Revision Lecture: Introduction to Linguistic semester 1

Introduction to Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure. It explores how languages are
formed, evolve, and function in society. As students of Business English, understanding
linguistics enhances your ability to analyze and improve communication in professional
contexts.

Branches of Linguistics
1. Phonetics: The study of speech sounds, including their production, transmission, and
perception.
2. Phonology: The study of how sounds function within a particular language or
languages.
3. Morphology: The study of word structure and how words are formed.
4. Syntax: The study of sentence structure and grammatical arrangements.
5. Semantics: The study of meaning in language.
6. Pragmatics: The study of language in context, focusing on the meaning derived from
use and situation.
7. Sociolinguistics: Examines how language varies and changes in different social
contexts.
8. Psycholinguistics: The study of how language is processed in the mind.

Key Terms in Linguistics

1. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that can differentiate meaning in a language.
For example, the difference between the words pat and bat lies in the first phoneme /p/
versus /b/.
2. A morpheme is the smallest grammatical unit in a language. It can be a word or part
of a word that has meaning. For instance, in the word unhappiness, un-, happy, and -
ness are all morphemes.
3. Syntax refers to the rules and principles that govern the structure of sentences in a
language. It involves the arrangement of words to create meaningful sentences. For
example, in English, a basic sentence structure follows the Subject-Verb-Object (SVO)
order: She (subject) eats (verb) apples (object).
4. Semantics is the study of meaning in language. It focuses on how words, phrases, and
sentences are used to convey meaning, both in isolation and in context. For example,
the word "bank" can refer to a financial institution or the side of a river, depending on
context.
5. Pragmatics is concerned with the use of language in context and the social aspects of
communication. It looks at how speakers use language to achieve specific purposes,
understand indirect meanings, and interpret things like tone or irony. For instance,
saying "Can you pass the salt?" is a request, even though it's phrased as a question.
6. Morphology is the study of the structure and formation of words. It examines how
morphemes combine to form words, such as the addition of prefixes or suffixes. For
example, walk and walked differ by the morpheme -ed, which marks past tense.
 7. The lexicon is a language’s inventory of words, including their meanings and
grammatical properties. It can be seen as a mental dictionary or the set of vocabulary
items available in a language.
8. Phonology is the study of the sound systems of languages. It deals with the
organization of sounds, how they contrast, and how they pattern in a particular
language. For example, English distinguishes between /s/ and /ʃ/ (as in "sip" vs. "ship").
9. Sociolinguistics is the study of how language varies and changes in social contexts. It
looks at how factors such as social class, gender, age, and ethnicity influence language
use. For example, different dialects may be spoken in different regions or by different
social groups.
10. Diachronic linguistics studies the historical development of languages over time,
looking at how languages evolve.
11. Synchronic linguistics analyzes a language at a specific point in time, without
considering its historical changes.
12. A language family is a group of languages that share a common ancestral language.
For example, the Indo-European language family includes languages such as English,
Spanish, and Hindi.
13. Universal grammar is a theory proposed by linguist Noam Chomsky, suggesting that
all human languages share certain fundamental structures or rules that are part of the
innate human capacity for language acquisition.
14. A speech act refers to an utterance that performs an action. For example, saying "I
promise to help you" is not just a statement but an action that creates an obligation.
15. Discourse analysis is the study of language use beyond the sentence level. It focuses
on how larger units of meaning, such as conversations or written texts, are structured
and understood. It examines how meaning is created in context, considering things like
coherence, turn-taking, and cultural conventions.

Language Universals and Properties of Languages

• Universals: Features shared by all languages (e.g., nouns and verbs, hierarchical
structure).
• Design Features (by Charles Hockett):
1. Arbitrariness: No inherent connection between words and meanings.
2. Displacement: Ability to talk about things not present.
3. Productivity: Infinite combinations of elements to create meaning.
4. Cultural Transmission: Language is learned socially.

