of members of the initial population/time) may be used

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to represent the rate of population expansion in terms of the number of persons divided
by the time period during which the population rises, or the time these additions occur.
It is inevitable that only his descendants will make up the population if there is a
decrease or rise in the number of individuals owing to migration, relocation, or entry
from another region. It is possible to determine an individual's natality or birth, however
as creatures always reproduce and eventually pass away, this will always be related to
their death or mortality rate. The growth rate is what ensures that the type is maintained
for the following generation. Exponential expansion is the fundamental idea behind the
phenomena of population growth.

9.3.2 Population characteristics

A population possesses certain traits or qualities that are exclusive to the group as a
whole, not to any one person. Measuring these attributes allows comparisons across
different populations. These characteristics include dispersion, natality, mortality, and
population density. Demography is the study of a population's group characteristics,
how they change over time, and how to anticipate future changes.

9.3.3 Population Density

Migration, or the movement of individual organisms, is often what determines the
quantity or size of a plant or animal population in a given region. Every species in a
given location will never be the same in terms of size and population since both the
physical environment and food have an impact. These kinds of plants will eventually
decline and die on their own when the environmental factors do not support the habitat
of animals and plants and the plants are unable to adapt to the less supporting
environment.
Density, a population's essential attribute, represents the size of the population. It is
commonly represented as the population biomass or number of persons per unit area or
volume. There are two sorts of densities that are discussed: specialized (or ecological)
density and crude density. The density per unit of total space is known as the crude
density. Populations often do not occupy the entire region since not all of it may be
livable. Hence, specific density refers to density per unit of livable space. It only
encompasses the area of the complete universe that humans may truly occupy.

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9.3.4 Determining population size
Population density and the area inhabited (geographic distribution) determine
population size (or abundance). The usual method for estimating population size is to
count every person in a smaller sample area and then extrapolate that number across a
broader region. When the population is not mobile, it can be approximated by counting
the number of people in a given region. When people are highly mobile and often shift
locations, we can count them using a widely used technique known as the mark-
recapture appro
This technique involves capturing, marking, and releasing a tiny random sample of the
population to spread over the larger population. In a short period of time, the marked
and unmarked people freely mix, resulting in a random mixing of the population. The
number of marked and unmarked individuals is counted after resampling the population.
Next, we assume that the marked-to-unmarked individual ratio in the second sample is
equal to the marked-to-unmarked individual ratio in the first sample.
We can calculate total population size (N) by:
Total individuals marked in first sample × Size of second sample N
Number of marked individuals recaptured in second sample
This expression is known as the Lincoln-Peterson index to population size. To further
grasp the mark-recapture technique, let's look at an example. Let's say we capture fifty
Labeo rohita fish in a lake and label (color) them. The marked fish are then all released
as soon as possible and as near to the collecting location as feasible. After allowing the
population enough time to mingle randomly, we collect 40 fish (a second sample) a
week later, of which 5 are previously marked fish. Assuming that there have been no
fish births or deaths and no immigration or emigration—both of which are quite
possible in a closed system such as a lake—the total population size of fish is 400
(50×40/5).
People of all ages make up a population at any particular moment. An age pyramid is
the structure that results from plotting the age distribution (individuals per cent of a
certain age or age group) for the population. The age pyramids typically display the age
distribution of both males and females in a combined figure for the human population.
The population's growth status is indicated by the form of the pyramids: (a) expanding,
(b) constant, or (c) falling.

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 Figure 2: Representation of age pyramids
The population structure of a plant is influenced by several factors, namely:

Natality
The term "natality" describes the birth rate of a population. The number of children born
to each female in a certain amount of time is known as the natality rate, often known as
the birth rate. Bases such as per population, per individual (which is the number of
births per individual per unit of time), and per 1000 individuals are frequently used to
express "rate." Maximum natality and ecological natality are two types of natality. The
potential maximum number of individuals generated under perfect environmental
conditions (i.e., no ecological limiting factors) is known as maximum natality,
commonly known as absolute or physiological natality. It is a constant for a given
population. Ecological or realized natality is the quantity of offspring generated.

Mortality
Naturally, all plant processes are disturbed by environmental disturbances like forest
fires, and pole and tree seedling phases are abruptly terminated. And in some places,
this will have an impact on the density of individuals.

9.4 Environmental factor

It is well recognized that three environmental conditions—soil pH, humidity, and air
temperature—determine the measurement of environmental data. These elements'
presence will result in a plant's growth and development. Similar to palm trees, sugar
palm plants require certain growth conditions, including soil moisture, light intensity,
wind speed, and height. When it comes to the cultivation of sugar palm trees,
Paramentan (2013) states that the ideal air temperature range for both growth and
development as well as reproduction is between 20 and 25 C. This poses a constraint for

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sugar palm trees. Because humidity keeps a plant's water content constant, it is
considered a moist air condition for sugar palms. A plant that is exposed to excessive
humidity may soon lose its air content or evaporate. Robust sugar palm trees thrive in
environments with high annual rainfall of 1,200–3,500 mm. This kind of rainfall is
possible in humid environments. Because of the high acid content in the soil, a pH of
less than 7 is not ideal for the growth and development of sugar palm pole stages,
because the high acid content in the soil causes the pH of the soil to be somewhat acidic,
which impacts the growth difficulties in the seedling, weaning, and pole stages.
Exponential growth
If there are no restrictions on population growth, i.e., in a perfect, limitless environment,
then the population will rise exponentially. The number of children born per individual
is known as the per capita rate of growth, and it reaches its maximum in an ideal,
limitless setting. The number rises in a geometric sequence of 20, 21, 22, 23, ... during
exponential expansion. Geometric growth expresses the rate of rise as a constant
fraction or an exponent (e.g., 2, 4, 8, 16) multiplied by a certain population. On the
other hand, arithmetic growth refers to a pattern of growth that rises at a consistent rate
per unit of time, such as 1, 2, 3, 4 or 1, 3, 5, 7... A basic model based on the exponential
equation may be used to depict the exponential type of growth.

dN/dt= rN or, dN/dt*1/N= r (N is the population size and r is intrinsic rate of increase)
The intrinsic rate of rise is the greatest per capita rate of increase during exponential
population expansion in an ideal, limitless environment. The word biotic potential, often
known as reproductive potential, is a commonly used and less specific way to refer to
the highest value of r. It is the highest rate of per capita growth possible when there is
no resistance from the environment. Environmental resistance is the culmination of all
environmental elements working together to prevent an organism's full biotic potential.
It encompasses abiotic elements like fire, flood, and drought as well as biotic elements
like parasitism, competition, and predation. Different species have different levels of
biotic potential; for example, populations of deer can expand more quickly than those of
elephants.

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 Figure 2.1: a) Exponential Growth curve b) Logistic growth

The per capita birth rate (b) less the per capita death rate (d) is the definition of r in a
closed population.
dN/dt = (b - d) N where, r = b – d
When per capita birth rate exceeds per capita death rate (b > d), the population is
increasing and r is positive; when death rate exceeds birth rate (d > b), then r is negative
and the population is decreasing.
The integral form of the exponential growth equation is:
Nt = N0ert
Where, Nt = Population size after time t,
N0 = Population size at time zero,
r = Intrinsic rate of increase and
e = Exponent, a mathematical constant
Nt/ N0 = ert
By taking the natural log of both sides,
ln Nt – ln N0 = r t
Every member of a species has the capacity to develop exponentially when there are
infinite resources (food and space) available in their environment. Plotting population
size (N) against time (t) yields a J-shaped growth curve for a population that grows
exponentially at a constant rate.

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Logistic Growth
Only in situations where there is an endless supply of natural resources is extended
exponential growth feasible; this is not the case in the actual world. In his depiction of
the "struggle for existence," Charles Darwin acknowledged this fact, stating that people
will compete for few resources with members of their own species as well as those of
other species. Natural selection holds that those who succeed are more likely to live
longer and pass on their advantageous features to the following generation. The logistic
growth model was created by population ecologists to simulate the realities of few
resources.
Exponential growth is not sustainable in the actual world due to resource constraints.
When there are few persons and lots of resources available, exponential growth may
occur; but, as the population grows, the resources will run out and the pace of expansion
will slow down. The growth rate will eventually level out or plateau. The carrying
capacity, represented by the letter K, is the population size that results from the
maximum population size that a certain ecosystem can support. Real populations
frequently experience a population overgrowth that exceeds carrying capacity, leading
to an increase in the death rate over the birth rate and a subsequent reduction in
population size that either falls below or returns to carrying capacity. The majority of
populations typically vary within an area's carrying capacity. A logistic growth graph
produces the S-shaped curve. Compared to exponential growth, this population growth
model is more accurate. An S-shaped curve is divided into three halves. Because there
are many resources accessible and few persons, the expansion is exponential at first.
Then, the growth rate slows when resources start to run out. Eventually, the population
number barely changes over time as the growth rate reaches the environment's carrying
capacity.
Bacteria cultured in a flask with plenty of nutrients may expand exponentially at first,
whereas bacteria generated in a flask with few nutrition may grow logistically.

Population regulation
Are populations regulated? If so, how? What is the true meaning of population
regulation? Numerous methods for population regulation have been uncovered by
population ecologists. In general, population growth is controlled by either density-
independent or density-dependent causes.

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Density-dependent factors Population growth is influenced by density-dependent
variables that rely on population density. Predation, sickness, and competition for
resources are some of these issues. For instance, the population of rabbits may grow
exponentially until intraspecific competition results in an increase in the death rate or a
decrease in the birth rate, which leads to a net loss in the reproductive rate and a
corresponding drop in population density. Density-dependent issues frequently include
scarce resources like water, nutrients, and space.
Population size can be positively or negatively correlated with density-dependent
characteristics. Either the birth rate decreases, the death rate rises, or both increase with
population growth. It's a critical comment. Density-dependent variables do not,
however, necessarily have a negative relationship with population size. In certain
instances, growth rate rises as population size does. This phenomenon, which is an
illustration of positive feedback, is known as the Allee effect (named for W. Allee, who
initially reported it). Numerous factors affecting reproduction and survival can lead to a
positive link between population size and fitness.
Mate restriction is a well-established cause of the Allee effect. In small populations,
mate constraint lowers reproduction because sexual reproduction necessitates
interaction between male and female gametes. The heightened susceptibility to
predators is the second explanation. Greater numbers of prey have a lower per capita
risk of predation than smaller populations do. Allee impacts, finally, might result from
genetic causes. For many species, an Allee effect can result from inbreeding depression
when population size is limited, lowering average fitness as population size decreases.

Density-independent factors Population density has no bearing on population increase;

instead, variables other than density have an impact. Although their impacts are
independent of population density, these elements are typically linked to abiotic
events—changes in the physical environment—that either stimulate or inhibit
population expansion. Seasonal variations in weather patterns and natural disasters like
hurricanes and floods can be examples of density-independent causes.

9.5 Plant Interactions with Other Organisms

9.5.1 Competition

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When one plant interferes with another's demand for the same environmental resource
(such as light, minerals, or space) or when individuals within one population interfere
with each other's needs for the same environmental resource, competition develops. In
plants, competition usually occurs indirectly through the resource rather than directly
between individual leaves. Although they live in slightly distinct microenvironments,
plants that have the same life form and growth needs frequently compete with one
another. As a result, the resource is often used more effectively, and as natural selection
takes hold over time, the community becomes more diverse.

9.5.2 Allelopathy is a specific type of direct competition in which a fungus, such as

Penicillium, or a species of plant generates a material that is harmful to another. In
certain cases, the material prevents the seeds or spores from the producer from
developing. When leaves fall and decompose, the chemicals may seep into the soil from
the roots of the plant or build up in the soil surrounding it. Terpenes that volatilize and
disperse as aerosols in the atmosphere make up some of them. Many plants are poisoned
by the essential oils of plants belonging to the mint family and black walnut oil. Many
types of seedlings are inhibited in their growth by the caffeine found in tea and coffee
plants.
Plants that generate secondary metabolites—chemicals that shield the plants from
herbivores—wage a different form of chemical warfare. Without a doubt, alterations in
one species sparked responses and additional evolutionary changes in the other, leading
to the coevolution of plants and their predators.
Some of the metabolites are substances that mimic hormones, enzymes, or other vital
components of animal bodies rather than only acting as deterrents. One molecule
inhibits the juvenile growth hormone, interfering with insect metabolism. Other
substances, such as the alkaloids cocaine and morphine, have an impact on the nervous
system of humans. Caffeine, while stimulating in humans, is poisonous to plants and
deadly to fungus and insects. Certain plants contain estrogens, which are unknown to
the plants but well-known to be important for human reproduction and a reason to be
concerned while eating veggies.
Different types of defense compounds shield plants from fungal and bacterial invasions.
When leaves or stems are injured, these compounds, known as phytoalexins, function as

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natural antibiotics and shield the plant against bacterial and fungal infections. Tobacco
plants produce nicotine in reaction to wounds.

9.5.3 Symbiosis
Two distinct species coexist in close, nearly eternal companionship when they are in a
symbiotic relationship. The classic illustration of a symbiotic relationship between a
cyanobacterium or alga and a fungus is seen in lichens. Another example of a symbiotic
relationship between fungus and vascular plant root cells is mycorrhizae. A symbiosis is
referred to as mutualism if the interactions between the symbionts are beneficial to both
parties; commensalism is used when one party gains and the connection is unimportant
to the other; parasitism is used when one partner gains and the other suffers.

9.5.4 Mutualism
Mutualism is the word for direct plant-plant interactions that are advantageous to both
species. Legumes and the nitrogen-fixing bacteria that reside in their root nodules are an
excellent illustration of this arrangement, if we extend the definition of plants to include
microorganisms. Legume photosynthesis provides the bacteria with the required glucose
energy, while the legume benefits by receiving nitrogen from the bacterium. In fact, the
free-living bacteria transform into bacteroids, which are unable to survive outside of the
roots. Known as mycorrhizae, these fungal-root relationships are present in the great
majority of higher plants. The fungus obtains a supply of carbon compounds from the
plant, and the vascular plants benefit since the fungus is considerably better at collecting
and concentrating phosphorus (and maybe other mineral nutrients) than the root tissue.
Numerous mutualisms have evolved in seed plants, with the most advanced being the
relationships between insects, birds, bats, and a few other creatures that guarantee
flower pollination, particularly through cross-pollination. The colors, fragrances, and
nectars of the flowers draw pollinators to them, and once they are there, a variety of
structural floral adaptations ensure that the bee receives a dusting of pollen to carry to
the next flower it visits. The plant receives a messenger service that is more efficient
than random breezes, and the pollinator receives sustenance.
Fruit and seed distribution systems are also highly developed, coevolved mutualisms.
Succulent edible fruits, which are frequently found on plants that generate seeds with
hard seed coats, are excellent dispersion tools for bigger animals due to their fragrances

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and colors. The covering could be so impenetrable to water that it prevents germination
unless a chemical solvent or mechanical abrasion is used. Birds' gizzards are efficient
grinders, while mammals' stomach acids remove a large portion of the hard-coated seed
coat before the seeds are evacuated in feces.

9.5.5 Commensalism
Commensalism is when two species dwell in close proximity to one another (the host),
sharing resources such as shelter or other environments necessary for existence without
endangering or benefiting the host. Neoregelia spp., which are hosts of orchids and
bromeliads, reside on the trunk or branches of their hosts, where they get nutrients and
water from the air or the bark's surface without entering the host's tissue. Vascular
epiphytes are characterized by stocky roots and xeromorphic leaves that aid in
absorbing and holding onto water (epiphyte means to live upon another). In the tropical
rain forest, bryophytes, lichens, and fern epiphytes are so common that they frequently
contain more plant material than the host trees they are attached to. The Saguaro cactus
(Cereus giganteus) seedling growth, which usually takes place under the shade of
paloverde trees or other plants, serves as another example of a facilitator. These plants
provide the cactus with a better water-relationship environment and shield it from the
sun's harmful rays. "Nurse" plants are frequently used in farming operations to
temporarily enhance the environment for the primary crop. For instance, alfalfa and oat
can be sown together to provide the alfalfa seedlings with improved soil surface
moisture and shade from the oat.

9.5.6 Parasitism
Neither vascular plants that parasitize other vascular plants nor bacteria, viruses, or
fungus have spared the plants as hosts for their parasitic existence. Since the definitions
of mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism are dependent on assessments of the
degree of damage or benefit to the symbionts, the distinctions between them are
sometimes hazy. Vascular plant parasites are found in over 3,000 species worldwide.
While some of them have completely lost the capacity to photosynthesize, others cling
on their hosts' vascular systems and use the water and minerals that are being
transported there for their own photosynthesis.

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Summary
Ecology's study of plant population expansion entails comprehending the dynamics and
variables that affect a plant's ability to multiply or decrease over time within a certain
ecosystem. Combinations of biotic and abiotic variables impact its growth.
Reproduction rates, competition for resources (such as light, water, and nutrients),
illness, herbivory, and symbiotic interactions are important biotic variables. Climate,
soil properties, water availability, and disturbances like as fire or human activity are all
considered abiotic variables. A variety of mathematical models, including logistic and
exponential growth models, may be used to simulate the growth of plant populations. A
J-shaped curve is the product of exponential growth, which happens in perfect, limitless
conditions and is defined by a constant growth rate. By taking environmental carrying
capacity into consideration, logistic growth, on the other hand, produces an S-shaped
curve where the growth rate falls as population size approaches the carrying limit.
Growth rates are regulated by density-dependent variables, such competition and
predation, which become increasingly important as population density rises. On the
other hand, variables such as harsh weather or natural catastrophes have an impact on
population size regardless of density. For conservation biology, agriculture, and
ecosystem management, an understanding of plant population increase is crucial
because it makes predictions about how plant communities will react to alterations in
their environment and human activities. This information is essential for developing
effective management plans that protect biodiversity, guarantee sustainable resource
use, and lessen the effects of climate change.

Keywords
Symbiosis: A close living connection or evolutionary interaction between creatures of
various species is called symbiosis.
Population regulation: the natural mechanisms that restrict population expansion.
Allelopathy: the chemical suppression of one organism (plant or other) by another;
Mutualism: advantageous to both involved organisms

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MCQs
1. What term describes the maximum population size an environment can
sustain?
A) Birth rate
B) Carrying capacity
C) Death rate
D) Exponential growth
Ans: D)

2. In the logistic growth model, what does the "S-shaped" curve represent?
A) Exponential growth
B) Linear growth
C) Logistic growth
D) No growth
Ans: C)

3. In which stage of the logistic growth model does the growth rate decrease as
the population approaches carrying capacity?
A) Lag phase
B) Exponential phase
C) Decline phase
D) Plateau phase

4. Which mathematical model is commonly used to describe the exponential

growth of a plant population?
A) Logistic model
B) Geometric model
C) Linear model
D) Exponential model
Ans: D)

5. What is the primary reason for a plant population to experience logistic

growth rather than exponential growth in a natural environment?

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 A) Unlimited resources
B) High reproductive rates
C) Limited resources and environmental resistance
D) Human intervention
Ans: C)

6. What does the "r" represent in the equation dN/dt=rNdN/dt = rNdN/dt=rN

for exponential growth?
A) Carrying capacity
B) Birth rate
C) Intrinsic rate of increase
D) Population size
Ans: C)

Short Questions
1. Define carrying capacity and explain its significance in plant population growth.
2. Describe the difference between exponential and logistic growth in plant
populations.
3. Explain how density-independent factors can influence plant population growth.
Provide examples.
4. What is the importance of studying plant population growth in ecology?
5. Illustrate and explain the phases of the logistic growth curve for a plant
population.