Language universals are features or characteristics that are shared by all human languages.
These universals reflect the innate properties of human cognition and the way humans
structure and use language to communicate. Despite the vast diversity of languages, certain
fundamental elements can be found in every known language. These universal features are
often considered to be part of the biological endowment of the human species, shaped by the
way our brains process and produce language.
1. Phonological Universals
Phonology refers to the system of sounds in a language, and certain phonological patterns can
be observed universally:
 • Consonant and Vowel Distinction: Every language has consonants (sounds produced
by obstructing airflow) and vowels (sounds produced with an open vocal tract).
• Syllable Structure: All languages use syllables as the basic unit of pronunciation,
typically consisting of a consonant-vowel pattern (CV), though there can be variations.
• Contrastive Sounds: All languages have some way of distinguishing sounds, and some
pairs of sounds (like "p" vs. "b") are present across languages, although the exact
phonetic inventory differs from one language to another.

2. Grammatical Universals
These refer to structural patterns that all languages follow, often relating to syntax and
morphology:
• Nouns and Verbs: Every language has at least two categories of words: nouns (things,
people, places) and verbs (actions or states). While the forms of these categories vary,
the distinction is universal.
• Word Order: Though different languages have different preferences for word order
(e.g., Subject-Verb-Object in English or Subject-Object-Verb in Japanese), every
language uses some consistent word order to structure its sentences.
• Agreement: Most languages have some form of grammatical agreement, where
elements of a sentence (such as subject and verb) must match in number, gender, or
person (e.g., "She walks," "They walk").
• Tense/Aspect: All languages have ways to express time relationships. While some
languages use specific verb forms to show tense (past, present, future), others might
rely on contextual clues, but the concept of expressing time is universal.
• Negation: Every language has a means of negating a sentence, typically using a word
like "not" or "no" (e.g., "I am not going").

3. Semantic Universals
Semantics refers to meaning in language. Some concepts are universally represented across
languages:
• Basic Categories of Meaning: All languages encode basic concepts like actions
(verbs), objects (nouns), time (tense), place (location), and qualities (adjectives).
• Color Terms: While the number and names of color terms can vary, all languages have
a way to distinguish between different colors. Some languages have more basic color
distinctions, and others may group shades differently (e.g., "blue" and "green" in some
languages may be one term).
• Pronouns: All languages have some form of pronouns that substitute for nouns. While
the specific forms of pronouns (I, you, he/she/it, etc.) differ, the function of pronouns is
universal.

4. Syntactic Universals
Syntax refers to sentence structure and how words are arranged to form grammatical
sentences:
• Hierarchy of Constituents: All languages follow hierarchical rules for sentence
structure, with words grouped into phrases and phrases grouped into larger structures
(such as clauses and sentences).
 • Subordination: Every language allows for the use of subordination, which involves
joining clauses of unequal status (e.g., main and subordinate clauses). This allows for
more complex sentences, such as "She went to the store because she needed milk."
• Questions and Negation: All languages have ways to form questions (e.g., through
word order, intonation, or auxiliary verbs) and negate statements.

5. Pragmatic Universals
Pragmatics involves the social use of language and how meaning is shaped by context:
• Speech Acts: Every language is used to perform speech acts such as requesting,
commanding, promising, and questioning. For example, when a speaker says "Could
you pass the salt?" the underlying intention is a request, even if the surface structure is
a question.
• Politeness and Social Rules: All languages have mechanisms for showing politeness,
deference, or respect based on social hierarchies, such as formal vs. informal speech,
or honorifics in languages like Japanese or Korean.

6. Cultural Universals in Language

While language is shaped by culture, many cultures around the world share similar methods of
communication, particularly in how relationships, authority, and community roles are
expressed in language.

Phonetics
Phonetics focuses on the physical aspects of speech sounds. It is divided into three branches:
• Articulatory Phonetics: How speech sounds are produced.
• Acoustic Phonetics: The physical properties of speech sounds.
• Auditory Phonetics: How speech sounds are perceived by the ear and brain.
Applications:
• Understanding accent and pronunciation in Business English.
• Improving clarity in professional communication.

Phonology
Phonology examines the abstract, cognitive aspects of sounds in language. It deals with:
• Phonemes: The contrastive sounds in a language.
• Minimal Pairs: Words that differ by only one phoneme (e.g., "bat" vs. "pat").
• Syllable Structure: The organization of sounds into units.
Applications:
• Identifying patterns in professional jargon.
• Addressing miscommunications caused by sound errors.