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 UNIT-10
ECOSYSTEM

10.1 Objectives
• Explain type and components of ecosystem;
• Describe the food chain and food web;
• Explain the nutrient cycle

10.2 Concept of an Ecosystem

Living things are dependent on their non-living surroundings for resources and energy
to survive. In other words, a biotic community interacts with its surroundings to form a
stable system that is known as an ecosystem, which is a naturally occurring self-
sufficient unit. Ecosystems are the areas of the natural world where organisms interact
with one another and their surroundings. English botanist A.G. Tansley first used the
term "ecosystem" in 1935. The structural and functional building block of ecology, or
nature, an ecosystem comprises intricate interactions between its biotic—or living—and
abiotic—or non-living—components. Ponds are an excellent illustration of ecosystems.
Common examples of ecosystems include ponds, lakes, deserts, grasslands, meadows,
and forests.

10.3 Structure and Function of an Ecosystem:

Each ecosystem has two main components:
(1) Abiotic (2) Biotic

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(1) Abiotic components (Nonliving): The abiotic component can be grouped into
following categories:-
(a) Climatic Factors: Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.
(b) Edaphic Factors: Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.
The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below
 Compared to simple sediments, soils have far more complexity. They are made
up of a variety of materials, including organic matter, living things, weathered
rock fragments, and significantly changed soil mineral particles.
For creatures, soils offer food, water, shelter, and a structural growth medium.
Because of nitrogen cycling, the plant that grows on top of soil is intimately
related to this aspect of an ecosystem.
 The atmosphere supplies oxygen for respiration and carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis to species that live in ecosystems. Water is cycled between the
Earth's surface and atmosphere through the processes of transpiration,
evaporation, and precipitation.
 Ecosystems employ solar energy to warm the atmosphere as well as to
evaporatively and transpiratorily release water into the atmosphere.
Photosynthesis also requires sunlight. The energy required for plant growth and
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 metabolism, as well as the organic food needed by other living things, are
produced via photosynthesis.
 Water makes up a very large portion of most living tissue—up to or even over
90%. Few cells' protoplasm can endure if their water content falls below 10%,
and the majority of them perish if it falls below 30–50%.
 Mineral nutrients enter and are translocated within plants through the medium of
water. It is also essential for photosynthetic chemical processes and for
maintaining the turgidity of leaves. The soil and surface of the Earth provide
water to plants and animals. This water originally came from precipitation that
fell from the sky.


Figure:

2) Biotic components: Biotic Components

It is made up of all the elements that make up the living world, such as the numerous
interconnected populations of various species coexisting in the same area. The animal,
plant, and microbial populations are the ones that comprise the populations. The three
groups that make up the biotic community are autotrophs, saprotrophs, and
heterotrophs. In Greek, autotrophs (auto = self, trophos = feeder) are sometimes referred
to as producers, transducers, or convertors. These are photosynthetic plants, often

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chlorophyll-bearing ones, that use the sun's assistance to create a high-energy complex
organic molecule, or food, from inorganic basic materials. This process is known as
photosynthesis. The foundation of every biotic system is the autortoph.
Autotrophs in terrestrial environments are often rooted plants. The primary producers in
aquatic environments are the shallow-rooted, floating plants known as macrophytes and
the floating plants known as phytoplankton.
The consumers, or heterotrophs (Greek: heteros, other; trophs, feeder), are often
creatures that devour other species. The term "phagotroph" also refers to consumers
(phago = to swallow or eat), whereas herbivores and carnivores are often macro
consumers. Since herbivores consume only green plants, they are sometimes referred to
as first order or main consumers. Cattle, deer, grasshoppers, rabbits, and other animals
are examples of consumers in the terrestrial environment. Protozoans, crabs, etc. are
consumers in the aquatic environment.

Figure:
Animals that hunt or consume other animals are known as carnivores. Animals that
devour herbivorous species are classified as primary carnivores or second order
consumers. For instance, foxes, frogs, tiny fish, raptors, snakes, etc.
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Animals that consume primary carnivores are known as third order consumers or
secondary carnivores. Like wolves, owls, peacocks, etc. Prey for certain bigger
predators is secondary carnivores. Animals that consume secondary carnivores are
referred to as quaternary consumers or tertiary carnivores. Take the tiger, lion, etc. as
examples. There are no other animals that consume them. The term "top carnivores"
also refers to bigger carnivores that are incapable of being further preyed upon.

10.4 Productivity
For every ecosystem to survive and operate, solar energy must be continuously inputted.
The quantity of biomass or organic matter generated by plants during photosynthesis per
unit area over time is known as primary production. It is stated as either energy (kcal
m–2) or weight (g–2). Productivity is the rate of biomass production. The productivity
of various ecosystems is given in terms of g –2 yr –1 or (kcal m–2) yr –1 for
comparison. It is split into two categories: net primary productivity (NPP) and gross
primary productivity (GPP). The rate at which organic matter is produced in an
environment during photosynthesis is known as its gross primary productivity. Plants
use a significant portion of GPP during transpiration. Net primary productivity (NPP) is
calculated as gross primary production less respiration losses (R). R – GPP = NPP The
biomass that is available for consumption by heterotrophs, or herbivores and
decomposers, is known as net primary productivity. Consumers' rate of production of
new organic matter is known as secondary productivity. The plant species that are
present in a given region determine the primary productivity of that area. It also depends
on a number of environmental variables, nutrition availability, and plant photosynthetic
ability. As a result, it differs across various ecosystem types. The biosphere as a whole
produce around 170 billion tons (dry weight) of organic matter annually as net primary
production. Of this, the productivity of the seas is just 55 billion tons, while making up
over 70% of the surface. Naturally, the remainder is on land.
Saprotrophs are also known as reducers or decomposers (from the Greek sapros, which
means rotting, and trophos, which means feeder). They disintegrate the intricate organic
components found in dead stuff, such as animals and plants. They do not consume the
food, decomposers. Rather, they break down the organic material by secreting a
digestive enzyme into the rotting remnants of deceased plants or animals. The complex
organic chemicals in the dead matter are broken down by the enzymes. To sustain

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themselves, decomposers take in some of the byproducts of decomposition. During the
mineralization process, the residual material is added to the substratum as minerals.
Plants, who are the producers, employ the released minerals as nutrients again or as
needed.

10.5 Energy flow

The primary source of energy needed by all living things is the chemical energy found
in food.
Along the food chain, this energy is transferred to various trophic levels. The basis for
this energy flow is provided by two distinct thermodynamic principles.
According to the first rule of thermodynamics, energy can only shift from one form to
another and cannot be generated or destroyed.The second law of thermodynamics
indicates that an increasing amount of energy is lost throughout the transfer process.
One of the main things that allows for the survival of so many different kinds in the
ecosystem is the flow of energy. Solar energy is the main energy source for nearly all
living things on Earth. The fact that less than 50% of the sun's effective radiation
reaches Earth is humorous. Effective radiation is defined as the radiation that plants can
employ to perform photosynthesis.
The earth's atmosphere typically reflects back into space the majority of the solar energy
that strikes it. The term PAR, or photosynthetically active radiation, refers to this
effective radiation.
Only 2–10% of the energy that is obtained by photosynthetically active radiation is
actually utilized by plants for the process of photosynthesis, whilst the remaining 40–
50% is received by us. Since plants are the ecosystem's producers and all other creatures
rely on them either directly or indirectly for existence, this percentage of PAR thus
sustains life on Earth.
The food web and food chain facilitate the transfer of energy. Plants, which are the
ecosystem's producers, use their chloroplasts to collect sunlight, and during the process
of photosynthesis, some of that energy is converted into chemical energy.
When herbivores eat plants as food and transform the chemical energy accumulated in
plant products into kinetic energy, or heat, energy is degraded. This energy is stored in
various organic products in the plants and transferred to the primary consumers in the
food chain.

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The secondary consumers come next. Additional deterioration will take place when
these herbivores are eaten by first-order predators, or secondary consumers. Finally,
energy will be lost once more when tertiary consumers eat the carnivores. As a result,
energy flow is unidirectional in nature.
Organisms are categorized according to their trophic level, which is determined by the
source of their food or nourishment. The first trophic level includes producers, followed
by herbivores (primary consumers) in the second and carnivores (secondary consumers)
in the third.
It's crucial to remember that energy content drops with increasing trophic level.
Any deceased creature is transformed into detritus, or dead biomass, which provides
decomposers with energy. For their energy needs, organisms at every trophic level rely
on those at the lower trophic level. Every trophic level has a standing crop, which is a
certain mass of living material present at a given time. The biomass, or mass of living
things in a given area, is used to quantify standing crops. A species' biomass is reported
as either fresh weight or dry weight.
Furthermore, the energy flow in a food chain abides by the 10 percent law. This rule
states that 90% of energy is lost to space and just 10% is transmitted from one trophic
level to the next.The term "food chain" refers to the recurrent eating and being eaten
process that occurs as food energy moves from the producers via a succession of species
(herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers).
Grazing food chains and debris food chains are the two main categories of food chains
seen in nature. Ecosystems are dynamic due to the functional characteristics of food
chains and energy movement. They serve as a bridge between the biotic and abiotic
elements of an ecosystem.
An ecosystem's functional characteristics enable the interdependence of its constituent
elements. The natural events or energy exchanges that occur in living organism across
the globe's many biomes are known as ecosystem functions. For instance, green leaves
produce food that is subsequently ingested by herbivores and carnivores, while roots
collect nutrients from the ground. Decomposers perform the operations that reduce
complicated organic components into simply comprehended inorganic products that
manufacturers can employ.
The flow of nutrients and energy within the food chain is the essence of ecosystem
activities. These exchanges sustain the planet's plant and animal life as well as the

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decomposition of organic materials and the production of biomass. The ecosystem's
many functions are all made possible by well-regulated and balanced processes.

10.6 Food chain

A food chain is the arrangement of living things in a community wherein one creature
feeds on the others and is fed by them in return to exchange energy. Another definition
of a food chain is "a chain of organisms that exists in any natural community and
transfers energy through them."
All living things, regardless of their size or environment, require food in order to thrive,
from microscopic algae to enormous blue whales. In many ecosystems, the structure of
the food chain varies depending on the species. Every food chain serves as an essential
conduit for nutrients and energy within the environment.

Figure 4.1: Food chain

The African-Arab scholar and philosopher Al-Jahiz originally described food chains in
the ninth century. Charles Elton popularized the concept in a book he wrote in 1927.
A producer, like plants, is the first link in a food chain. The foundation of the food
chains is the producer. Next, there are several order consumers. species that consume

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other species are called consumers. With the exception of the initial organism, every
creature in a food chain is a consumer.
Because they employ photosynthesis to create their own food, plants are known as
producers while consumers depends on plants or other animals for food. Every creature
receives energy from the ones at the levels below it in a particular food chain. There is
consistent energy transmission at every link in a food chain. The body does not absorb
all of the energy at a given level of the cycle in the following stage.

10.6.1 Trophic Levels in a Food Chain

The various groupings of organisms in a food chain are referred to as trophic levels.
They are listed below.
Producers (First Trophic Level) − Also referred to as autotrophs, synthesize their own
food via photosynthesis. In every food chain, they make up the base. Autotrophs include
plants, single-celled animals, certain kinds of bacteria, algae, etc.
Consumers (second trophic level) depends upon others for food.
Primary Consumers (Second Trophic Level) − eat the producers. They are called
herbivores. Deer, turtle, and many types of birds are herbivores.
Secondary Consumers (Third Trophic Level) − eat herbivores. They can be
carnivores (meat eaters) and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants).
Tertiary Consumers (Fourth Trophic Level) − eat other carnivores.
Decomposers − Decomposers, who are sometimes absent from the visual depiction of
the food chain, are crucial to its completion. These creatures decompose garbage and
dead organic matter. The primary decomposers in many ecosystems are bacteria and
fungi, which derive their metabolic energy from the chemical energy found in waste
products and dead matter.
There are two types of food chains:
(i) Grazing food chains: It begins with the green plants, which provide food for
herbivores, who then provide food for predators. Such a food chain places an immediate
demand on ecosystems for solar radiation.
Thus, the autotrophic energy collection mechanism and the transfer of this collected
energy to herbivores are essential to this kind of cycle. This form of food chain is seen
in the majority of natural ecosystems. Below is a simplified grazing food chain (GFC)
diagram:

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phytoplanktons →zooplanktons →Fish
or
the grasses →rabbit →Fox

(ii) Detritus food chains: It begins with detrivore creatures feeding on dead organic
materials, which then provides food for carnivores, protozoa, and other species.
Organic debris is the starting point of the detritus food chain (DFC). It is composed
primarily of bacteria and fungus, which are heterotrophic decomposers. They break
down detritus, or dead organic stuff, to obtain the energy and nutrients they need.
Another name for them is saprotrophs (sapro: to break down). Digestive enzymes
secreted by decomposers break down trash and dead materials into basic inorganic
components that are then absorbed by them.
Within an aquatic ecosystem, GFC serves as the main energy transfer pathway. In
contrast, a substantially higher proportion of energy moves via the debris food chain in
an alien habitat than through the GFC. The grazing food chain and the detritus food
chain may be related on certain levels. In a natural environment, certain species, such as
crows and cockroaches, are omnivores, and some DFC creatures are prey for GFC
animals.

Parasitic food chain

An additional food chain is the parasitic food chain. It generally starts with the host and
ends with the parasite.
Knowing the food chain facilitates our understanding of the interactions and feeding
relationships that exist between an organism and its environment. It also makes it
possible for us to understand how energy moves across an ecosystem.

10.7 Food Web

The term "web" refers to a network. "A network of interrelated food chains so as to
form multiple feeding relationships among different organism of a biotic community" is
the definition of a food web.
In an ecosystem, a food chain cannot exist in isolation. There might be many chains that
include the same food source. At the lower tropic level, the resource is capable of doing
this.

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Every food chain within an ecosystem is referred to as a food web. Understanding that
every organism in an ecosystem is a link in a network of food chains is crucial

Figure 4.2: Food web

The only viable route for energy and nutrients to travel through the ecosystem is via a
single food chain. A food web is made up of all the linked and overlapping food
systems within an ecosystem.
Food webs are important resources for comprehending how plants support all
ecosystems and food chains by giving the necessary nutrients and oxygen for life to
exist and reproduce. The ecology is stabilized by the food web.
Quaternary consumers devour the tertiary consumers. Consider a hawk that preys on
owls. Every food chain has an apex predator and an animal without natural enemies at
the bottom (such as an alligator, hawk, or polar bear).

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 Differences between food chain and food web

10.8 Ecological Pyramid

It is a graphical (pyramidal) representation of the number of organisms, biomass, and
productivity at each trophic level. It is also known as Energy Pyramid. They are as
follows –

10.8.1 Pyramid of Biomass

This displays the quantity of live biomass at each trophic level that is present per unit
area. The top predators are at the tip, while the producers are at the base of the drawing.

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Typically, to determine the biomass pyramid, all organisms belonging to each trophic
level are gathered independently and their dry weight is measured. Standing crop,
defined as the mass of living creatures (biomass) or the number in a unit area, is the
specific mass of living material at a given moment in each trophic level.

10.8.2 Upright Pyramid of Biomass

The majority of terrestrial ecosystems are composed of erect biomass pyramids with a
sizable base of primary producers and a smaller trophic level positioned on top.
Producers or autotrophs have the highest biomass. The principal consumers at the next
trophic level have a lower biomass than the producers. Comparatively speaking,
secondary and tertiary customers make up a smaller portion of the market than its
lowest level. There is remarkably little biomass at the apex of the pyramid.

Figure 4.3: Upright pyramid of biomass

10.8.3 Inverted Pyramid of Biomass

However, the majority of aquatic ecosystems have a reverse pyramidal shape. In this
case, the biomass pyramid can take on an inverse shape. On the other hand, the aquatic
ecosystem's numerical pyramid is erect.
The producers in a body of water are microscopic phytoplankton, which multiply and
expand quickly. Under these circumstances, the base of the biomass pyramid is modest,

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with the producer biomass supporting the heavier consumer biomass. It takes on an
inverse form as a result.

Figure: Inverted pyramid of biomass

10.8.4 Pyramid of Numbers

It is a graphical representation of the number of people in each trophic level per unit
area. A greater number of producers often make up the base, whereas fewer top
predators or carnivores tend to occupy the tip. The numerical pyramid's form differs
depending on the ecology.
For instance, there are many autotrophs or producers per unit area in grassland or
aquatic environments. Less herbivores are supported by the producers, and fewer
carnivores are supported as a result.

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 Figure 4.5: pyramid of number a) Upright b) Inverted

10.8.5 Upright Pyramid of Numbers

The number of people falls from the lower level to the upper level in an upright pyramid
of numbers. The environments of ponds and grasslands are often home to this kind of
pyramid. Because of its abundance, grass in a grassland environment is at the lowest
trophic level, followed by herbivores (such as grasshoppers). The number of
grasshoppers is quite less than that of grass. Then there are the main carnivores, such
rats, which are far less common than grasshoppers. The secondary consumers, such
snakes that eat rats, make up the next trophic level. Subsequently, there are apex
predators like hawks, who consume snakes and have a smaller population than snakes.

10.8.6 Inverted Pyramid of Numbers

From the lower to the higher trophic levels, there are more individuals in this area. The
environment of trees, for instance.

10.8.7 Pyramid of Energy

It is a diagram that shows how energy moves through the trophic levels of a food chain
in a specific area of the natural world. Each trophic level's energy content is represented
as an energy pyramid, with energy loss at each level moving to a higher trophic level.
The energy pyramid, also known as the trophic or ecological pyramid, is a helpful tool
for calculating the amount of energy that moves up the food chain from one creature to
another.

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Moving up the trophic pyramid from the base to the top results in a reduction in energy.
The energy pyramid is therefore continuously pointing upward.

Figure 4.6: Upright pyramid of energy

10. 9 NUTRIENT CYCLING

Every element on Earth is continually recycled. The primary components that comprise
organisms are oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur. The movement of these
kinds of chemicals and elements between living things and their physical surroundings
is referred to as a biogeochemical cycle. Chemicals ingested by living things are
returned to the land, air, and water by processes including decomposition, excretion, and
respiration after moving up the food chain. An element frequently creates compounds
with other elements as it progresses through this cycle as a result of natural interactions
in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, or lithosphere as well as metabolic activities in living
cells. We refer to this type of periodic material exchange as the "biogeochemical cycle"
between live things and their non-living surroundings.
There are two types of nutrient cycles: sedimentary and gaseous. The reservoirs for the
sedimentary cycle (such as the phosphorus and sulfur cycle) and gaseous type of
nutrient cycle (such as the nitrogen and carbon cycle) are found in the Earth's crust and
atmosphere, respectively.

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The soil, moisture content, pH, temperature, and other environmental variables control
how quickly nutrients are released into the atmosphere. The reservoir's purpose is to
make up for the shortfall brought on by an imbalance in the rates of input and outflow.

10.9.1 Carbon Cycle

Through the process of photosynthesis, carbon is converted from carbohydrates into
carbon dioxide, which is then absorbed by living things. The producers of these organic
materials (food) then transfer them to the consumers (herbivores & carnivores). The
process of respiration or the breakdown of plants and animals by the decomposers
ultimately returns this carbon to the surrounding medium. Moreover, carbon is recycled
when fossil fuels are burned.

Figure: Carbon cycle

10.9.2 Nitrogen cycle

Life requires nitrogen as a necessary element. Instead of being immediately consumed
by living things, nitrogen must be transformed into other organic substances.
Nitrogen may be transformed into various forms by various methods, which include:
Ammonia is produced by bacteria that fix nitrogen from the atmosphere, and nitrifying
bacteria turn ammonia into nitrate. Plants take up this transformed nitrate.
Lightning may directly transform atmospheric nitrogen into nitrates.
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Proteins and amino acids from deceased creatures are broken down by decomposers.
Denitrification is the process by which the denitrifying bacteria convert ammonia to
nitrogen and nitrates to nitrous oxide.

Figure: Nitrogen cycle

10.9.3 Hydrologic cycle or Water cycle

Water is necessary for life. Without water, no life can survive. Rain, snow, slush dew,
and other forms of precipitation are the only sources of water on Earth. The term "water
cycle" refers to the continual flow of water in the biosphere caused by water absorbed
from the atmosphere and returning to it as water vapour as a consequence of direct
evaporation and evapotranspiration (hydrological cycle). Earth is a watery planet in the
solar system, with water covering nearly two thirds of its surface. Nevertheless, only a
very little portion of this is accessible to plants and animals. The distribution of water on
Earth's surface is not uniform. The majority of water on Earth, around 95%, is
chemically bonded to rocks and does not cycle. Of the remaining 5%, 2.1% is found as
polar ice caps and almost 97.3% is found in the seas. As a result, just 0.6% of the water
is fresh water found in soil, ground, and atmospheric water vapor. The water cycle is

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fueled by two factors: 1) solar radiation, and 2) gravity. The water cycle involves two
primary processes: precipitation and evaporation.
These two procedures switch places with one another. The heat energy of the sun causes
the water in lakes, ponds, rivers, and streams to evaporate. Additionally, plants transpire
enormous volumes of water. When water is left in the air, it condenses into clouds that
move with the wind. In the mountains, clouds collide with the chilly air.
Evaporation removes 84% of the water from the surface of the seas on average.
However precipitation accounts for 77% of its increase. Seven percent of the water that
flows from land into rivers and seas is used to make up the ocean's evaporation deficit.
On land, 23% of precipitation and 16% of evaporation occur.

Figure: Water cycle

10.9.4 Phosphorus Cycle

Nucleic acids, biological membranes, and cellular energy transfer mechanisms all
include phosphorus. Large amounts of this element are also required by many creatures
in order to form their teeth, bones, and shells. Rock is a natural source of phosphorus
because it includes phosphates, which are phosphorus ions. Small quantities of these
phosphates dissolve in soil solution when rocks weather, and plant roots absorb them.
Other animals, including herbivores, get this element from plants. Phosphate-
solubilizing bacteria break down waste materials and dead creatures to release

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phosphorus. There is no respiratory release of phosphorus into the atmosphere, in
contrast to the carbon cycle.

Figure: Phosphorus Cycle

Summary
A range of biotic and abiotic elements that work in concert with one another make up
ecosystems. A few of the most crucial elements include soil, atmosphere, solar
radiation, water, and living things. Both live things, or biotic factors, and non-living
things, or abiotic factors, are present in an ecosystem. The environment's physical and
chemical features are the non-living elements, also referred to as biotic factors. Energy
may be shown moving sequentially from one tropic level to another within an
ecosystem. Such a food chain places an immediate demand on ecosystems for solar
radiation. The study of the food chain aids in our comprehension of the interactions and
eating patterns amongst creatures within an ecosystem.

Keywords
Abiotic: The environment's nonliving components include things like soil, light,
temperature, and air gases.
Consumer: it is an organism that gets its energy from eating another creature.
Decomposer: they break down organic materials.
Detritus: the accumulated organic waste left behind by deceased creatures; in a food
web.

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Food chain: The term "food chain" refers to a linked network of creatures that shows the
relative positions of predators and prey.
Food web: A food web is an ecosystem's network of linked food chains.
Herbivores are organisms that solely consume algae or plants.
Heterotropy: An organism that consumes complex organic materials is said to exhibit
heterotropy.
Omnivore: An organism that obtains its energy from both plants and meat.
Producers employ the process of photosynthesis.

MCQs
1. Which one is the important biotic factors in ecosystems:
I. Temperature.
II. Water.
III. Wind.
A. I only.
B. II only.
C. III only.
D. I, II, and III.
Ans. D)

2. All of the following statements about ecology are correct except:

A. The study of ecology examines how biotic and abiotic elements of the ecosystem
interact.
B. The study of ecology is distinct from the study of natural selection and the history
of evolution.
C. Ecologists may research organismal populations and communities.
D. Ecology encompasses a progressively wider range of organizational levels, from
people to ecosystems.
Ans. B)

3. Choose the correct sequence of arrangement from most to least inclusive:

A. Ecosystem, community, population, individual.
B. Community, ecosystem, individual, population.

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 C. Individual, population, community, ecosystem.
D. Population, ecosystem, individual, community.
Ans. A)

4. Choose the correct biotic factors that can affect the structure and organization of
biological communities:
A. Nutrient availability, soil pH, light intensity.
B. Precipitation, wind, temperature.
C. Predation, competition, disease.
D. None of these.
Ans. C)

5. Landscape ecology is best described as the study of:

A. The array of interacting species within a community.
B. A biotic factor and the community of species that exist in a particular area.
C. The factors affecting the abundance of single species.
D. Related arrays of ecosystems.
Ans. D)

Answers:
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d)

Important Questions
1. Explain the concept of an ecosystem.
2. Discuss the energy flow in the ecosystem.
3. Explain about structure and function of an ecosystem.
4. What are the functions of management?
5. Explain about food chains, and food webs.
6. What are ecological pyramids?
7. Discuss about the producers, consumers and decomposers.
8. What are difference between consumers and decomposers?

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 UNIT-11
SUCCESSION & ADAPTION

11.1 Objectives
Explain the causes of succession;
• Describe the types of succession;
• Explain the processes of succession; and
• Explain the ecological adaptation

11.2 INTRODUCTION
Ecological succession, sometimes referred to as community development, is the
slow alteration in species composition and community activities over time.
For the purpose of managing ecosystems, as well as for the knowledge of vegetation
potential and dynamic changes in the landscape, it is crucial to comprehend the
process, rates, and pattern of ecological succession. Two categories of changes can
be distinguished in terms of ecological and community standing, those that happen
over a medium time scale, such in 1–1000 years, and those that happen over a
geological time scale (million years).
Palaeoecological changes are community changes that take place across a geological
time span. Based on fossil records like as leaves, twigs, cones, pollen, and seeds,
these modifications are synthesized. For instance, fossil evidence suggests that
during the tertiary era, the vegetation in the Indian desert of Rajasthan was mostly
composed of tree species associated with wet environments. Later, as a result of the
environment being drier, desert flora took over.

11.3 CAUSES AND TRENDS OF SUCCESSION

The causes of succession are as follows:
• Initial/Initiating causes: These include both biotic and climatic factors. The
elements include wind, fire, erosion and deposition, biological activity, etc.
These factors either leave the land barren or wipe off the local people.
• Ecesis/Persistent causes: These are the mechanisms—migration, ecesis,
aggregation, competition, response, etc.—that lead to repeated waves of

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 population growth as a consequence of modifications, mostly in the edaphic
characteristics of the region.
• Stabilizing causes: These bring about the community's stabilization.
Clements asserts that the area's climate is the primary source of stability and
that other elements are merely incidental.
•
Trends in Succession
i. Variations in the species composition (i.e., the number of species often increases
and plant types vary regularly with succession).
ii. A shift in diversity or variety (species tend to become more diverse as they go
through succession).
iii. A steady rise in biomass, or the total amount of organic matter—both alive and
dead.
iv. A change in the metabolism of the population, marked by an increase in respiration
and a reduction in output. P/R>1 (P=production, R=respiration) in a young pond,
P/R=1, P/R<1 in a stable pond (heterotrophic succession).
GENERAL PROCESS OF SUCCESSION

1. Nudation: It is the first step in ecological succession. The formation of a barren

region devoid of all living things. Numerous factors, including landslides,
erosion, deposition, and other catastrophic agencies, might contribute to the
area's development. Possible reasons of nudity include:
 Topographic: Landslide, earthquake, volcanic activity, erosion of soil,
etc
 Climate: Ice sheets, arid spells, storms with hail, frost, fire, etc.

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  Biotic: The loss of forests as a result of urbanization, agriculture growth,
industrialization, and illnesses brought on by bacteria, fungus, etc.

Figure: Nudation

2. Invasion: The successful emergence of a species in a barren region is called

invasion. In reality, the species travels from any other location to this new
location. It entails going through multiple phases.
i. Migration, also known as dispersal: The species' seeds, spores, or other
propagules arrive at the bare spot. The wind, water, animals, and humans are the
agents that cause dispersion.
ii. Ecesis (establishment): After a species arrives in a region, it successfully
establishes itself by adapting to the local conditions. This process is called
ecesis. The biotic, edaphic, and climatic conditions affect this process. A plant's
ability to thrive is influenced by biotic, edaphic, and climate variables.
Following migration, seeds or propagules in plants germinate, seedlings
develop, and adults begin to procreate. Few of them can survive in such hard,
prehistoric conditions, and as a result, the majority of them vanish. Individuals
of a species establish themselves in the environment as a result of ecesis.
iii. Aggregation: A species' individuals proliferate and become closer to one
another as a result of reproduction.

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 Figure: Invasion
3. Competition and coaction: This phenomenon is the battle for survival between
two or more organisms that are growing in the same region and making
progressively identical demands of the soil. Usually, the conflict involves two
members of the same species who have comparable needs in terms of resources
like light, water, nutrients, and space. Competition may occur intraspecifically
(among members of the same species) or interspecifically (between two distinct
species). Competition leads to the elimination of weak individuals and the
retention of stronger ones. The dead remains of the exterminated plants and
animals decompose and nourish the soil with humus.
4.

Figure: Ecological competition

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5. Reaction: The most crucial phase of the succession is this one. Reaction is the
term used to describe the process by which living things alter their surroundings.
Reactions cause changes in the environment's soil, water, light, temperature, and
other elements.
For instance, when humus is added to the soil over time, plants alter the
composition and texture of the soil. Because of all of these, the environment
changes and becomes inappropriate for the current community, which eventually
gets replaced by another group.

6. Climax community: Individual responses affect the environment more broadly

as a whole. If there is forest as the climax vegetation, the local climate is
genuinely altered. Until the formation of the climax community, the responses
maintain the vegetation in an active condition. Despite the fact that vegetation is
never considered steady in a literal sense. However, when the community
reaches maturity and becomes less susceptible to future mesic changes, it can be
considered rather stable. Consequently, we witness the emergence of a
community that coexists peacefully with its surroundings as a consequence of its
responses.

Figure: different type of climaxes in a ecological succession

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11.3.1 DIFFERENT TYPES OF SUCCESSIONS

1. Primary succession Primary succession is the process of succession starting

from a primary bare region or primitive substratum that hasn't had any physical
alterations from organisms. Pioneers are the first class of plants to establish
themselves there. Prisere is the term for the sequence of developmental phases.
For instance, succession on a rock that is barren (lithosere).

2. Secondary succession: This type of succession occurs when it begins in a

previously inhabited but cleared-off secondary region. Subseres are the
developmental phases that follow one another. In subseres, the substratum is
composed of humus, preexisting soil, and maybe seeds. Compared to primary
succession, the rate of change is faster and the completion period is substantially
shorter. For instance, succession in a forest region where severe natural disasters
have destroyed the vegetation.

Figure: primary and secondary succession in terrestrial ecosystems

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3. Autotrophic succession: A succession in which autotrophic species, such as
green plants, predominate early and persist throughout. The energy flow starts in
an environment that is primarily inorganic and continues endlessly. The organic
matter content is gradually rising and is being sustained by energy flow.
4. Heterotrophic succession: a kind of succession in which animals, fungus, and
bacteria predominate early on. The energy content gradually decreases and it
starts in an environment that is mostly organic.
5. Induced succession: The production of the climax community is lower than that
of the starting communities. In a climax community, organic matter production
is nearly balanced by respiration. As a result, not much is left for human
harvesting.
6. Allogenic succession: This occurs when significant environmental alterations
take place that are outside the purview of native species. Winds, dust bowls, and
dry spells alter the vegetation's pattern. External forces that alter the
environment include climatic shifts, nutrient loss from the soil, a rise in the
concentration of salt in the soil, and sand or salt deposition.
7. Autogenic succession: A succession that happens as a result of the local
population changing its own surroundings. Plants in a developmental condition,
for instance, alter their environment at first to promote their growth, but these
modifications continue past the point of maximum benefit, making the
environment unsuitable for the plants. It creates the conditions for the emergence
of a different kind of plant community.
8. Retrogressive succession: Due to the harmful impacts of organisms, climax
vegetation can occasionally decline and be replaced by a community from an
earlier stage of succession. Sometimes the process of succession becomes
retrogressive rather than progressive, e.g., a forest may turn into grassland or
shrubby areas, and the formation of disturbed communities is prevented.
9. Deflected succession: A succession in which a successional type is either added
to or substituted for, rather than going through the regular phases of
development, by the vegetation.
10. Serule (Microsere): A microhabitat, such as fallen logs of rotting wood, tree,
bark, etc., is home to a microscopic succession of microorganisms such as

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 fungus, bacteria, actinomycetes, etc. Heterotrophic by nature, serules start out on
substrates high in organic materials.
11.
11.4 Example of succession

Figure: diagramatic representation of developmental stages of plant succession

during hydrosere and xerosere

11.4.1 Hydrosere
Plant successions that start in marshes, ponds, lakes, or other bodies of water are
referred to as hydrarchs, and distinct phases are known as hydroseres. In the center,
the water is deep, but as it gets closer to the shore, it gets shallower.

1. The pioneering phase This is distinguished by a bottomless void of plant life.

Phytoplankton is one of the pioneers. This includes tiny bacteria, diatoms, algae,
and protozoa. Following death, this phytoplankton sinks to the bottom. The
soils have a pH of no more than 5, which is much lower.

2. Submerged Stage: This occurs in areas when the water is no deeper than twenty
feet. The plants are fully immersed in water. Pond weeds (Potamogeton),
hornwort (Ceratophyllum), eelgrass (Vallisneria), water weed (Elodea),

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 Hydrilla, bladderwort (Utricularia), Chara, and ranunculus are notable examples
of submerged plants. All of them are rooted plants. The dead leaves of these
plants sink to the bottom and turn into humus. The humus holds the muddy,
squishy soil together. Additionally, these plants aid in the deposition of soil
particles near the bottom. These reactions cause the water to become shallow,
which makes the environment unsuitable for submerged plants. Floating plants
then take over the area.

3. Floating stage: This stage occurs in shallow water, usually between 6 and 8
feet. This stage include freefloating plants such as Pistia, Azolla, Lemna,
Spirodella, Wolffia, Eichhornia, etc. and rooted plants like as Nyphaea (water
lily), Nelumbium, Limnanthemum, Aponogeton, Monocharia, Trap. By now, the
pond's water level has significantly dropped, making it shallower. As a result of
their decomposition and death, humus is created, which raises the concentration
of salts and organic matter in the water and eventually makes it unsuitable for
these floating plants. Reed swamp vegetation eventually take their place.

4. Reed-swamp stage: Also referred to as the amphibious stage, this stage is

characterized by partially submerged plants with roots at the bottom and leaves
above the water's surface. It takes place in environments with water depths
between one and four feet. Cattail (Typha), bulrush (Scirpus), reed grass
(Phragmites), arrow head (Sagittaria), Rumex, and other significant plants are
included in this stage. By blocking off the light from the floating plants, these
plants further reduce the depth of the water by settling sediments washed into
the lake and accelerating the buildup of humus. The environment has altered to
one that is ideal for the growth of plants in the following seral stage, or marsh-
meadow stage.

5. Marsh-meadow Stage: This stage contains hydrophytes, or plants that prefer

water. The soil at this point turns marshy because the substratum is barely
covered by 1-2 inches of water. There are now several different kinds of sedge
invading here. Polygonum, spike rush (Eleocharis), carice (Carex), juncus, etc.
Sedges can also be found mixed up with a variety of plant species, such as

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 bellflower (Campanula), marsh marigold (Caltha), and mint (Mentha). All of
these hydrophytes respond to their surroundings by raising the surface through
the binding of dirt that is brought by wind and water, accumulating plant waste,
and transpiring large amounts of water. As a result, the soil is more suited for
mesophytes and terrestrial plants. Because hydrophytes cannot survive in these
conditions, they move inward, making place for grasses and woody plants.

6. Woodland Stage: In a dry environment, grasslands form; in a wet climate,

woodlands with particular plants and tiny trees form. The plants that can
withstand soggy soil surrounding their roots are what define this stage. The plant
species of the forest stage include shrubby willow (Salix), dog woods (Cornus),
buttonbush (Cephalanthus), alder (Alnus), cotton wood (Populus), tree willows,
etc. As a result of these plants, the soil becomes unsuitable for them and is better
suited for shade-tolerant herbs that support the growth of trees and shrubs.

7. Climax forest: This is the last phase of the hydrarch. Alder (Alnus), willow
(Salix), cottonwood (Populus), elm (Ulmus), ash tree (Fraxinus), oak (Quercus),
and other mixed forests are included in it. Following a few generations, a pure
forest with hickories or oaks may appear.

Figure: stages of hydrosere

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11.4.2 Lithosere (Xerarch)
The succession of stages known as xerosere appear in barren, water-deficient places.
The following is succession on a barefoot rock:
1. Pioneer stage: Extremely xeric and inhospitable rocky environment (Crustose
lichen stage). Since the substratum does not absorb precipitation, there is no
water.
There's no system in place to retain nutrients. The temperature of the surface
rises dramatically when exposed to sunlight. Only crustose lichens, which are
able to withstand high levels of desiccation and harsh temperatures, have the
potential to establish themselves as pioneer colonies in such environments.
Through spores, bits of lichen, and wind-borne soredia, these lichens are able to
reach the bare rock. The carbonic acid that the lichens create corrodes rock
material.
Co2 + H2 o→H2 Co3 Generally, species of Rhizocarpon, Rinodena, Lecidea
and Lecanora establish themselves on the bare rocks.

2. Foliose Lichen stage: When a small amount of soil has accumulated on the
unweathered section of rock and in depressions or other somewhat less exposed
conditions, foliose lichens, or those adhered to the substratum at a single point or
along a single edge, arise. They supplant the crustose form gradually.
The crustose lichens may be totally shaded by these spreading, leaf-like thalli,
which would cause the crustose species to wither and perish. Water is more
likely to gather and soak above the foliaceous invaders. Vapor loss is
significantly reduced. Lichen pieces carried by wind and water, dust particle
lodge, and humus collect more quickly due to its slower rate of oxidation. The
acid created by both live and dead plants keeps eroding the rocks more and
more. It is plausible that the transition from crustose to foliage lichen represents
a shift in environment. A new class of invaders emerges when the crustose give
way to foliose species including Dermatocarpon, Parmelia, and Umbilicaria.

3. Moss Stage: When enough soil has gathered in the minuscule cracks and
depressions, xerophytic mosses start to show themselves. These are common
species of Polytrichum, Tortula, and Gerimmia. Wind-blown spores that become

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 trapped in little amounts of soil and along foliose lichens may have carried them
over great distances before germinating. For nutrients and water, their rhizoids
compete with those of foliose lichens. The height of the mosses' upright stems
frequently surpassed that of the lichens. These pioneers have about the same
ability to tolerate desiccation as lichens do
The most stringent foliose species that can coexist or be indexed are these ones.
Foliose lichens may occasionally appear before the mosses. As the plants die
below and continue to grow above, accumulating soil along the upright stems,
they build up the substratum and continuously expand their territory. Usually,
the soil beneath the cushion-like mat is at least one inch deep. Alongside
mosses, crustose lichens such as Cladonia grow.
The mosses contribute significantly to the formation of a thick soil substrate by
forming dense mats. Over the course of several years, their constant growth,
death, and decay create a healthy soil that is ideal for the growth of herbaceous
plants.