Classification of Sounds in English

• Consonants: Categorized by place of articulation (e.g., bilabial, dental), manner of
articulation (e.g., stop, fricative), and voicing (voiced vs. voiceless).
• Vowels: Classified by tongue position (e.g., high, mid, low), tongue advancement (e.g.,
front, central, back), and lip rounding.
Sound Categories
1. Consonants: Sounds produced with a significant obstruction of airflow.
2. Vowels: Sounds produced with a relatively open vocal tract.
3. Diphthongs: A combination of two vowel sounds within the same syllable.
4. Glides and Liquids: Semi-vowel and smooth sounds (e.g., /j/, /w/, /l/, /r/).

Categories of English Vowels (Tongue Height and Backness)

English vowels are categorized based on tongue height and backness. These features refer
to the vertical position of the tongue (height) and its horizontal position in the mouth
(backness) during vowel articulation.

1. Tongue Height
• High Vowels: The tongue is positioned high in the mouth.
o Examples:
▪ /i/ as in beat
▪ /ɪ/ as in bit
▪ /u/ as in goose
▪ /ʊ/ as in foot
• Mid Vowels: The tongue is in a mid position, neither high nor low.
o Examples:
▪ /e/ as in bed (mid-front)
▪ /ə/ as in sofa (schwa, mid-central)
▪ /ʌ/ as in strut (mid-back)
▪ /ɔ/ as in thought (mid-back)
• Low Vowels: The tongue is positioned low in the mouth.
o Examples:
 ▪ /æ/ as in cat
▪ /ɑ/ as in father
▪ /ɒ/ as in pot (in British English)
2. Tongue Backness
• Front Vowels: The tongue is positioned toward the front of the mouth.
o Examples:
▪ /i/ as in beat
▪ /ɪ/ as in bit
▪ /æ/ as in cat
▪ /e/ as in bed
• Central Vowels: The tongue is in a central position in the mouth.
o Examples:
▪ /ə/ as in sofa (schwa)
▪ /ʌ/ as in strut
▪ /ɜ/ as in bird (British English)
• Back Vowels: The tongue is positioned toward the back of the mouth.
o Examples:
▪ /u/ as in goose
▪ /ʊ/ as in foot
▪ /ou/ as in goat
▪ /ɑ:/ as in father
▪ /ɔ:/ as in thought (British English)
Summary of English Vowel Categories (examples)
Vowel Sound Example Word Tongue Height Tongue Backness
/i/ beat High Front
/ɪ/ bit High Front
/e/ bed Mid Front
/ə/ sofa Mid Central
/ɑ/ father Low Back
/u/ goose High Back
/ʊ/ foot High Back
/ɔ:/ thought Mid Back
/æ/ cat Low Front
/ʌ/ strut Mid Back

Categories of English Consonants (Place and Manner of Articulation)

Consonants are categorized by place of articulation (where in the vocal tract the sound is
produced) and manner of articulation (how the sound is produced).
1. Place of Articulation
• Bilabial: Both lips are used to produce the sound.
o Examples: /p/ as in pat, /b/ as in bat, /m/ as in mat
• Labiodental: The lower lip touches the upper teeth.
o Examples: /f/ as in fan, /v/ as in van
 • Inetrdental: The tongue touches the upper teeth.
o Examples: /θ/ as in think, /ð/ as in this
• Alveolar: The tongue touches the alveolar ridge (just behind the upper teeth).
o Examples: /t/ as in tap, /d/ as in dog, /n/ as in nap, /s/ as in see, /z/ as in zip, /l/
as in lip, /r/ as in red
• Postalveolar (Palatoalveolar): The tongue touches just behind the alveolar ridge.
o Examples: /ʃ/ as in ship, /ʒ/ as in measure, /tʃ/ as in chop, /dʒ/ as in job
• Palatal: The tongue is raised toward the hard palate.
o Examples: /j/ as in yes
• Velar: The back of the tongue touches the velum (soft part of the roof of the mouth).
o Examples: /k/ as in cat, /g/ as in go, /ŋ/ as in sing
• Glottal: The sound is produced in the glottis (the space between the vocal cords).
o Examples: /h/ as in hat, glottal stop [ʔ] in some dialects of English (e.g., in uh-oh
or bottle in certain accents).
2. Manner of Articulation
• Plosives (Stops): The airflow is completely blocked and then released suddenly.
o Examples: /p/ as in pat, /b/ as in bat, /t/ as in top, /d/ as in dog, /k/ as in cat, /g/
as in go
• Fricatives: Air flows through a narrow constriction, creating friction.
o Examples: /f/ as in fan, /v/ as in van, /θ/ as in think, /ð/ as in this, /s/ as in see, /z/
as in zip, /ʃ/ as in ship, /ʒ/ as in measure
• Affricates: A combination of a plosive and a fricative (a stop followed by a fricative).
o Examples: /tʃ/ as in chop, /dʒ/ as in job
• Nasals: Air flows through the nose due to the closure of the oral cavity.
o Examples: /m/ as in mat, /n/ as in nap, /ŋ/ as in sing
• Liquids: These sounds are produced by allowing the air to flow around the sides of the
tongue.
o Examples: /l/ as in lip, /r/ as in red
• Glides (Semivowels): The tongue moves quickly from one position to another, with a
relatively open vocal tract.
o Examples: /j/ as in yes, /w/ as in we

The syllable structure in English refers to the way syllables are constructed, including the
arrangement of sounds within each syllable. English syllables can be broken down into
components, each of which can contain consonants and vowels. Understanding syllable
structure is essential for analyzing how words are formed and pronounced.

Components of a Syllable:
A syllable typically consists of three main components:
1. Onset: The initial consonant or consonant cluster (if any).
2. Nucleus: The vowel or vowel-like sound at the core of the syllable. It is always
present.
3. Coda: The consonant or consonant cluster that follows the nucleus (if any).
In some cases, a syllable might only consist of the nucleus, with no onset or coda. This
happens especially with single vowels or syllables in unstressed positions.
1. Onset (optional):
• The onset is composed of one or more consonants that appear at the beginning of the
syllable. Not all syllables have an onset.
o Examples: cat [kæt] (onset = /k/), stop [stɒp] (onset = /st/)
Onset structures can include:
o A single consonant: dog [dɒɡ] (onset = /d/)
o A consonant cluster: plan [plæn] (onset = /pl/)
2. Nucleus (mandatory):
• The nucleus is the core of the syllable and typically consists of a vowel or a vowel-like
sound (e.g., /ə/, /ɪ/, /æ/).
o Examples: cat [kæt] (nucleus = /æ/), tree [triː] (nucleus = /iː/)
o In some cases, the nucleus can be a syllabic consonant, particularly in
unstressed syllables, like in bottle [ˈbɒtl̩] (where the /l/ is syllabic).
3. Coda (optional):
• The coda is the consonant or consonant cluster that appears at the end of the
syllable. Not all syllables have a coda.
o Examples: cat [kæt] (coda = /t/), lamp [læmp] (coda = /mp/)
Coda structures can include:
o A single consonant: dog [dɒɡ] (coda = /ɡ/)
o A consonant cluster: hand [hænd] (coda = /nd/)

Syllable Patterns in English

English syllables vary in their complexity, with simple syllables containing only a nucleus, and
more complex syllables involving onsets and codas.
1. Open Syllables
• A syllable that ends in a vowel and has no coda is called an open syllable. The vowel
in an open syllable is usually long (i.e., pronounced the same as the letter name).
o Examples: me [miː], no [nəʊ], he [hiː]
o Structure: (Onset) + Vowel (Nucleus) → CV (without the Coda)
2. Closed Syllables
• A syllable that ends in a consonant (or consonant cluster) is called a closed syllable.
The vowel in a closed syllable is often short.
o Examples: cat [kæt], dog [dɒɡ], sit [sɪt]
o Structure: (Onset) + Vowel (Nucleus) + Consonant (Coda) → CVC
3. Complex Syllables
• Some syllables contain both an onset and a coda with one or more consonants.
o Examples: plant [plænt] (onset = /pl/, coda = /nt/), struck [strʌk] (onset = /str/,
coda = /k/)
o Structure: (Onset) + Vowel (Nucleus) + (Coda) → CCVCC, CCCVCC, etc.
Possible Syllable Structures in English
1. Onset Patterns:
• No onset (syllable starts with a vowel): apple [ˈæpl] (no onset)
• Single consonant onset: cat [kæt], dog [dɒɡ]
• Consonant cluster onset (two or more consonants): stop [stɒp], tree [triː]
2. Nucleus Patterns:
 • Single vowel nucleus: cat [kæt], beat [biːt]
• Syllabic consonant nucleus: bottle [ˈbɒtl̩], button [ˈbʌtn̩]
3. Coda Patterns:
• No coda (open syllable): no [nəʊ], go [ɡəʊ]
• Single consonant coda: cat [kæt] (coda = /t/), dog [dɒɡ] (coda = /ɡ/)
• Consonant cluster coda: hand [hænd] (coda = /nd/), past [pɑːst] (coda = /st/)
4. Syllable Complexity
• Simple syllable: cat [kæt] (CVC)
• Complex syllable: strength [strɛŋkθ] (CCVCCC)
• Multiple syllables: celebrate [ˈsɛlɪˌbreɪt] (CVC + CV + CVC)