4. Herbaceous Stage: Certain xerophytic herbs, particularly short-lived annuals,

have such a strong soil-forming and soil-holding response that their seeds can
germinate and mature quickly. They have stunted development and grow slowly
since the soil is still unfavorable and deficient in minerals. Conditions are also
drought-ridden. These xeric plants' roots keep growing and eroding the rocks. As
more humus accumulates, their dead remnants improve the soil even more.
The invasive herbs that are flourishing in the neighboring areas include
Saxifraga, Solidago, and Potentilla. The environment becomes less dry as they
develop. Grass is accompanied by microfauna, fungus, and bacteria. Additional
soil layers are added by their demise and degradation.

5. Shrub stage: These places are overrun by woody shrubs such as Sassafras,
Rubus, and Rhus glabra. Herbs cannot grow under their shade and eventually
perish. There is a reduction in wind velocity and an increase in humidity. When
organic matter is added to the soil, its water-holding capacity rises and its texture
and structure are altered, which helps tree seeds locate a good location to
develop.

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6. The Climax Forest The trees that give them rise are xeric, dwarf-sized, and
grow in distinct directions. But when the climate gets more mesic, mesophytes
take their place. Trees like Quercus and Tilia are found in climax communities.

Figure: Stages of Lithosere

11.5 CLIMAX COMMUNITY

The climax community, which is the last result of succession after seral
communities, is a rather stable community. Contrary to popular belief, climax
communities are susceptible to change due to a variety of biotic and abiotic factors,
including disease, aging, storms, and other environmental events. A climax
community is defined by Hanson and Churchill (1961) as follows:
i. Its population, structure, and productivity are all in a steady state.
ii. The species populations within and between stands of the same climax
community exhibit variety, stability, and homogeneity.
iii. Every stand is durable and self-maintaining.
iv. The climax undergoes constant replacement and fluctuation changes, and all
environmental conditions impact its population and composition, resulting in a
mosaic of climax types that match the mosaic of habitats.
Nature of Climax Community:
1 Monoclimax Concept
E.E. Clements, an American plant ecologist, first proposed this idea in 1916. He
asserts that only one authentic climax community, primarily determined by climatic
variables, is conceivable in a given climatic zone. A climatic climax is thus one of

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several types of climaxes. It is not impacted by geography or soil. Stable,
edaphically managed societies are the exception rather than the real pinnacle.
Clements offered four more names to account for a range of more or less stable
communities that differed from the regional climatic maximum.
 Disclimax: the vegetation that replaces the true climax as a result of a
persistent biological disturbance in the environment, such as the grasslands
in the Gangetic Plains that arise from grazing in a deciduous forest climax.
 Subclimax: succession is arrested at a stage that persists for a long time in
response to physiological or edaphic factors, before being replaced by the
climatic climax.
 Preclimax: Some of the pine forests in the Himalaya are examples of
preclimax localities that have a self-sustaining community distinct from the
climatic climax;
 Postclimax: postclimax localities in the climatic climax region that have
slightly "better moisture" may support a different yet self-sustaining
community, such as the Terminalia arjuna community growing near river
banks in a dry deciduous forest climax.
The monoclimax concept has drawn a lot of criticism because it recognized certain
stabilized plant communities in the same area as subclimaxes that could only
theoretically be replaced by the climax, while regionally dominant undisturbed
vegetation that occupied the majority of the land surface was considered the real
climax.

2. Polyclimax Concept
Whittaker (1953) and Tansley (1954) both endorsed this idea.
This idea states that a climax reflects edaphic, biotic, and other environmental
complex elements in addition to climatic ones. There are several more types of
climaxes that differ from the local climatic climax. In a vast region, climax is
determined by a number of factors other than climate. In order for edaphic,
topography, and biotic climaxes to occur in specific locations within the same
climatic zone, other elements such as biotic, topographic, and edaphic factors are
equally crucial.

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 i. Climatic climax: The point at when the climate, soil, and terrain are normal
and there is no disturbance.
ii. Edaphic climax: In contrast to the local climatic climax, self-perpetuating
vegetation is produced by well-pronounced substrate features.
iii. Topographic climax: Topographic changes that result in a variety of
microclimates, each of which supports self-sustaining vegetation.
iv. The fire climax: Self-perpetuating vegetation grows and fire-sensitive
species are eliminated by repeated burning of the vegetation.
v. Zootic climax: A self-sustaining society that arises in response to zoological
circumstances; for example, grazing creates the grassland's zootic climax.
Primary climaxes are topographic, edaphic, and climatic; secondary disclimaxes
are zootic and fire.

11.5.1 Factors Determining the Nature of Climax Community:

The climax community's characteristics are influenced by a variety of elements,
including soil nutrients, moisture, slope, exposure, and others. Another essential
component of many climax communities is fire. Certain species that can
withstand fire are given preference, whereas those that would have taken over
are not. Certain pine species discharge their seeds in response to fire. In the
absence of rivals, pine saplings develop quickly after the fire has subsided.
Another element that influences the type of climax community is grazing
pressure. Grazing too much might convert grassland to shrub land. Cacti and
shrubs can grow since they are not suitable as food. Numerous herbivore species
may be suppressed by their grazing, favoring rival plants that are less appetizing
as food.

Transient and cyclic climax:

The climax community is always changing with new members joining, but once
it has become established, its overall look remains the same. All climaxes,
nevertheless, do not last forever. It is impossible to establish a stable climax
community for very long because of the negative impacts of natural disturbances
like storms, fires, cold waves, seasons, etc. Fluctuations in a community's
floristic and faunal makeup that are non-sequential, transient, and reversible are

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also typical. These are regarded as instances of fleeting climax. Temporal ponds
and animal carcasses are examples of transient habitats and resources where
transient climaxes form.
In seasonal ponds, the evolution of animal and plant communities is a
straightforward example of a temporary peak. Pond waters often ruin the
settlements because they either freeze solid in the winter or dry up in the
summer. Every year during the growth season, these communities regenerate
themselves from the pores and dormant phases that are left behind by microbes,
plants, and animals.
The remains and excrement of deceased creatures provide as another illustration.
They provide as resources for a multitude of scavengers and feeders of trash. In
the savannas of Africa, a series of vultures feast on the corpse of a huge animal.
The greatest amounts of meat are first consumed by the bigger, aggressive
species, smaller species that extracts little pieces of flesh off the bones come
next.
A few dominant species in a few simple communities may create a cyclic
climax, which develops when each species becomes established only in
association with some other species. The change in cyclic pattern occurs due to
the life cycle of dominant species. Lastly, another kind of vulture invades the
area, cracks open the bones, and feeds on the bone marrow. Later, scavenger
mammals, maggots, and micro-organisms enter the area and ensure that nothing
edible remains. After the feast is over, all of the scavengers disperse. Hence, no
climax is present in this type of succession, or we may consider all of the
scavengers as a part of a climax.
Typically, stable cyclic climaxes have a cyclic pattern, with bare substrate
frequently occurring in one of the phases.
Cycles culminate in harsh physical circumstances as cold, high winds, etc.
Watt explored examples of periodic variations in vegetation (1947). Watt
discovered that the predominant shrub in Scotland was the dwarf Calluna heath.
As it matures, the lichen Cladonia invades it and causes it to lose its vitality. The
earth becomes bare as the lichen mat dies. Bearberry (Arctostaphylos) has taken
over this exposed region. In response, Calluna invades it. Arctostaphylos and

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 Cladonia are permitted to take the space that Calluna has momentarily cleared
out, but Calluna is the dominating plant.
Thus, the life history of this dominant plant controls the cyclic sequence:

The notion of climax community encompasses both mosaic patterns of distribution and
cyclic patterns of change. The dynamic, self-evident state is the climax. The secret to
climax is persistence. Every species in a climax ecosystem, even dominant species, may
consistently reproduce well and endure in a region with a constant climate.

11.6 ECOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS

Both cyclic patterns of change and mosaic patterns of distribution are included in the
concept of climax communities. The culmination is the dynamic, self-evident condition.
The ability to persevere is key to climax. In a region with a steady climate, all species in
a climax ecosystem, even dominating species, may reliably reproduce and survive.

Ranges of tolerance
Every organism has a spectrum of tolerance to changes in the physical and chemical
elements of its environment while it exists in the wild. The development, reproduction,
and spread of the organism adapt to changes in the surrounding environment. A limiting
condition or factor is any physical or chemical aspect of the environment that might
prevent the growth of living things, either by being present insufficiently or excessively.
Low temperatures, for instance, restrict plant development at higher elevations; water
availability in deserts restricts plant growth; shifting salt levels impact organisms in
estuaries; and low phosphorus availability restricts phytoplankton growth in deep lakes.

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The Law of Liebig's Minimum
"Plant growth is dependent on the amount of food stuff which is present to it in
minimum quantity," according to Liebig's law of minimum. Temperature and wetness
are the two limiting elements that impact terrestrial organisms the most; oxygen and
light are the two key limiting factors that affect aquatic plants and animals. When
inflows of energy and materials balance outflows, steady state conditions are maintained
by the laws of minimum and limiting factors.

11.6.1 The Tolerance Law

However, an organism's development and spread may be restricted by both too little and
too much of a given item. Victor E. Shelford added the idea of the influence of both the
maximum and minimum to the rule of tolerance (1913). This rule states that there are
ecological minimums and ecological maximums for the majority of environmental
elements, including temperature, light, and moisture (or "too little" and "too much,"
respectively). Tolerance bounds are represented as the range between these two
circumstances.

Figure: The bell-shaped curve shows the response of an organism to a range of

single environmental variable.

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The fitness and survival of an organism are gauged by its tolerance curve. Plotting
survival or fitness metrics against the environmental gradient yields a bell-shaped
outcome. The ideal range is made up of those environmental factors that allow an
organism to develop and reproduce to their fullest potential. The organisms exhibit
restricted distribution when the tolerance range for one or more parameters is
narrow, and wide distribution when the tolerance range for all factors is wide.
Reproduction is most important at limiting levels, whereas factor interaction affects
an organism's fitness.

11.6.2 Ecological Adaptation in Hydrophytes

Hydrophytes are plants that are submerged in water all the time. They display
aerenchyma, or big air gaps, in the leaves and petioles and can be fully or partially
buried. Aerenchyma tissue aids in the storage of oxygen generated during
photosynthesis and allows it to freely diffuse to other areas, such as roots that could
be located in aerobic soil. These tissues affect the plants' buoyancy as well.
Typical hydrophyte adaption characteristics include:
 Tissue's porosity as a result of the existence of sizable air spaces or cavities
(lacunae).
 Some plants—like the submerged Ceratophyllum and the free-floating
Wolffia—may have poorly formed roots that lack branches, root hairs, and
root caps, or they may have no roots at all.
 Cuticle in leaves is either nonexistent, as in submerged plants like
Potamogeton, or poorly formed. As a result, they do not require an excessive
number of stomata or a thick cuticle to manage the water loss. Similar to
this, some submerged plants have no stomata or only have them on the top
leaf surface; floating plants have them on both leaf surfaces, while emergent
plants mostly have them on both. Chloroplasts may be restricted to the outer
layers of leaves and finely divided to adapt to limited light availability.
 In submerged species, leaves are thin, linear, and finely dissected;
 Tissue differentiation is low, including that of vascular bundles; and
mechanical tissue, such as sclerenchyma, is typically completely absent. The
finely divided leaf was considered a helpful adaptation against fast currents
that may tear the entire leaf apart.
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  The majority of hydrophytes develop vegetatively quickly and have the
capacity to reproduce asexually. They may reproduce asexually by
producing seeds, rhizomes, tubers, and turions all at the same time. For
instance, Potemogeton pectinatus

Ecological Adaptation in Mesophytes

Land plants that thrive in typical environments are known as mesophytes. Mesophytes
thrive in conditions that are neither too dry nor excessively wet. They flourish in regions
with typical relative humidity and air temperature. Mesophytes include things like
wheat, peas, tomatoes, guavas, and mangos. These plants have huge, wide leaves and an
upright stem with well ingrained roots in the ground. The biggest ecological category of
terrestrial plants are called mesophytes. These plants do not have any unique
morphological changes. Their leaves are green, wide, and flat. They can absorb water
because to their large, fibrous root system. Mesophytes' distinctive adaptive traits are as
follows:
 Mesophytes have broad, thin, and a variety of shaped leaves that are rarely tiny. The
leaves have no hairs or waxy covering and are arranged horizontally.
 The cuticle is fully formed in the sections of the plant that are aerial.
 Mesophytes have aerial, freely branching stems; the epidermis of the plant is very
well-developed; it lacks hair or a waxy covering; and the cells lack chloroplasts.
 In general, leaves have stomata on both surfaces. Palisade and spongy parenchyma
with many intercellular gaps are the two distinct types of mesophyll found in leaves.
Guard cells are responsible for the opening and shutting of the stomata, which
typically occurs frequently.
 Both the mechanical and vascular tissues have undergone proper development and
differentiation.
 Because the cells' osmotic pressure is low, the plants will droop rapidly if there is
insufficient water supplied.
 These plants frequently experience transient wilting in the middle of the summer.
 The evergreen plants exhibit xeromorphic traits to withstand the dry spells, and the
mesophytes may also lose their leaves at this time.

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11.6.3 Ecological Adaptations in Xerophytes
Desert plants have evolved to withstand hot temperatures and arid soil.
Ephemerals are the plants that avoid the dry environment. When rain starts to fall, these
plants go through several stages of growth in a short period of time, including
germination, blooming, and seed distribution. When dry circumstances return, the plants
take center stage. High temperatures hinder both photosynthesis and respiration, with
photosynthesis being more susceptible to high temperatures than respiration. The
temperature at which CO2 fixed during photosynthesis equals that released during
respiration is known as the temperature compensation point.
During periods of high temperature stress, plants produce a significant amount of
chaperons, which are low molecular mass heat shock proteins that help with membrane
fluidity and protein folding. The distinctive qualities of xerophytes are:
 With a high volume-to-surface ratio, leaves are compact and tiny. • In many
types of dryland shrubs, leaves are replaced by thorns, which almost never
transpire; they also have thick blades, small sunken and dense stomata on the
lower surface, dense covering of hair (pubescence), a thick cuticle, strongly
developed palisade mesophyll, and fewer intercellular spaces.
 Hair has been thought to inhibit transpiration, although evidence has also
been shown showing transpiration decreased when hair was removed.
There's a chance that xerophytic plants' hair has other functions, such
shielding the leaves from insects and enhancing their overall radiating
surface temperature.
 Plants exhibit adaptations in terms of storing water in their roots (as in the
case of asparagus) and stems (succulents), as well as deep root penetration
that makes deep water-soil available.

11.6.4 Ecological Adaptation in Halophytes

Plants that are found in saline areas and have evolved to high salt concentrations in
soil or water are known as halophytes. Halophytes are found in salty soils,
mangroves, tidal marshes, and coastal dunes. Mangroves are found near the borders
of the ocean and in the damp, marshy environments of tropical deltas. Few
mangrove species have salt glands on their leaves that allow them to expel salt. In
order to cope with high salinity levels and osmotic potential, many plants have the

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ability to pump excess salt back into the soil through their roots. This is why many
mangroves contain high concentrations of organic solutes including proline, glycine
betaine, amino acids mannitol and sorbitol.
To deal with high concentrations of salt, mangroves have evolved defense
mechanisms such as pneumatophores, prop and stilt roots, and vivipary, which
allows seeds to germinate on the tree.
Pneumatophores are present in Avicennia and aid in the uptake and transportation of
oxygen to the main roots. Pneumatophores are aerial roots that emerge from water
and ascend into the atmosphere. Lenticels and porous tissues enable oxygen to
permeate into their roots. The seed of the red mangroves (Rhizophora) sprouts on
the tree before falling into the river. In order for the seeds to pierce the muck, the
wave carries them into shallow water. In many mangrove species, the plant receives
support from its prop and stilt roots.

Summary
The process by which ecosystems adapt and grow over time in the wake of a
disturbance or the establishment of new habitat is known as ecological succession.
The first step in this process is primary succession, which takes place in arid places
without soil, including those left over from a volcanic eruption. Lichens and mosses
are examples of pioneer species that are the first to settle in these regions. They
enable the emergence of new plant species by dissolving rock into soil. When a
disturbance, like fire or human activity, destroys an established community but
leaves the soil untouched, secondary succession takes place. The reason this kind of
succession moves along faster than primary succession is that the soil already has
the nutrients and seeds needed for plant development. Ecosystems go through many
changes as succession moves forward. Slower-growing, shade-tolerant species
eventually supplant the early successional species, which are frequently fast-
growing and tolerant to light. As a result, the ecosystem's structure and function
alter as biodiversity rises. A peak community, which can support itself throughout
time and is typified by a stable and diversified ecology, may eventually be attained.
An important aspect of the succession process is plant adaptability. Pioneer species
are able to endure in hard, nutrient-poor conditions because of their adaptations.
These adaptations include methods for long-distance seed dispersal, fast rates of

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 reproduction, and rapid development. As the environment gets better and the soil
gets more nutrient-rich, other plants that have evolved differently take control.
These latter successional species frequently have deeper root systems to get water
and nutrients, bigger leaves to absorb more sunlight in shady areas, and symbiotic
partnerships with bacteria or fungi to improve nutrient intake. In general, plant
adaptation and ecological succession are related processes that propel ecosystem
growth and stability, emphasizing the dynamic character of the natural world.

Keywords
Biodiversity: Diversity between plant and animal species in a particular habitat.
Biogeochemical cycle: A chemical element or molecule travels through the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere via a biogeochemical cycle.
Xerophyte: A plant with an affinity for arid environments.
Soil: The loose, unconsolidated, naturally occurring layer that covers the surface of
the Earth; a component of the pedosphere.
Succession: is the process by which one type of population is replaced by another in
the vegetation and animal life, leading to a climax.
Limiting factor: Any necessary resource that is scarce in a particular environment
and hence restricts the potential for change in other areas of the same ecosystem.
Tropical rain forest: A biome known for its high biodiversity, frequent, intense
rainfall, and humidity levels of at least 80% is the tropical rain forest.

MCQ
1 What is ecological succession?
A) The process by which species evolve over time
B) The gradual process of change and replacement of the types of species in a
community
C) The immediate response of an ecosystem to a disturbance
D) The migration of species from one habitat to another
Answer: B
2 Which of the following best describes primary succession?
A) Occurs in an area that has never been colonized before
B) Follows the clearance of an existing community

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 C) Occurs in aquatic environments only
D) Is driven by human activities
Answer: A
3 Which stage of ecological succession is characterized by the presence of pioneer
species?
A) Climax community
B) Intermediate stage
C) Early stage
D) Secondary stage
Answer: C
4 In which type of succession do plants colonize a region after a fire or flood?
A) Primary succession
B) Secondary succession
C) Climax succession
D) Pioneer succession
Answer: B
5 Which of the following adaptations is most likely found in plants living in a
desert environment?
A) Broad, flat leaves
B) Shallow root systems
C) Thick, waxy cuticles
D) High growth rate
Answer: C
Short questions
1. In what ways do xerophytes adjust to dry settings?
2. What are the primary forms of ecological succession, and what is it?
3. What distinguishes secondary succession from primary succession?
4. What function do pioneer species serve in the ecological succession?
5. Could you explain how hydrophytes have adapted to watery environments?
6. What part do structural adaptations play in a plant's ability to survive in its
surroundings?

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 UNIT-12
ECOLOGICAL FACTORS

12.1 Objectives
 To understand about the ecological factors
 To discuss about abiotic factors- climatic edaphic and physiographic factors
 To know about biotic factors

12.2 INTRODUCTION
A living thing is impacted by several forces and variables in every ecosystem that
are referred to as "eco-factors" or "ecological factors." There are two main
categories of environmental factors that affect an organism's behavior, growth,
distribution, abundance, and eventual survival: the biotic (living) environmental
factors that include interactions between populations and instinctive control
mechanisms that are inherent to the population, and the abiotic (non-living)
environmental factors that determine interactions within the population.
All these ecological factors can be divided into the following three groups:
1. Abiotic factors
2. Biotic factors

12.3 ABIOTIC FACTORS

The non-living components of the environment constitute an abiotic factors. It includes
2 types 1) Climatic factors 2) Edaphic factors 3) Physiographic factor.

1. Climatic Factors
The long-term weather patterns of a certain area are called its climate. One of the
key natural elements that influences plant life and establishes the climatic conditions
of a location is its climate. Its field of study is called climatology. These categories
comprise the climatic factors.
1. Light
2. Temperature
3. Water (Humidity and Precipitation)
4. Wind
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Light: One of the most crucial abiotic elements that is necessary for life to survive is
light. Sunlight, moonlight, stars, and light emitted by luminescent creatures are the
main sources of natural light. The primary source of light is the sun. The portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye is called light.
Scientists refer to the complete range of light that exists as the electromagnetic
spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is commonly separated into seven sections:
radiowaves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays, and gamma rays.
These regions are arranged in decreasing wavelength and increasing energy and
frequency order. Every photon, which is a type of electromagnetic radiation particle,
contains a certain quantity of energy. Photons in radiation types with short wave
lengths have high energy, whereas those with long wave lengths have low energy.
The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into three distinct groups by scientists.
With wavelengths less than 0.4 to 0.7 mm, cosmic rays, x-rays, and ultra violet rays
are classified as short wave radiation. Another name for this is PAR, or
photosynthetically active radiation.
If the wave length is more than 0.740 mm, it is referred to as an infrared wave. On a
clear day, 10% of radiant energy reaches the earth's surface in the ultraviolet, 45%
in visible light, and 45% in infrared wavelengths. This solar energy takes the form
of small particles known as quanta or photons and travels in waves. Violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange, and red (VIBGYOR) are the seven distinct colors that
sunlight exhibits when it passes through a prism. A visible spectrum of light
comprising all these colors influences plant physiological activities, such as
photosynthesis. Three different forms of UV radiation exist based on wave length.
They are as follows:
 UV-A radiation (320 to 400 nm)
 UV-B radiation (280 to 320 nm)
 UV- C radiation (100 to 280 nm)
Of these three forms of radiation, UV-C is the most deadly to living things,
while UV-B is toxic to them. The amount of light that reaches the earth's surface
changes depending on a variety of climatic and topographical factors, including
the season, time of day, latitude and altitude, incidence angle, and amount
absorbed and diffused by the atmosphere.

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 Importance of light to plants:
(i). Photosynthesis: For plants, sunlight is the primary energy source. Being
autotrophic means that they require light to complete the process of
photosynthesis. When chlorophyll is present, photosynthesis is the process by
which plants transform light energy into chemical energy, which is then utilized
to create carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and water. The different Not every
wavelength of sunlight is used equally by photosynthesis. Instead, pigments—
light-absorbing molecules—are found in photosynthetic species. Only certain
visible light wavelengths are absorbed, while others are reflected. The
absorption spectrum of a pigment is the collection of wavelengths that it
absorbs. For photosynthesis, visible light in the blue (450–500 nm) and red
(600–700 nm) ranges is most beneficial. As a result, the blue and red
wavelengths are where photosynthesis prefers to get its light. The least effective
light is green (500–570 nm). The reason plants appear green is because their
chlorophyll molecules reflect other colors while absorbing blue and red light,
giving the appearance of green. When there is sporadic light as opposed to
continuous light, photosynthesis proceeds more quickly.
(ii). Respiration: Respiration is the process by which cells get chemical energy
through the consumption of oxygen and the release of carbon dioxide. In order
to provide energy for plant development, plants use oxygen and the sugar
created during photosynthesis to respire. The following is a representation of the
respiration process:

All types of living cells respire, which is commonly referred to as cellular

respiration. The breakdown of glucose molecules inside of cells releases energy, a
process known as cellular respiration. There are two ways that cells can respire:
aerobically, utilizing oxygen, or anaerobically, without using oxygen.
(iii) Growth and flowering of plants: The day length, the quality and intensity
(photoperiodicity) of light are the most essential variables which determine

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development and flowering of plants. Based on photoperiodic reactions plants may
be categorized into three groups:
(a) Short-day plants: When the days are shorter than twelve hours, short-day plants
often begin to blossom. Examples include cocklebur, sugarcane, and bean. The
duration of the day is important and differs for each species.
(b) Long-day plants: When days are longer than twelve hours, long-day plants begin
to blossom. Example: Spinacea oleracea (spinach), Daucus carota (carrot), and
Lactuca sativa (lettuce).
(c) Day-neutral plants: These are plants whose flowering is determined by other
factors, such as age, node count, and history of cold treatment, rather than day
duration. Tomatoes (Lycopersicon lycopersicum), for example, are "day neutral"
plants that do not blossom in response to day or night duration. Rather, tomato
plants just begin to blossom once they reach a specific growth stage. Additional
instances are Gossypium hirsutum (cotton), Cucumis sativus (cucumber), and
Helianthus annuus (sunflower).
(iv) Effect on transpiration and opening and closing of stomata: The biological
process known as transpiration is how water from aerial portions of plants, such as
stems, flowers, and leaves, evaporates as water vapor. Excess water will build up
inside plant cells in the absence of transpiration, eventually causing the cells to
explode. The stomata close at night and open throughout the day. The rate of
transpiration is closely correlated with the presence of light. Light has a heating
impact, changes the permeability of the plasma membrane, and affects the opening
and shutting of stomata. These all have an impact on transpiration, which has an
impact on water absorption.
(v) Germination: darkness, while others function best under constant sunshine.
According to specialists at Thompson and Morgan, germination is aided by red light
and hindered by blue light. This is due to the fact that red light has an impact on
phytochrome, a pigment found in plants that controls processes such as seed
germination (photoblasty), chlorophyll synthesis, seedling elongation, leaf size,
shape, and movement, as well as the timing of adult plant blooming. But blue light
can also be required if the plants are behind a dense leaf cover. On the other hand,
yellow light has been reported to both counteract the inhibitory impact of blue light
and enhance seed germination in Typha species.

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2. Temperature: One of the most significant ecological variables is temperature.
Together, temperature and moisture have a major role in determining a region's
climate and the distribution of plant and animal life (Smith, 1977). The temperature
around a plant affects its development and growth rate, and each species has a
unique temperature range that is represented by a maximum, lowest, and optimal.
All of an organism's metabolic activities that are essential to existence begin at a
minimal temperature. The term "optimum temperature" refers to the setting where
physiological systems operate most efficiently. The lowest temperature at which any
metabolic activity required for life cannot begin and continue at its slowest is known
as the minimum temperature.
The highest temperature at which no signs of biological activity are visible is known
as the maximum temperature. Cardinal temperatures are the lowest, optimal, and
maximum temperatures. They differ across species and within a person as well as
from one portion to another. For instance, given the right circumstances, certain hot-
spring algae may survive in water as high as 73°C, and certain arctic algae can
finish their life cycles in locations where the temperature hardly rises above 0°C. At
temperatures above 90 °C, non-pathogenic microorganisms that live in hot springs
can actively thrive. The majority of plant functions, such as respiration and
transpiration, are influenced by temperature
(a). Cell and temperature: There are deadly minimum and maximum temperatures
impacts on the constituent cells and their parts. Proteins within the cell may freeze
to ice due to the extremely low temperature. Conversely, heat causes proteins to
coagulate (Lewis and Taylor (1967). Because proteins denaturate at high
temperatures, very few species can withstand temperatures beyond 45°C. Because
heat-stable proteins allow certain creatures to survive at greater temperatures, other
organisms may survive at slightly lower temperatures by employing antifreezes like
glycerol and salts.
(b) Temperature and metabolism: Different types of enzymes typically regulate the
various metabolic activities of plants, animals, and microbes. Since enzymes are in
turn influenced by temperature, an increase in temperature, up to a certain point,
results in increased enzymatic activity and an increased rate of metabolism.
However, a bigger rise in temperature may cause the metabolic rate to drop.
(c) Temperature and reproduction: The process of thermoperiodism, which is the

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culmination of a plant's reactions to suitably varying temperatures, influences
flowering in plants. In terms of a plant's phenology, temperature is crucial. The
study of plant recurring events, such as flowering time in relation to temperature,
fall leaf fall and color changes, is known as phenology.
(d) Temperature and sex ratio: In certain species, the sex ratio is influenced by the
ambient temperature. For instance, temperature affects the sex ratio of the copepod
Macrocyclops albidus. There is a notable rise in the proportion of men as the
temperature rises. Normal conditions in Daphina result in the production of
parthenogenetic eggs that mature into females. However, as the temperature rises,
they produce sexual eggs, which can fertilize to produce either female or male
offspring.
(e). Temperature and parasitic infection: Unfavorable temperatures, such as high
temperatures combined with wind and high humidity, can lead to the spread and
development of bacterial illnesses in plants.
(f) Temperature and growth: The temperature surrounding a plant affects its ability
to grow and develop. Every species has a distinct range of temperatures. Extremely
hot or extremely low temperatures can both be detrimental to plant development.
The increased fluidity of the lipids in the membrane causes a loss in membrane
stability at high temperatures. Cold injuries including dehydration, chilling injuries,
and freezing injuries can be brought on by low temperatures. Because wintertime
transpiration is high and absorption is sluggish, desiccation causes tissues to become
dehydrated and damaged. A variety of low temperatures that are not quite freezing
for that species can cause chilling injuries. The growth, color, and function of cells
are all negatively impacted by chilling. Also, it may result in tissue death.
(g) Temperature and transpiration in plants: Water is lost from a plant's aerial
surface during transpiration. An rise in temperature causes the air's ability to contain
more moisture in the vapour form, which causes a difference in vapour pressure
faults and an increase in the rate of transpiration. In addition to speeding up
transpiration if the temperature goes over critical levels, the plant falls dormant and
may produce choruses.

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Classification of organisms according to temperature tolerance:
Based on how plants react to environmental temperature, all of the vegetation may
be categorized into four groups:
(i). Megatherms are plants that need a high temperature that is nearly constant
throughout the year. desert vegetation and tropical rain forests, for example.
(ii). Mesotherms: Plants that live in environments that are neither extremely hot nor
cold. Certain plants are not able to withstand extremely high or low temperatures.
aquatic plants and tropical deciduous woods, for instance.
(iii).Microtherms: Low temperatures are necessary for the development of these
plants. These plants are not able to withstand extreme heat. This group includes all
high altitude plants found in tropical and subtropical areas.
(iv). Plants known as hekistotherms are those that flourish in extremely cold
climates. They can withstand the lengthy, bitterly cold winters. For example, alpine
vegetation

2. Water: Water is the essential element for all life on Earth. Water comprises a
significant amount of both plant and animal bodies; for example, 70–80% of an
organism's mass is found in its cytoplasm. One oxygen atom and two hydrogen
atoms make up the molecule known as water. Among all the compounds
discovered in organisms, it is the most prevalent. Water is a substance that
travels around the planet continuously and can be liquid (rain, water droplets),
solid (snow, sleet, hail, and ice), or gas (water vapour). The hydrological cycle,
also referred to as the water cycle, is controlled by solar energy. By evaporating
water from the lakes, rivers, seas, and even the soil, this solar energy powers the
cycle. Transpiration is the process by which more water leaves plants and enters
the atmosphere. Through condensation, the water vapor in the air creates clouds,
which then return to Earth as rain and snow. The amount of water available
affects a plant's ability to absorb nutrients, the pace and volume of
photosynthesis, respiration, growth, and other metabolic activities. Water has a
variety of functions in plants. It cools the leaves during transpiration as it
evaporatively removes from the leaf tissue. It is also a key element in respiration
and photosynthesis

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 Minerals and carbohydrates are carried through plants by water, which acts as a
solvent. Water is found in the atmosphere in the form of water vapor. We refer
to this as atmospheric humidity. The amount of solar radiation, wind, water, soil
condition, temperature, altitude, and other factors all have a significant impact
on humidity. The primary sources of atmospheric humidity are plant
transpiration and water evaporation from the earth's surface. The majority of
plants are unable to benefit from atmospheric humidity, however a few mosses,
lichens, filmy ferns, and epiphytic orchids are able to take moisture straight from
the atmosphere. Humidity can be seen in the form of fog and clouds. A
psychrometer and hygrometer are used to measure humidity, which is expressed
as a percentage. Three terminologies are used to characterize humidity:
(a). The ratio of the actual amount of water vapor in the atmosphere to the
amount that can be retained in the air at a specific temperature and pressure is
known as relative humidity.
(b) Specific humidity: This stands for "per unit weight of air, the amount of
water vapor present."
(c). The term "amount of water vapours present per unit volume of air"
describes absolute humidity.

Effects of humidity organisms: It affects how quickly plants transpire.

Lower transpiration rates are associated with higher humidity levels. Low relative
humidity has an impact on plant development and promotes water loss through
transpiration. It affects how quickly people sweat as well. So, perspiration increases
with high humidity. It serves as a vital water supply for epiphytes, such as mosses
and lichens. In the process of fungal spore germination, it is crucial.
Precipitation: The discharge of water from clouds that results in rain, sleet, hail, or
other precipitation falls to the earth. When a section of the atmosphere reaches
100% relative humidity and is saturated with water vapor, precipitation happens
because the water condenses and "precipitates," or falls. Season, pressure,
temperature, and wind all affect precipitation. The productivity and species richness
of a community or perennials, as well as the vegetation in a specific area, are greatly
influenced by precipitation. In many dry and semi-arid environments, precipitation
can change germination, seedling development and survival, and phenology (the

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 study of repeated events), which in turn can change yearly production and species
diversity.
Both the amount and the timing of precipitation at a particular location have an
impact on plant production. Since water is the most scarce resource in arid and
semiarid environments, seasonal precipitation has a greater impact on productivity
than total precipitation.
The most prevalent forms of precipitation are rain, snow, and hail, however there are
also a few less frequent forms such ice pellets, diamond dust, and freezing rain.
Because the water vapor does not condense to the point where precipitation occurs,
mist and fog are really suspensions rather than precipitation. The most frequent type
of precipitation is rain.

4. Wind:
The gas combination that is invisible and exists in the troposphere is called air.
Wind is the motion of air. The unequal heating of the earth by the Sun and the
planet's rotation causes wind, which is the movement of air. varying forms of
patterns and storms may be produced by wind moving at varying speeds, altitudes,
and over land or sea. They are a massive tropical storm that is spinning. The world's
greatest equalizer of atmosphere, wind carries heat, pollution, moisture, and dust
over vast distances. Aeolian landforms are the result of wind-related processes and
landforms. Wind affects trees and other living things by acting as a facilitator of
disturbances as well as a source of ecological services. Wind's effects on plants are
mostly determined by its speed, duration, and degree of penetration in canopy layer

Effects of wind
i. Transpiration rate is influenced by wind. Strong wind areas experience higher
transpiration, which causes a water deficit in the tissues.Wind causes the atmosphere
to become more turbulent, which increases the amount of carbon available.
ii. Gving the plants more dioxide, which increases the rates of photosynthesis. The rate
of photosynthesis becomes constant at a given wind speed.
iii. In addition to altering the hormone balance, wind causes rice and barley to produce
more ethylene.

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iv. Dwarfing: Turgidity aids in the maturation of a plant's cells to normal proportions.
When plants grow in the presence of drying winds, they never reach a stage of
turgidity that allows them to divide their forming cells. All organs thus get shrunken
as a result of their cells growing to subnormal size.
v. Heat-induced desiccation of plants occurs due to the replacement of humid
intercellular air with dry air in these spaces. For instance, the rice crop exhibits tip
drying throughout the months of June and July.
vi. Transpiration is accelerated by the wind. Plants can only develop properly if they
can maintain a balance between their water intake and expenditure. Partial or whole
stomata closure may occur when transpiration rate surpasses water absorption rate,
hence limiting the flow of carbon dioxide into the leaves. Growth, yield, and the rate
of photosynthesis will all decline as a result.

3. Soil (Edaphic Factor)

Among the most significant ecological variables, or edaphic parameters, is soil.
According to Treshow (1970), soil is a complex physical biological system that
gives plants support, water, nutrients, and oxygen. The top layer of the earth's crust
that is loose, friable, and unconsolidated is called soil. It is a mixture of organic and
mineral substances that also includes water, air, and microorganisms. The first soil
scientist, Dokyachev (1879), asserted that the soil is the product of the interactions
and reciprocal effects of parent rocks, climate, topography, vegetation, animals, and
land age. The most crucial component of ecological function is soil as it provides
nutrients, water, temperature, and moderation—all necessary for the growth of
terrestrial plants. It is the outermost layer of the earth's surface, where plants receive
their water and nutrients as well as produce roots that attach them. Pedology is the
Study of Soil Science.

Formation of soil: A complex mixture of minerals, water, air, organic debris, and
many microorganisms—the decomposing remnants of once-living things—make up
soil. The process of soil formation involves the disintegration and breakdown of
rocks through weathering, fragmentation, and bacterial and fungal activity, as well
as interactions between different chemical components found in the soil.

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Soil Profile: The vertical cross-section of the soil, consisting of layers parallel to the
surface, is referred to as a soil profile. Soil horizons are the names for these strata.
The thickness, texture, color, structure, consistency, porosity, and acidity of each
differ from one another. The letters O, A, E, B, C, and R stand for these horizons or
strata. These horizons neatly show the following strata as they descend from the
surface:

O horizon: O horizon, often known as the litter zone, is the topmost horizon in the
soil profile. It is mostly made up of organic material, such as grasses, dried leaves,
dead leaves, fallen trees, tiny rocks, twigs, surface creatures, and other organic stuff
that has broken down. It consists of the next two sublayers:
O1 horizon: This is the top layer of soil and is mostly made up of organic items
including grasses, tiny pebbles, twigs, fallen trees, bark, dried leaves, dead leaves,
fruits, flowers, and animal excrement. Because organic matter is present, the soil is
often dark brown or black in color.
O2 horizon: Containing blackened, unidentifiable degraded trash, O2 horizon is
located underneath O1, also known as the litter horizon. The top layer of the O2
horizon is known as the "duff layer" because it includes partially degraded debris.
The humus, or entirely degraded, light, and amorphous organic materials, is found in
its lowest portion. Humus enriches the soil with nutrients, increasing its fertility.
This stratum contains a wide variety of living things, including beetles, worms, and
others.

A horizon: The topsoil, also known as the A horizon, sits under the litter zone. A
horizon consists of the three subzones listed below:
(i) The A1 Horizon is the area where soil minerals and humus are incorporated. It is
the topmost layer of the soil and is made up of deeply mixed organic components
with a fair amount of degraded matter and mineral soil. Microorganisms including
fungus, bacteria, and earthworms are found in this stratum.
(ii) A2 horizon: The zone of maximal leaching is located underneath A1 horizon. It
is a lighter-colored horizon with less humus that is seeing the fastest removal of
elements like aluminum, silicates, clays, and so on.

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(iii) The A3 horizon is in transition to the B horizon, which is situated underneath it.
It is the area where the horizons A and B meet.

E horizon: Nutrients that have been leached from the O and A horizons make up the
E horizon. Only older soils and soils from forests contain it.

B horizon: The area below A horizon is referred to as the subsoil. In this zone, roots
do not grow very well. Packed with minerals that gathered here after leaching
(moving down) from the A horizons. Additionally, it is separated into B1, B2, and
B3 zones. Together, the horizons A and B depict the actual soil.

C Horizon: It appears beneath horizon B. The parent material for the mineral
portion of the soil is worn rock or silt, which makes up this layer. It has a pale color
and is devoid of any organic material. Another name for this stratum is saprolite.

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R horizon: The unweather bedrock known as the R horizon lies under the C
horizon. This layer is glued and compacted. This location has a variety of rocks,
including granite and limestone.

The following are the key edaphic elements that influence the vegetation:
1. Soil moisture: Rainfall, temperature, soil properties, and other factors all have an
impact on soil moisture, which is the water that is held in the soil. Rainfall is the
primary source of soil water. Water types found in the soil:
(A) Gravitational water: This is a free type of water that seeps through the crevices
between soil particles and collects there as ground water. The ecological
significance of this soil water lies in its ability to drain nutrients.
(b) Capillary water: Capillary water is the volume of water that is held in minuscule
interstitial gaps as thin films around the soil particles. This is readily accessible to
plants and has a favorable water potential.
(c) Hygroscopic water: A little amount of water in the soil surrounds the soil
particles in an incredibly thin, firmly bound film. We refer to it as hygroscopic
water. The soil holds the water in such a way that roots are unable to absorb it.
(d). Water vapor: This is the water vapor found in the air that epiphytes' hanging
roots may collect since they have hygroscopic hairs and spongy velamen tissue.
(e). Combined water: A little amount of soil water in the soil is chemically bonded
to soil particles; this is known as combined water. The plants cannot get this kind of
water.
Holard is the total quantity of water in the soil. The quantity of water that plants
may consume is referred to as chères or accessible water. Water that is unavailable
to plants is referred to as echard or non-available water. Numerous factors, including
the size of the soil particles, the amount, length, and intensity of rainfall, the
distribution of precipitation throughout the year, and the pace at which water
percolates, affect the availability of soil moisture.
The amount of soil water that plants have access to greatly influences the kind,
composition, and stature of flora in any given area.

2. Soil pH:
The number of active hydrogen ions in the soil or the alkalinity or acidity of the soil
solution are measured by the soil reaction, often known as pH. Certain soils are
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basic, whereas others are neutral or acidic in nature. A pH value that is less than 7 is
acidic, whereas one that is more than 7 is alkaline. Soil with a pH of 7.0 is
considered neutral. Soils typically have a pH of between 2.2 and 9.6. The soil's pH
value affects the availability of vital nutrients. For instance, certain plants
(Calciphytes) flourish on basic soils because they need large levels of calcium.
Oxylophytes are plants with minimal calcium requirements. Extremely salty or
alkaline soils, as well as excessively acidic soils, are frequently detrimental to the
growth of microorganisms and plants. Zinc, copper, manganese, aluminum, and iron
typically become poisonous at low pH values. Nonetheless, the majority of plants
thrive on neutral or slightly acidic soils.
3. Soil Nutrients: One of the main sources of nutrients that plants require for
development is soil. Ion exchange occurs at the surface during the process of roots
absorbing nutrients. Plants often absorb inorganic solutes in their ionic forms. The
main inorganic elements found in soil include iron, calcium, sodium, magnesium,
aluminum, silica, and magnesium compounds. Trace elements like manganese,
copper, boron, zinc, iodine, cobalt, and molybdenum are also present in soil.
Humus, a dark-colored, amorphous material created by the partial breakdown of
decomposing organic matter, is the major organic component of soil. Chemically
speaking, humus is composed of methyl sugars, hexose sugars, sugar alcohols,
aromatic compounds, proteins, purines, oil, fat, and waxes, among other things.
4. Soil atmosphere: The soil atmosphere is made up of gases contained in the pore
spaces of soil profiles. If the solid soil particles are free of water, air fills the gaps
between them. Three primary gases are found in the soil atmosphere: oxygen,
carbon dioxide, and nitrogen. The concentration of CO2 and moisture in soil air is
higher than that of atmospheric air, but the concentration of O2 is lower. Rainfall,
temperature, and wind all have an impact on the atmosphere of the soil. Loam soils
that include humus are ideal for most crops since they have a typical ratio of water
to air (about 66% water and 34% air).
5. Soil temperature: The temperature of the soil is measured, and a soil thermometer
may be used to find the temperature. The earth's internal heat, sun radiation, and
decaying organic matter are some of the sources of thermal energy that soil absorbs.
A number of variables, including solar radiation, soil color, mulching, land surface
slope, plant cover, organic matter content, and evaporation, influence how much

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heat is provided at the soil surface. The temperature of the soil drops when water
evaporates, making it colder. More radiant heat is absorbed by dark-colored soils
than by light-colored soils. Temperature in the soil controls the physical, chemical,
and biological activities that occur there.

7. Soil organism: Soil organisms are any living things found in the soil. The size
range of soil creatures is known as fauna and includes macrofauna (earthworms,
moles, and millipedes), mesofauna (mites and springtails), and microfauna
(nematodes and protozoa). Higher plant roots, soil fungus, algae, bacteria, and
soil actinomycetes are examples of soil plants, or flora. In addition to breaking
down toxic materials, decomposing animal and plant residues, fixing nitrogen in
the soil, cycling organic matter, aerating the soil (particularly through
earthworms), breaking down pesticides and other toxicants, producing humus,
and producing polysaccharides to improve soil aggregation and increase plant
nutrients in forms that are available to plants are just a few of the many activities
that soil organisms engage in. Certain soil bacteria release toxic substances like
organic acid and aldehydes when there is no oxygen present.

3. Physiographic factors (Topographic factors): Factors related to an area's

physical characteristics are known as physiographic factors. These variables
include the region's terrain, the land's slope, its elevation above sea level, the
degree of erosion, sand blasting and silting, etc. These elements have an impact
on the vegetation, which can lead to climatic fluctuation over an area.
Consequently, a confined microclimate is created. The localized climate
conditions, such as those found in close proximity to plants and animals, are
referred to as the microclimate. We'll talk about a few of the key physiographic
characteristics below.
1. Altitude of the place: The height of the land above sea level is known as
altitude. Faster winds, reduced pressure and temperature, increased humidity,
and stronger light are all present at higher altitudes. The combination of all these
elements results in a distinct vegetational zone pattern. The rate of transpiration
is aided by the wind's increased velocity as altitude rises. The influences of wind
lead plants growing at higher elevations to develop more slowly.

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2. Steepness and exposure of the slope: The gradient or steepness of a certain
Earth surface is known as its slope. It has an impact on the daily dose of solar
radiation. The sun radiation is increased by the steep slopes, particularly at
higher elevations. In the northern hemisphere, solar energy is distributed more
evenly between the southern and northern slopes. This is most likely due to the
fact that during the day, sunlight almost entirely strikes the steep southern slope,
but it only obliquely strikes the northern slope in the morning and evening.
Slopes have a significant impact on the characteristics of the soil. Rainwater
travels downward, removing dirt from a slope and carrying it down to
potentially deposit in a valley. The top soil is eroded by water flowing down the
slopes leading to disappearance of vegetation.
3. Direction of mountain chains: The amount of rainfall in a location is
significantly influenced by the orientation of mountain ranges. Mountain ranges
control the direction of the wind, retain wind-borne moisture on specific sides,
and condense water vapor in the form of rain and clouds in higher altitudes. This
might be the cause of the high mountain's uneven vegetation; although on some
sides it is abundant, on others it is sparse.

12.4 BIOTIC FACTORS

Living together, organisms have a direct or indirect impact on one another's
nutrition, growth, and reproduction. Pollination, fruit and seed dissemination,
grazing, symbiosis, parasitism, and other processes are the outcomes of these
interactions. We refer to the impact of living forms on plants as "biotic factors."
The roles of biotic factors are broken down into those of microorganisms,
humans, animals, and plants.

1.ROLE OF PLANTS
The presence of other plants or other biotic variables affects the vegetation in a
given area. Plants in the same species or different species, as well as plants from
one community over another, compete with one another to survive. ex: Trees,
shrubs, and herbs In a forest, climbers grow together. They fight for minerals,
water, light, and space.

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A] Tree effects: Tall trees with many branches create a canopy that blocks
sunlight from reaching the forest floor. This has the effect of inhibiting the
growth of plants known as heliophytes (light-loving plants). It promotes the
development of schorophytes, or plants that like shade. similar to Pteridophytes
and Bryophytes.
B] Climbers' effects: Weak stemmed plants, climbers require the help of other
plants in order to grow upright. These can uproot or kill plants or branches. For
example, in forests Pothas are root climbers.In order to receive sunlight, betel, or
Alocasia, grows adventitious roots that grip the supporting plant. Tendrils are
long, thin, coiled, wiry structures that aid in climbing in those who use them. Ex:
Antigonon, the passion flower.Woody climbers have woody stems that thread
around the stems of trees for support and reach the canopy.For example, Lianas.
C] Parasite effect: Heterotrophic method of nutrition is led by parasites. They
grow into button-shaped structures termed Haustoria that enter the host, make
their way to the vascular bundles, take up nutrients from them, and eventually
kill the host.
Ex: Bacteria, Fungi, Flowering plants like Striga, Santalum, Cuscuta , Viscum.
D] Impact of New Species: - Due to climate and edaphic component changes,
new species encounter several challenges in their early stages of growth in a new
area. When they eventually adapt, take over, and eradicate earlier thriving
plants. New species will eventually blanket the entire area. Ex: Toxic chemicals
produced by lantana, parthenium, eicchornia, and acacia damage nearby plants.
E] Symbiont Effect: Certain plants grow within or on top of other plants. There
are benefits to both parties from this cooperation. For example, in lichens, algae
and fungi are in close, constant interaction as the algae produce food and
supplies the fungi, while the fungi offer the algae shelter. Nitrogen fixers: The
Rhizobium bacteria, which are found in the root nodules of leguminous plants,
fix gaseous nitrogen and release it for plant uptake. Blue-green algae found in
the corolloid roots of Cycas include Nostoc and Anabena. Mycorrhizae: Fungi
grow inside orchid roots and on the exterior of pine and oak trees to form a
structure that aids in the absorption of water, minerals, and/or hormones.

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2. ROLE OF ANIMALS:
There are several ways that animals and plants interact:-
A] Grazing animals: Grazing is the act of eating grass. These animals' constant
grazing turns the vegetated field into a desolate region. If left uncontrolled, it
results in the "desertification" of the desert. Ex: Domesticated animals such as
goats, sheep, cattle, and cows.
B] Browsing animals: The term "browsing" refers to the consumption of delicate
plant branches. In addition to destroying plants, their paws and hooves also kill
creepers, which are little herbs.For example: Cow, Goat, Ass Horse, and Sheep.
They kill plants that detest dung (Caprophillos plants) and spread massive
amounts of manure. Unrestricted browsing quickly turns a forest into a scrubby
jungle full with prickly plants including cactus, canthium, and zizipus.
C] Worms and insects consume plant components, hinder the growth of the
plants, or infect and kill the plants.
D] Insect and animal pollination: Insects that feed on nectar cause cross-
pollination. Salvia orchids have altered their flowers to draw in insects. Certain
flowers release scents, while others have different colors to draw in specific
insects. Additionally, several animals aid in cross-pollination.
E] Fruit and seed dispersal: The easy and even dispersion of fruits and seeds, as
well as the growth of plants on our planet, are caused by the dispersal of these
materials by animals.
F] Carnivorous plants: A nitrogen deficit affects certain plants that thrive in
marshy areas. These plants rely on insects to provide the nitrogen they need.
"Insectivorous or Carnivorous plants" is the term used for these.
G] Myrmicophily: This is a form of proto-cooperation in which ants dwell in
close proximity to plants, obtain food and shelter from them, and in exchange,
defend the plants from outside threats.

3. ROLE OF MICRO ORGANISMS:

In plant life, microorganisms have both positive and negative roles.- A]
Beneficial role saproprous Bacteria and fungi decompose dead matter, clean the
earth's surface, and add nutrients to the soil.Bacteria like Clostridium and
Azatobacter and blue-green algae like Nostoc and Syntranea work together to fix

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molecular nitrogen and enrich soil. Fungi help plants absorb water and produce
growth hormones. They coexist with higher plants.
B] Negative role: Soil nitrogen content is reduced by denitrifying bacteria
through denitrification.
The bodies of other living things are home to parasitic bacteria and fungi that
infect them and cause illnesses. Examples of these include cholera, typhoid,
citrus canker, kole roga, rust, and leaf spot.

4. ROLE OF HUMAN BEINGS: Humans have a beneficial and destructive

role on the environment, but the negative effects outweigh the benefits.
A] Negative impacts; Growing urbanization, civilization, and industry have a
detrimental impact on vegetation because they cause pollution, overuse of
natural resources, uncontrolled tree cutting, and climate change. In addition to
destroying Twiners, cutting down trees also kills Epiphytes, Climbers,
Sciophytes, Insects, Animals, and Birds that consume fruits. It causes certain
species to become extinct. Careless human activity has the potential to start a
forest fire, which would wipe all the local flora and animals. As a result of
growing urbanization and progressive civilization, plant riches is exploited,
ecosystems become unbalanced, soil erosion is encouraged, humidity levels are
disturbed, and climate change causes species extinction.
B] Beneficial aspects: farming by lay An region that is devoid of vegetation is
transformed into a forest or vegetation field by human reforestation, or
forestation. Man's efforts in agricultural plant breeding have produced high
yielding, disease-resistant cultivars, the preservation of endangered species, and
biodiversity conservation. The development of dams has led to an expansion in
farmed land and the emergence of new species. It is advantageous to
domesticate and distribute commercially significant, economically significant
plants.

Summary
The scientific study of interactions between living things and their surroundings
is known as ecology. Any biotic or abiotic element that affects plants and other
creatures is considered an ecological factor. Climate, physiography, edaphic,

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 biotic, and anthropogenic variables are the five categories into which ecological
factors may be divided. The following categories comprise the climatic factors:
wind, fire, light, temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric humidity. The
variables that affect plants through soils are known as edaphic factors. The
physical characteristics of the place are known as physiographic factors. These
variables include the area's terrain, land's slope, height above sea level, sand
silting and blowing up, degree of erosion, etc. The other living things, such as
plants, animals, and bacteria, are known as biotic factors.

Keywords:
Soil profile: The soil's stratified, vertical structure.
Humidity: The quantity of moisture or water vapor in the atmosphere is its
definition.
Humus: The organic parts of soil created by soil microbes breaking down leaves
and other plant matter.
Capillary water: Water in the soil that is left over after gravitational water has
been removed is known as capillary water.
Gravitational water Free water that is drawn through the earth by gravity is
known as gravitational water.

MCQ
1. Which of the following is a primary climatic factor affecting ecosystems?
A) Soil pH
B) Temperature
C) Soil texture
D) Topography
Answer: B)

2. Which of the following best describes an edaphic factor in an ecosystem?

A) Annual rainfall
B) Soil texture
C) Latitude
D) Wind speed
Answer: B)
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3. Which of the following is an example of a physiographic factor?
A) Humidity
B) Soil nutrient content
C) Altitude
D) Precipitation
Answer: C) Altitude

4. Which of the following is a primary climatic factor that influences the

distribution of vegetation in an ecosystem?
A) Soil pH
B) Temperature
C) Soil texture
D) Altitude
Answer: B)

5. Edaphic factors are crucial in determining the types of plants that can grow in an
area. Which of the following is an edaphic factor?
A) Rainfall
B) Soil texture
C) Wind speed
D) Aspect of the slope
Answer: B)

6. Physiographic factors affect the physical landscape of an ecosystem. Which of

the following is considered a physiographic factor?
A) Humidity
B) Soil moisture
C) Altitude
D) Solar radiation
Answer: C)

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Short questions
1. Give an explanation of physiographic factors and some instances.
2. What effects does height have on the plants and climate?
3. What are the edaphic variables in an ecosystem, and what makes them
significant?
4. How does the pH of the soil affect plant growth?
5. What constitute an ecosystem's primary climatic factor components?
6. What impact does temperature have on plant species distribution?
7. What part does soil fertility depend on the texture of the soil?

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 UNIT-13
PLANT COMMUNITIES

13.1 Objectives
 To understand about the type and characteristics of community
 To discuss about ecotone
 To know about Edge effects
A community is a collection of species or populations that are present in a given
location at a given point in time. The species are able to communicate with one another.
They stand for biotic, or alive, ecosystem components. Although the species are neither
biologically or dynamically related to one another, they do share a habitat and feeding
connections. The characteristics of an ecological community are the result of
interactions between the species and/or populations that comprise it. Example: Different
grass species, insects, worms, birds, and animals interact with one another in different
ways in the field. Insects and animals can find food in gruese, while worms and birds
can find refuge in them. Birds eat worms, thus insects provide them with food. What
about mammals? Are all birds carnivorous?). A field community is made up of all of
these creatures.
Similar to this, there are many different kinds of living things in forests, deserts,
mountains, rivers, and lakes. They are a significant part of the communities in which
they live. The different species are therefore significant components of natural
communities.
Through food chains, species in a group have a feeding connection.
For nourishment, every species is dependent on several other species. Functionally,
these species are unrelated. As a result, even while species within a community may not
be directly connected to one another, they may nonetheless share a variety of feeding
relationships.
There are fluctuations in the community's size. In vast communities like forests, there
are many different kinds of plants, birds, insects, reptiles, and mammals coexisting. A
log of wood, on the other hand, is a representation of a little community of insect
species. Forest communities, for example, are autotrophic. This is due to the fact that
they include plant species that need solar energy to perform photosynthesis.

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Communities located in caverns and springs are heterotrophic because they get their
energy from organic materials like trash. A community of plants that belong to the same
species and age group is called a stand. An region of vegetation that is quite uniform is
referred to by this phrase. An example of a wheat field is a collection of plants that are
nearly of the same age and are located in the same location.

13.2 COMMUNITY CHARACTERS

Communities are characterized by presence of species, their biological physical
characters.
Form and structure (physiognomy)
A community's shape and organization can be evaluated based on certain traits and
roles. The vegetation inside a terrestrial community defines its structure. A community's
vegetation can be classified as tall, medium, short, evergreen, deciduous, woody,
herbaceous, herbs, shrubs, and so forth. There are other differences highlighted within
each category.
As an illustration, evergreen trees might have needle- or broad-leaved leaves. The
vegetation may consist of grasses and/or forbs (herbaceous dicots), shrubs, succulents,
rosettes, and herbs.

1. Analytical Characters
Analytical characters are further characterized as quantitative and qualitative.
A. Qualitative characters
These mainly include composition, physiognomy, phenology, stratification, abundance,
sociability, vitality and vigor, life form (growth form), etc.
a. Floristic composition: This is a reference to the kind of species that exist in a
community. Certain species are known as dominant species because they are widely
distributed across every community. Animals and plants coexist in a community, but
because plants are sedentary and stay in one area their whole lives, the community gets
its name from the dominant plant species. A thorough analysis is conducted on the
community's floristic makeup. A species list of the species found in a community is
created. Vascular species are classified as plants. Consideration is given to species that
occur in various seasons. The species that is more common and present throughout most

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of the year is honored in the community's name. The floristic composition measurement
provides insight into the following:
• A species' interactions with the local environment and other species that live there.
• The various species' habitats.
• The species' ecological amplitude
• The community's current state and anticipated future developments.
Adhatodha vasica, for instance, is a winter annual plant. It flourishes in cold climates
and alongside plants like Capparis sepiaria. It demonstrates a connection to the
environment and other animals.

b. Stratification of vegetation: It is yet another crucial aspect of a community's

vertical strata. The vertical structure of the plant, including its size, branching, and
leaves, is determined by its growth form. Physical elements like light have a big impact
on the vertical structure.
Stratification arises from the differences in physiological and ecological amplitude
between various plant species with regard to soil, biotic variables, temperature, moisture
content, and light intensity. Every society has a stratification of discrete vertical strata
that make up its vertical structure. The vertical structure of a plant is determined by its
growth, which is expressed in terms of size, branching, etc. The vegetation in a well-
developed forest ecosystem is arranged in layers. It is home to species including
grasses, herbs, trees, and shrubs. The layers are as follows: forest floor, herb/ground
layer, shrub layer, understory layer, and canopy layer. In tropical woods, this kind of
vertical stratification is present. Apart from the several strata present in these woods,
there are also climbers and lianas. The canopy is where photosynthesis takes place to fix
energy. The canopy system found in forests. When light enters the lowest levels of a
canopy, it is said to be open. Shrubs and understory plants are well-developed in these
locations. The majority of light in a closed forest is blocked by trees, leaving the plants
without any light. Shade-tolerant plants with low herbaceous layer development occur
in these locations. A forest that contains four strata, as opposed to grassland vegetation,
which has just two, may sustain a wider variety of living types.

c. Periodicity (phenology, aspection): It speaks of the seasonal variations in a

community's features. Every species has distinct needs in terms of moisture, light,

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temperature, and other environmental elements. As a result, each species experiences
different growth events during different phases, including seed germination, vegetative
development, blooming and fruiting (the reproductive phase), fruit and seed dispersal,
and seed dissemination. Phenomenology is the study of gathering data during these
events. In a plant's existence, it is also known as "the calendar of events."
A phenogram is a diagrammatic depiction of these occurrences.
Every species in the population has a phenology that varies greatly.

c. Vitality and vigor: The ability of a plant to finish its life cycle is known as
vitality. A plant's vigor refers to its state of development or health at a specific point in
its life cycle. It depends on how quickly and how much growth occurs. Changes in
height, the area covered by foliage, the color and turgidity of the stems and leaves, the
extent of insect damage, the emergence of flowers and fruits, and the growth of new
stems and leaves are among the characteristics. Daubenmire separated individuals into
many classes based on their vitality:
V1: plants that lose their seedlings;
V2: seedlings that develop but are sterile
V3: Vegetative reproduction occurs in,
V4 : sexual reproduction occurs in, but is infrequent and
V5: sexual reproduction occurs.

d. Life forms: The form and organization of the community can be inferred from
the vegetation's character. Different forms of vegetation, including herbs, shrubs, and
trees, can be identified. The next level of classification is based on characteristics like
height (tall or short), texture (woody or herbaceous), and occurrence type (evergreen or
deciduous). The properties of the leaves have led to the suggestion of other
classifications, such as needle-leaved evergreen, broad-leaved evergreen, broad-leaved
deciduous, grasses, etc. In Raunkier's (1903) approach, plants were categorized based
on how far above the ground they were in relation to their pernnating organ. The term
"perennating organ" refers to an organ that endures from one growing season to the
next, being active in the summer but dormant throughout the winter. The embryonic or
meristematic tissue of buds, bulbs, tubers, roots, and seeds is often included. The

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following five plant types have been classified: i) Phanerophytes; ii) Chamaephytes; iii)
Hemi cryptophytes iv) Cryptophytes v) Therophytes.
Phanerophytes: Perennating organs, such as buds, are found on upright shoots that are
above ground. The buds are exposed to the outside world and are nude. These are plants
found in tropical climates, such as trees, shrubs, and climbers.
Chamaephytes: Shoots that are near or slightly above the ground have perennating
organs on them. The snow cover and falling leaves shield the buds from the outside
environment. These include the creeping woody plants and herbs that grow in arctic and
alpine environments, which have chilly, dry conditions.
Hemi cryptophytes: These plants have perennating organs close to the ground, where
they are shielded from the elements by dirt and fallen leaves. These consist of perennial
and biennial herbs that grow in rosettes. The plants grow in moderate, cold climates.
When adverse conditions arise, the plant portions that are above ground perish.
Cryptophytes: These plants have perennating organs or buds that are hidden in the earth,
or beneath the surface of the soil. The buds are shielded from drying out or freezing.
These include the bulbous or tuberous plants that are mainly found in dry regions.
Therophytes: These plants are annuals, finishing their life cycle during the summer or
another suitable period. They just need a few months to complete their life cycle in a
single season. The perennating organs, seeds, hibernate during the unfavorable season.
These include plants found in grasslands and deserts.

Figure: Different plant forms based on their occurrence from the ground
(Raunkiers classification of plant forms).

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13.2.1 Quantitative characters
1. Population density: It shows the numerical strength of a community by
showing the number of members of a certain species in a unit. We can determine the
abundance of a species by measuring this characteristic. It also provides information on
the level of competition among the species' members.
It is stated as the number of people per unit area. It is calculable using the formula.
Density = Number of individuals of a species in all the sampling units/Total number of
sampling units studies
Ecological density is the number of individual locations where they occur often.

2. Cover (herbage cover): It describes the portion of the plant that is above
ground and is made up of the leaves, stem, and inflorescence. Every layer of vegetation
is taken into account independently. The units that overlap are also taken into account.
The plants growing beneath the taller ones are scored differently. Ground is referred to
as basal area., pierced by stems, or the plant's section that grows into the ground.
Is the region under the plant that covers the soil surface known as the canopy area? The
term "canopy" describes the topmost stratum. The soil's leaf-covered surface is known
as foliage cover. A herbaceous cover is considered closed when it creates a continuous
layer.

3. Plant height: One useful measure of how well vegetation is performing is the
plant's height. Another name for it is stratification. It provides information on a species'
success in a range of environments. It shows that there are good environmental
conditions present. Stratification leads to a larger proportion of light reaching the upper
layers, or canopy. a difference in the community's plant stratification and structure.

4. Weight of plants (biomass): It is among the crucial quantitative characteristics

of plants. It provides us with insight into growth. Usually, it is stated as the dry weight
of the plants. The weight, or biomass, of underground plant elements like roots and
above-ground plant parts like stems, leaves, fruits, and flowers may be measured
independently. After drying the plant for two days at 80°C, it is measured. We may also
learn a lot about the species' or the feed's yield from the data.

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13.3 ECOTONE
Ecotones are regions on an environmental gradient when two ecological communities,
ecosystems, or ecological zones abruptly change from one another. Ecotones can be
man-made or naturally occurring, and they exist in a wide range of spatial scales. They
include mountain treelines (e.g., Mediterranean and dry) and transitions between major
biomes and ecoregions. Ecotones are often found along ecological gradients. Changes in
soil, temperature, elevation, and many other environmental factors throughout time and
space have resulted in these gradients. Ecotones are often found in environmental
gradients when there is a sudden change in the climate.
They are found throughout a wide range of geographic scales, from microhabitats and
local vegetation communities overlapping at small scale ecotones to the transitions
between major biomes at the continental scale. They exhibit a range of border types,
including urban ecotones and man-made ecotones, as well as natural barriers like
altitudinal and latitudinal transitions. Examples of these include clear-cut margins in
forests and forests. Species richness and abundances have been shown in several studies
to generally rise in ecotonal zones.

Figure: representation of ecotone between forest and grassland community

Ecotones provide as ideal settings for studying a range of evolutionary processes, such
as speciation—the process by which new species are created. Some studies suggest that
because ecotones may serve as hotspots for biodiversity and speciation, they should be
the subject of substantial conservation commitment.

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13.3.1 Formation of Ecotones
A clear and noticeable boundary between two groups is created when the natural
surroundings change, as going from a forest to a pristine plain. Furthermore, a gradual
blended interface happens in places like mountain ranges where different local species
coexist with species common to both interacting populations. The majority of wetlands,
including the forests of Western Europe, are ecotones.

13.3.2 Type of ecotone

a) Halocline (salinity gradient)
b) Thermocline (temperature gradient)
c) Pycnocline (water density gradient)
d) Chemocline (chemical gradient

13.3.3 Characteristics of Ecotones

 An abrupt shift in vegetation, such the grass's color, denotes the presence of an
ecotone.
 A key ecotone marker for physical variations across plant species is
physiognomy.
An ecotone is characterized by changes in species, with certain creatures found on one
side of the ecotone boundary and others on the other.
 Spatial mass effect: Because new plants cannot establish self-sustaining
populations in other ecotones, their introduction or migration hides an ecotone. On the
other hand, if the ecotone continues to exist between two groups, it shows species
richness.
 An ecotone can reveal the kind of biome and the efficiency with which two
populations coexist on their territory by closely observing the number of alien species.
 The most effective model for researching a varied ecology.
 An ecotone denotes a shift in dominance.
 The ecotone provides an ecological niche for the species that settle near the
intersection known as the edge effect.
 Ecoclines: Related to ecotones, ecoclines are areas of physical transition
between two biological systems. It demonstrates how an ecotone is signaled by

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physiochemical environmental changes, such as microclimatic shifts or chemical
indicators like pH, salinity, or hydrothermal gradients.

Edge effects
Ecotones display edge effects, or changes in population that contribute to community
structure and allow for increased biodiversity along the edges of combined ecosystems.
Two ecosystems form their unique types of plant and environmental circumstances
when they are divided by smart edge effects, or ecotones.

Types of edge effect

1. Narrow Edge Effect: A narrow edge effect occurs when one habitat terminates
abruptly at the beginning of another.
2. Wide Edge effect: Also referred to as an ecotone, this phenomenon happens
when two environments are quite different from one another.
3. Induced edge effect: it describes structural changes that occur over time as a
result of either natural or human-caused disturbances (like fire).
4. Inherent Edge effect: The inherent edge effect refers to the boundary that is
preserved and created by natural characteristics between two ecosystems.
5. The perforated edge effect: Spaces that allow two habitats to sustain one another
and their neighbouring habitats.
6. Convoluted Edge effect: This phenomenon is brought about by two habitats
being partitioned nonlinearly.

Edge effects on Succession:

As vegetation grows, edge effects have an impact on succession. distinct species cause a
distinct distribution of species depending on whether they colonize the center or the
periphery. Along with the orientation change, the edge also moves, participating in
different vegetation patterns. Possible additional structural factors include diurnal and
seasonal changes. The communities' populations fluctuate in both space and time.
Pattern diversity serves as the foundation for community organization. Among other
things, the patterns may include horizontal or vertical segregation.

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Summary
A group of plant species that live together in a specific setting and engage with their
surroundings is referred to as a plant community. The kinds, quantities, and spatial
arrangements of the plants within these communities characterize them. Numerous
elements, including temperature, soil type, altitude, and disturbance regimes (such as
fire, grazing, or human activity), can affect a plant community's composition. Plant
communities are essential to the health of ecosystems because they provide animal
habitat and food, aid in the cycling of nutrients, and have an impact on soil hydrology
and structure. A transitional zone between two different biological groups, ecosystems,
or biomes is known as an ecotone. This zone frequently supports a distinct group of
species and has traits of both adjacent systems. Ecotones can be the consequence of
human activity, like agricultural fields bordering natural landscapes, or they can occur
spontaneously, like the line separating a forest from a meadow. Because they contain
both species that are specific to the transition area and species from nearby
communities, ecotones are usually characterized by great biodiversity. They are crucial
indicators for ecological monitoring and conservation initiatives since they are also
frequently dynamic and sensitive to environmental changes.
Keywords

Community: is a collection of people who share a common attribute or reside in the

same area.
Ecological diversity: is the study of how variations in the local environment impact the
ecosystem, flora, and fauna as a whole.
Ecotone: is a zone of transition created by the interaction and convergence of two
biological populations.
Ecological niche: is characterized by a species' suitability for a particular environmental
situation.
Environment: the surroundings or circumstances in which a human, animal, or plant
lives or operates are referred to as the environment.
Keystone species: is one that, in relation to its abundance, has an outsized impact on its
natural environment.

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MCQs
1. What is a plant community?
A) A group of plants growing in the same area with similar environmental
requirements.
B) A group of plants of the same species growing together.
C) A group of plants and animals interacting in an ecosystem.
D) A group of plants that have the same root structure.
Answer: A)

2. Which of the following is a characteristic of a climax community?

A) High species diversity
B) Dominance of pioneer species
C) Rapid changes in species composition
D) Low levels of competition
Answer: A)

3. Which of the following terms refers to the physical and biological factors
affecting a plant community?
A) Habitat
B) Niche
C) Environment
D) Ecosystem
Answer: C)

4. What is an ecotone?
A) A region with extremely harsh environmental conditions.
B) An area where two different ecosystems meet and integrate.
C) A habitat that supports only one species of plant.
D) An area devoid of vegetation.
Answer: B)

5. Which of the following best describes the species diversity in an ecotone

compared to the adjacent ecosystems?

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 A) Lower than both ecosystems
B) Higher than both ecosystems
C) The same as the more diverse ecosystem
D) The same as the less diverse ecosystem
Answer: B)
6. The phenomenon where ecotones have a higher density of certain species
compared to neighbouring ecosystems is known as:
A) Edge effect
B) Climax effect
C) Niche differentiation
D) Succession
Answer: A)

Short questions
1. What is the difference between an ecotone and a biome?
2. What role do ecotones play in biodiversity?
3. What are the main techniques for analysing the structure of plant
communities?
4. What is the effect of succession on the long-term growth of plant
communities?
5. What effects do invading species have on communities of native plants?
6. What elements influence a plant community's composition?

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 UNIT-14
PHYTOGEOGRAPHY

14.1 Objectives
 To understand about the principles of phytogeography,
 To discuss about endemism
 To know about biogeographical zone in India

The field of biogeography known as phytogeography, or botanical geography, is

concerned with the geographic distribution of plant species and their impact on the
surface of the world. The term comes from the Greek words phyton, which means
"plant," and geographia, which means "geography," which also means distribution. All
facets of plant distribution are covered by phytogeography, including the variables that
determine the makeup of whole communities and floras as well as the controls on the
distribution of individual species ranges at both large and small scales (see species
distribution).
The primary goal of plant geography, according to Campbell (1926), is to identify the
parallels and differences between the floras and plants of the past and present that are
found in geographically dispersed regions of the planet.
Phytogeography is defined by Wulff (1943) as the study of plant species distribution in
their natural environments and the clarification of the genesis and development history
of floras.
Phytogeography, according to Croizat (1952), is the study of plant movement and
evolution over time and distance.
Major Divisions of Phytogeography:
There are two major divisions of Phytogeography:
(i) Descriptive or Static Phytogeography: This addresses the detailed descriptions
of floristic or vegetational categories that are present globally. Plant geographers from
the past sought to categorize the planet into floristic and botanical zones and
characterized the flora.
(ii) Interpretive or Dynamic Phytogeography: This relates to the dynamics of plant
and flora movement and evolution. It explains why various plant species are distributed
differently around the planet. It is a borderline science that synthesizes and integrates
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information and ideas from many specialist fields, including geology, physiology,
ecology, taxonomy, evolution, and genetics. Several scholars, including Good (1931),
Mason (1936), Cain (1944), and others, have identified the variables influencing plant
dispersion.

14.2 Principles of Phytogeography

Lowerence (1951) has suggested the following thirteen modern principles of
Phytogeography which are classified into four groups:
A. Principles concerning environment:
The main factor influencing plant dispersion is the climate.
2. Throughout geological history, there have been variations in climate that have
impacted plant migration.
3. Historically, there have been different relationships between land masses and oceans.
The massive land masses broke apart to create new land masses or continents that
drifted apart and shifted. Terrestrial bridges served as likely pathways for the movement
of plant and animal species between continents. With the passage of time, the land
bridges were drowned under the water, and the chance of plant and animal migration
across continents vanished forever.
4. The distribution of vegetation is secondary to soil conditions on plains and mountains
of various land masses. The development of calcicols, calcifobs, halophytes, and
psammophytes is a result of edaphic circumstances.
5. Biotic variables are also crucial for the establishment and dispersal of plant species.
6. The environment is holocentric, meaning that a location's vegetation is influenced by
a combination of environmental elements (Ale & Pank, 1939).

B. Principles concerning plant responses:

7. Plant tolerances set a limit on their distribution range. Every species of plant has a
different spectrum of edaphic and climatic parameters. As a result, the combined
tolerance of all the species that make up a big taxon is its tolerance.
8. Genetics is the basis of tolerances. Plants' responses to their surroundings are
determined by their genetic composition.

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Numerous crops can now flourish in a greater range of environmental circumstances
because to breeding and genetic modifications. It has been shown that hybrid plants in
the wild have a greater tolerance spectrum than their parent species.
9. The tolerances vary throughout ontogentic periods. Plants exhibit varying degrees of
tolerance at different developmental stages. For instance, adult plants and seeds are
more tolerant of temperature and moisture than their seedling counterparts.

C. Principles concerning the migration of floras and climaxes:

10. There have been significant migrations. The Mesozoic and Tertiary eras have seen
extensive plant and animal migrations, according to fossil and palaeoecological data.
11. Establishment and transportation led to migration. Through their propagules, such as
spores, seeds, bulbils, etc., plants are distributed to new habitats during the process of
migration, and if the environmental circumstances are favorable, they establish
themselves there. There, plants develop and multiply, and via ecological changes, their
offspring go on.

D. Principles concerning the perpetuation and evolution of floras and climaxes:

12. Migration is the primary factor in the persistence of a species, followed by the
capacity of the species to pass on advantageous mutations to their progeny.
13. Migration, species evolution, and environmental choices all influence the evolution
of floras and climaxes.

14.3 Distribution:
On the basis of area of the earth surface occupied by the plants, the various taxa are
categorized as under:
1. Wides.
2. Endemics.
3. Discontinuous species.

1. Wides: The term "wides" refers to plants that are widely dispersed over the planet in
distinct climatic zones and throughout the many continents. Although the term
"cosmopolitan" is used to describe wides, no plant truly embodies this concept.
Chaenopodium album and Taraxacum officinale are typical examples of wides. Tropical

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plants are referred to as pantropical plants. Not only may very cold temperature plants
be found in the Arctic, but they can also be found in tropical and subtropical climates in
the alpine zone of mountains. We refer to these as arctic-alpine flora.

2. Endemics: An organism is considered endemic to a region if its distribution is

limited to that region. The taxon can be of any rank, but it is typically found at the
family level or below, and its distribution range might be as broad as a continent or as
small as a few square meters. The idea of endemism is significant since it served as the
foundation for the creation of biogeographic areas in the past. A biogeographic region's
boundaries are created where the outer bounds of several taxa exist, which is
accomplished by mapping the distributions of taxa. Finding the degrees of similarity
between geographic regions is a different approach to identifying biogeographic
regions. A.P. de Candolle introduced the idea of endemic plant distribution (1813).
According to Engler (1882), there are two types of endemic forms: indigenous or native
forms that are limited to a certain area and paleo-endemics, which are remnants of
extinct forms. The species can be classified as continental, national, provincial, regional,
or local endemics (limited to valleys, hills, islands, etc.) based on their area of
distribution.
Now the endemic species have been grouped into the following categories:
(i) Relics or Palaeoendemics:
These are the remnants of formerly widely dispersed ancestral species, such as Sequoia
sempervirens, which is only found in the coastal valleys of California, and Ginkgo
biloba, which is only found in China and Japan. Agathis australis, Metasequoia
(Restricted to a single Chinese valley). These organisms are referred to as epibionts or
paleoendemics. This type of endemic species has numerous fossil relatives, with the
vast majority of them. Another name for them is living fossils. Due to their limited
range, endemic species are exclusively suited to a certain habitat, and even when they
spread to other regions, they are unable to establish a foothold.

(ii) Neoendemics: The remaining endemic species may be modern species that
haven't had enough time to migrate far and wide to take up residence. We refer to them
as neoendemics. Many of these genera have many endemic species, or only a small

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number of endemic species. Neoendemics grow in a variety of habitats, exhibit good
diversity, have a large number of biotypes, and have a broad tolerance for environments.
Among the well-known endemic genera found in Indian flora are Petalidium, Butea,
Catenaria, Mecanopsis, and Chloroxylon swietenia. Among the well-known endemic
species of Indian flora are Eleusine coracana, Venda caerulea, Ficus religiosa, Piper
longum, Piper nigrum, Eletteria repens, and Shorea robusta.
The terms "local endemics," "retrogressive endemics," and "micro-endemics," which
refer to the endemics of lower groups, are used to describe different aspects of these
endemics. Local endemics are found in small land features, while progressive endemics
tend to spread over time.

Pseudo endemics:
These endemics develop as a result of population mutation in a specific location. These
mutants, sometimes known as pseudo-endemics, might or might not stay long in the
original region. Endemism is the outcome of a species' inability to spread its seeds,
fruits, spores, or propagules due to the presence of huge obstacles like mountains, seas,
and vast deserts. Numerous endemic species may be found on the oceanic islands,
which are cut off from the rest of the world by vast bodies of water. These species'
ability to migrate outside of their native environment is inhibited by the water barrier.

3. Discontinuous Distribution: when plants may be found in two or more far-flung

locations around the globe that are hundreds or thousands of kilometers apart from one
another by land or sea. A distribution like this is said to as discontinuous or disjunct.
The regions of South America, South Africa, and Australia that are surrounded by large
bodies of water are home to the genera Nothofagus and Jovellona.
The significant phytogeographical causes for discontinuous distribution are as
follows:
(i) It is possible that the species underwent many evolutionary events and that
obstacles prevented them from migrating beyond their initial habitats.
(ii) Species that were formerly extensively spread have now vanished from certain
regions and are only found in a few far-off places.
(iii) Species distribution discontinuities might potentially be caused by the climate.
Certain types of plants may be found in geographically distant places with comparable

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climates; for instance, plants from the Arctic can also be found in the alpine zone of
high mountains in tropical and subtropical countries. In the arctic and alpine zones, the
distribution of Salix and Silen species is irregular.

14.3.1 Theories of Discontinuous Distribution:

1. Theory of Land Bridge: This idea holds that land bridges that exist between the split
continents have aided in the migration of different species across the continents. During
the Palaeozoic era, it is thought that the uniform distribution of plants and animals
throughout the earth was caused by such land bridges. The land bridges were eventually
submerged under the water, and the linkages between the continents broke apart faster
than creatures could disperse, leading to a discontinuity in the distribution.

2. Theory of Continental drift: Wegner proposed the notion of continental drift in

1912 and 1924. He asserts that during the Paleozoic epoch, the whole landmass of the
globe was a single supercontinent. He gave it the name Pangaea. The supercontinent
known as Panthalassa had a sea around it on all sides. Pangaea divided into two sizable
landmasses during the Mesozoic Era: Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the
south. The Tethys Sea divided the two landmasses. On the other hand, Du Toit (1937)
proposed that both Laurasia and Gondwanaland were present from the start. The two
sizable landmasses with distinctive wildlife and plants separated to form new
landmasses known as continents. Similar to how Gondwanaland gave rise to South
America, Africa, India, Polynesia, Australia, Antarctica, and other regions, Laurasia
gave origin to Eurasia, Greenland, and North America. The continents started to realign
some 135 million years ago. The oceans were pushing the continents apart. We refer to
this as continental drift. The existence of Gondwanaland and Laurenasia is supported by
the presence of dinosaurs and a large number of fossilized plants. The division of
continents resulted in the division of the distribution ranges of many plant and animal
species, giving birth to discontinuous distribution zones.

14.3.2 Factors Affecting Distribution of Species:

1. Geological history and distribution,
2. Migration, and
3. Ecological amplitude.

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1. Geological history and distribution: A species' center of origin is the location of its
initial emergence. The process of species evolution is gradual yet ongoing. While the
vast majority of the species in the current flora are relatively recent, some are rather old.
The process of species differentiation involves:
(i) Hybridization between the related species as well as mutation and (ii) The
natural selection of the hybrid and mutant populations.
Only the fittest individuals that find the habitat circumstances within their ecological
amplitudes are selected, while the least fit ones are removed. Not all hybrids and
mutants are picked by nature throughout the selection process.
The emergence of new species has also been significantly influenced by climate change.
Over time, a number of ancient species went extinct; fossils of some of these species
can still be seen today. The fossils offer concrete proof of the historical presence of
several species.

2. Migration: The recently developed species begins to migrate to new regions

while also undergoing more evolutionary modifications. There are several agents that
contribute to the dissemination of germules and propagules, including wind, water,
glaciers, insects, animals, and even humans. After dispersal, ecasis occurs.
Certain circumstances referred to as migration barriers have the potential to negatively
impact migration and occasionally even prevent it entirely. There are three categories of
barriers to species dispersal: geographical, environmental, and ecological. The spread
and establishment of species are significantly influenced by the climate, an ecological
barrier. Certain species are forced to migrate due to unsuitable temperature conditions
or climate change in a specific location, while some species eventually become extinct
because they are unable to move. Geographical obstacles, such as high mountains, large
oceans, or deserts, exist in addition to climate.
For instance, if a freshwater plant's propagules are solely appropriate for freshwater
dispersal, they cannot spread across oceans. Similarly, land plant germules or
propagules from one nation cannot spread to another country that is divided by large
bodies of water or mountains. If a species originated in a certain location, it is referred
to as a native of that location. The species is known as alien beyond its native region.
By migration, exotic species expand their geographic range. Introduced species are
those that are purposefully brought into a new location by humans.

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3. Ecological amplitudes and distribution: In addition to affecting a plant's life
and growth, environmental factors also determine a plant's presence or absence, vigor or
weakness, and relative success or failure in a given habitat. Every plant species within a
community has a certain range of tolerance for the habitat's physical and biological
conditions.
The term ecological amplitude describes this. While the existence of a species at a given
location undoubtedly implies that the habitat's environmental circumstances are within
its ecological amplitude, the absence of a species from a given location does not always
imply that the environment is unsuitable for that species.
Because the genetic makeup of the species in question determines the ecological
amplitude, various species have distinct ecological amplitudes that occasionally overlap
just slightly. Furthermore, certain species may exist in distinct geographic areas
depending on the circumstances and when their ecological amplitudes are met. As an
illustration, certain temperate plants, such as conifers, may also be found in the alpine
zone of tall mountains in tropical and subtropical climates.
Ecological amplitude's variation over time is another aspect to take into account when
determining plant dispersion. When closely related species hybridize, the progeny of
sexually reproducing plants have a different genetic makeup. Plant species adapt to
changing environmental conditions by altering their ecological amplitudes, which is
made possible by genetic variations. It is possible for a species to include many
genetically distinct populations that are adapted to distinct ecological circumstances.
These groups are referred to as ecological populations, ecological races, or ecotypes.
For instance, there are two main populations in Euphorbia thymifolia: the calcicole,
which loves calcium, and the calcifuge, which hates it. Comparably, the photoperiodic
needs of Ageratum conyzoides and Xanthium strumarium ecological races vary. The
species' geographic range is expanded by the presence of ecotypes within the species.

14.4 Biogeographical Classification of India

For thousands of years, a diversity of species has existed on Earth to meet human needs.
Civilizations have relied on the support system created by the diversity of life on Earth
to thrive and flourish. Over the course of a century, several scientists have endeavored
to categorize and classify the diversity of life provided by nature, which has resulted in
the split of its organization into plants and animals. This knowledge of the diversity of

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nature has aided man in harnessing the biological resources of the planet for the good of
humanity and is crucial to the process of development (Roy, 2016). or fossil, and the
regions they inhabit may be summed up as biogeography. Alternatively put, "one of the
aspects of geography which deals with the correlation among the animals, plants, and
their geography" is how biogeography is defined. The multidisciplinary field of
biogeography studies how organisms and communities are distributed throughout time
and space. A biogeographer's main objective is to provide a clear image of the temporal
and geographical fluctuations, processes, and causes of the spatial patterns of
distribution of plants and animals. The biosphere, or a portion of it, serves as the
fundamental spatial unit for biogeographical research. The biosphere, the greatest
environment, is divided into several ecosystems based on the study's goals and
geographical scope, including the ecosystems of mountains, crops, deltas, grasslands,
and so forth (Singh, 2010).

Eventually, the study of biogeography split into the independent fields of zoogeography
(the distribution of animals) and phytogeography (the distribution of plants). In the field
of biogeography, a great deal of attention is placed on the study of phytogeography
because, unlike animals, which are dynamic and move from place to place with a great
deal of behavioural variability, plants have a static distributional pattern that makes it
easy to study. Some people think that because biogeography is frequently concerned
with the study of the physical environment and how it impacts organisms and shapes
their distribution throughout space, it is a subfield of physical geography.

Any location's vegetation is influenced by its climate, geology, and biotic environment.
The vast majority of the Indian subcontinent has a diverse range of climates, which are
reflected in the variety of plants found there. The following biogeographical zones
comprise India.

1. Trans-Himalayan Region: The Trans Himalayas are the Himalayan range that is
directly to the north of the Great Himalayas. The icy deserts of Ladakh, Jammu and
Kashmir, North Sikkim, and the Luhil-Spiti regions of Himachal Pradesh serve as
symbols for this region. The mountain ranges of Zaskar, Kailash, Ladakh, and
Karakoram make up this area. It is projected to encompass 186200 km2 in India,

217
making about 5.6% of the country's total land area. The predominant kind of vegetation
is a dry alpine scrub formation. The genera Saxifraga, Draba, Ephedra, Kobresia, and
Carex are among those that contribute to the scant vegetation. The largest number of
wild sheep and goats may be found in this area, along with other uncommon wildlife
like snow leopards and migrating black-necked cranes. The environment in this area is
quite delicate.

2. Himalayan Region: This region, which includes some of the world's tallest peaks,
makes up 6.4% of the entire geographical area. This area, which stretches up to 2400
km from Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh in the east, is home to an amazing variety of
plant formations. About half of the flowering plant species in this region are endemic,
out of the over 8000 species that are estimated to exist. Tall conifers abound in the
subtropical and temperate zone of the West Himalaya, whereas broad-leaved species
predominate in the east Himalaya. In the West Himalaya, oaks are widespread and have
a clear altitudinal distribution. The East Himalayan slope is known for its abundance of
colorful rhododendron species, over 85 varieties of bamboo, and a wide range of orchid
species. This area is home to several endangered bovid species, including Musk Dear
and Hungul, as well as Bharal, Ibex, Markhor, and Takin.

3. Indian Desert Region: This area makes approximately 6.8% of the total land area.
This area is primarily in the Indian state of Rajasthan, although it also includes small
portions of Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab. The Aravalli highlands in the northeast, the
Rand of Kutch along the coast, and the Indus River's alluvial plains in the west and
north-west are the boundaries of the desert region. This region has a diverse ecology
and habitat since the desert is also characterized by hillocks and sandy gravel plains.
When compared to other desert regions throughout the world, this one has incredibly
abundant vegetation, human civilization, and animal life. This area is home to the
following plant and tree species: Prosopis Cameraria, Tecomella, and Acacia. A few
endangered animal species, including wolves, caracals, desert cats, chinkaras,
blackbucks, chosinghas, nilgai, and gazelles, are also found in this area. Along with
eagles, harriers, falcons, kestrels, and vultures, other birds that may be found here
include the Houbara Bustard and Great Indian Bustard.

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4. Semi-Arid Region: The Greek word "arere," which meaning to be dry, is where the
term "arid" originates. Generally speaking, an area of the earth that receives little or no
rainfall and consequently no vegetation is referred to as being arid. This region, which
makes up 16.6% of the nation's total land area, is a transitional area between the
Western Ghats' lush forest and desert. The states of Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, and the
western portions of Rajasthan comprise the majority of India's semi-arid area. The
unpredictable rainfall can occasionally be accompanied by a brief, strong storm that
releases a lot of water, which causes excessive runoff rather than recharging the
groundwater. The thorn-scrub woods of Capparis deciduas, Prosopis cineraria, and
Flacourftia make up the majority of the semi-arid vegetation. The largest biomass of
animals is supported in this zone by the presence of grass and a palatable shrub layer.
Sambar and Chital are confined to the more humid valley regions and the better forested
slopes, respectively. The wolves, lions, caracals, and other endangered animals are also
protected in this area.

5. Western Ghats: This region makes up 4.0 percent of the entire land area. The
Himalaya is the biogeographic zone with the most floristic richness and variety,
followed by the Western Ghats. It is anticipated that this area would support over 4000
blooming plant species, 1500 of which are indigenous. Highly prized timber species
including Indian Rosewood, Kauha/asaina/black murdah, Indian Kino Tree and Teak
may be found in the wet deciduous woods at lower elevations. In terms of wildlife,
some notable endemic species found in this area are the Malabar Grey Hornbill,
Grizzled Giant Squirrel, Lion Tailed Macaque, and Nilgiri Langur.

6. Deccan Plateau: With 42.0% of the country's total land, this region is the richest
biogeographic region in India. It is a semi-arid terrain that is under the Western Ghats'
rain shadow. The best forests in India are found in this bio-geographic zone, which is by
far the largest in peninsular India and is mostly found in the States of Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, and Odisha. The vast majority of the woodlands are deciduous. The main
catchment area for several of the major river systems in south India, including the
Narmada, Tapti, Mahanadi, and Godavari, is the Deccan highland. Tropical moist and
dry deciduous forests, degraded shrub lands, and tropical thorn forests cover a large area
of the Deccan peninsula.

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7. The Gangetic Plain: This region makes up around 10.8% of the entire land area.
This is the biggest section of India's vast plains, encompassing the states of West
Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar, and extending from Delhi to Kolkata. The area's
unique wildlife includes hog deer, buffalo, swamp deer, rhinos, elephants, and hispid
rabbits. The native flora in this area has mostly been replaced by planted vegetation.
The tall grasses of Saccharum, Phragmites, and Kangaroo Grass (Themeda) are the
predominant types of natural vegetation found in the Terai regions, which are the
foothills of the Himalayas. Other trees that are frequently found in this area are
Serpentine Wood, White Sandalwood, Mango, Mahua, Neem, and Shikakai. The most
significant feature of this region is that it serves as India's "food bowl," providing
millions of people with foodgrains due to its plain topography, which is ideal for
agriculture, and its perennial rivers, which offer irrigation throughout the year.

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8. North-East Region: The area in question makes up 5.2% of the entire land area.
In addition to serving as a meeting place between Peninsular India and the Himalayan
Mountains, the region signifies the biogeographical transition zone between Indian,
Indo-Malayan, and Indo-Chinese regions. In terms of species richness, endemic species,
and community diversity, this zone has the highest concentration of biological variety.
This zone, which includes a area of Arunachal Pradesh, is home to almost 50% of all
species found in India. In addition to the dense concentration of primitive flowering
plants, this area is home to some of the oldest species of extant angiosperms. Other
plant families that demonstrate greatest variety in this area include orchids, bamboos,
ferns, musaceae, and cucurbitaceae.

9. Coastal Region: This region, which makes up 2.5 percent of the country's total land
area, is known for its riches and health due to its sandy beaches, mangroves, mud flats,
coral reefs, and marine angiosperm pastures. India's coastline is home to two important
types of vegetation: beach forests and mangrove forests. The Australian pine tree,
cashew tree, and Indian doomba oil tree are the three most distinctive tree species found
in coastal forests. The Lakshadweep are a group of 25 islets that are rich in biodiversity
and feature typical reef lagoon systems due to their coral origins. The real mangrove
genera Rhizophora, Sonneratia, Heretiera, and Xylocarpus make up the majority of the
mangrove forests, which are located along deltas, estuaries, and backwaters.

10. Island: This area makes up 0.3 percent of the entire planet's surface. With 348
islands, the Andaman and Nicobar groupings of islands in the Bay of Bengal have an
intriguing biogeography. These islands sustain a diverse range of corals and are home to
some of India's best evergreen forests. They are also centres of high endemism.
Approximately 2200 kinds of higher plants are found on these islands. Of the
approximately 210 indigenous species, 75 are tree species.
The islands' lush vegetation may be largely divided into two categories: upland and
coastal varieties. The mangroves, such as red mangrove/Asiatic mangrove, Garjan, grey
or white mangrove (Avicennia marina), fish poison tree/sea poison tree, Indian doomba,
and Andaman bulletwood/Sea Mahua (Manilkara) comprise the coastal forests. The
inland vegetation consists of evergreen and deciduous woods that are home to many
commercially significant timber species.

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Summary
The study of plant species and ecosystems' global distribution, or phytogeography,
sheds light on trends in plant diversity and the forces that have shaped these trends
throughout time. comprehending the elements that affect plant distribution, such as
climatic circumstances, soil types, past occurrences, and interactions with other species,
is essential to comprehending the fundamentals of phytogeography. These concepts aid
in explaining why particular plants are found in particular areas as well as how climatic
changes and geographic obstacles contribute to the establishment of unique floral
assemblages. A wide variety of biogeographical zones, such as the Deccan Peninsula,
Gangetic Plain, North-East India, Indian Ocean, Indian Desert, Semi-Arid, Himalayan,
and Islands, define phytogeography in India. Because of the distinct temperature,
geography, and evolutionary background of each zone, each one has its own distinct
flora. India has a remarkable rate of endemism, or the presence of species that are only
present in a certain geographic area. This is especially true in biodiversity hotspots like
the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats. Long-term geographic isolation, a
variety of climates, and intricate topographical characteristics have all contributed to
this high endemism by enabling the separate evolution of several plant species. Because
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endemic species are frequently more susceptible to habitat loss and environmental
changes, endemism research is essential for conservation efforts. For the purpose of
ecological study, biodiversity protection, and efficient management of natural resources
in the face of changing environmental circumstances, an understanding of
phytogeographical patterns and principles is vital.

Keywords
Phytogeography: studied the geographical distribution of plants.
Adaptation: The process of alteration that makes a species or creature more adapted to
its surroundings
Endemism: indigenous and limited to a certain area

MCQ
1. What is phytogeography?
A) The study of plant fossils
B) The study of plant diseases
C) The study of the geographic distribution of plant species
D) The study of plant anatomy
Answer: C

2. Phytogeography helps in understanding which of the following?

A) Plant evolution and adaptation
B) Geological history of Earth
C) Human impact on vegetation
D) All of the above
Answer: D

3. The concept of vicariance is associated with which of the following?

A) Dispersal of plants
B) Geographical separation of species
C) Genetic mutation in plants
D) Introduction of new plant species
Answer: B

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4. How many biogeographical zones are identified in India?
A) 3
B) 5
C) 10
D) 12
Answer: D

5. Which biogeographical zone in India is characterized by high rainfall and

dense evergreen forests?
A) Western Ghats
B) Deccan Plateau
C) Himalayas
D) Desert
Answer: A

6. The Sundarbans, known for its mangrove forests, is part of which

biogeographical zone in India?
A) Western Ghats
B) Gangetic Plain
C) Coastal Zone
D) Islands
Answer: C

7. What does the term "endemism" refer to in phytogeography?

A) The introduction of alien species
B) Plants that are widespread globally
C) Species that are restricted to a specific area
D) The extinction of species
Answer: C

8. Which of the following is an example of an endemic plant species in India?

A) Banyan tree
B) Himalayan Blue Poppy

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 C) Rose
D) Sunflower
Answer: B

9. Why is endemism important for biodiversity conservation?

A) It helps in the survival of alien species
B) It ensures genetic uniformity
C) It highlights the unique flora of a region and helps in conservation efforts
D) It focuses on widespread species
Answer: C

Short questions
1. What is phytogeography's main area of study?
2. What distinguishes generic biogeography from phytogeography?
3. What role does the idea of "floristic regions" have in phytogeography?
4. What role does the vicariance principle play in the explanation of plant
distribution?
5. What is the number of important biogeographical zones in India?
6. List the three biogeographical zones that make up India and explain a salient
feature of each.
7. What elements support the Western Ghats' biodiversity?
8. What is endemism, and how does conservation biology benefit from it?
9. Give an instance of an Indian indigenous plant species.
10. What role does endemism play in isolated places like islands?

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