Syllabification in English
Syllabification refers to how words are divided into syllables. English has certain rules and
tendencies for syllable division:
• Consonant Clusters: English allows consonant clusters in the onset and coda
positions. When a word has a cluster at the beginning or end, the syllable is typically
split at a logical point, often following the rules of stress and phonological constraints.
o Example: splendid → [splɛn.dɪd] (splen-did)
• Vowel Separation: Vowels in diphthongs or between consonants typically stay
together within the same syllable.
o Example: science → [ˈsaɪ.əns] (sci-ence)

Major Difficulties in English Pronunciation for Poles

1. Th Sounds think/that: These sounds do not exist in Polish, leading to substitutions like
/t/ or /d/.
2. Vowel Length: Poles often struggle with distinguishing long and short vowels (e.g.,
"ship" vs. "sheep").
3. Final Consonants: Voicing of final consonants may not align with English norms (e.g.,
"dog" pronounced as "dok").
Phonological processes in English
Phonological processes are systematic changes that occur in the sounds of words or syllables
in speech, often due to the influence of neighboring sounds or certain phonetic environments.
These processes help explain why pronunciation can vary between words or in different
contexts, even though the spelling remains the same. In English, several common phonological
processes influence how words are spoken in different contexts. Here’s an overview of the
main types of phonological processes in English:

1. Assimilation
Assimilation refers to the process where one sound changes to become more like a
neighboring sound, often in terms of features such as voicing, place of articulation, or manner
of articulation. Assimilation is common in rapid or casual speech.
• Progressive Assimilation: The sound that comes earlier in a word influences the one
that comes later.
o Example: In the word dogs, the /s/ at the end is pronounced /z/ (voiced) because
it follows the voiced /g/.
 • Regressive Assimilation: The sound that comes later influences the one that comes
earlier.
o Example: In the word input, the /n/ may become a bilabial [m] in rapid speech
because of the influence of the following /p/: [ˈɪmpʊt].
• Coalescent Assimilation: This involves a combination of features from neighboring
sounds.
o Example: In rapid speech, don’t you can become [dəntʃu] (where the /t/ and /j/
sounds combine into the affricate /ʧ/).
2. Elision
Elision is the omission or deletion of a sound, especially in unstressed syllables, to make
pronunciation easier or faster. Elision occurs frequently in English, especially in casual speech.
• Vowel Elision: A vowel is often dropped when it appears in an unstressed syllable.
o Example: In the word camera, the middle vowel is often omitted in casual
speech, pronounced as [ˈkæmərə] → [ˈkæmrə].
o Example: family → [ˈfæmli] (the /ə/ is omitted).
o Example: chocolate → [ˈʧɒklət] (the second /o/ is omitted).
• Consonant Elision: Certain consonants, especially in clusters, are omitted in informal
speech.
o Example: In the phrase next day, the /t/ sound is often omitted, resulting in [nɛks
deɪ].
o Example: next week → [nɛks wiːk] (the /t/ is omitted).
3. Insertion (Epenthesis)
Insertion is the addition of a sound, often a vowel, between other sounds in a word. This can
happen to make a word easier to pronounce or as a result of phonetic context.
• Vowel Insertion: A vowel may be inserted between two consonants to make the word
more pronounceable.
o Example: The word athlete is often pronounced as [ˈæθəliːt] with an inserted
vowel sound between the /θ/ and /l/.
4. Metathesis
Metathesis is the process of rearranging sounds within a word. This can sometimes happen
due to ease of articulation or as part of historical language change.
• Example: In Old English, the word bridd (meaning bird) underwent metathesis to
become the modern bird. In casual speech, some English speakers say "aks" instead
of "ask."
5. Flapping
Flapping is a common process in American English in which a /t/ or /d/ sound becomes a quick,
tap-like sound (represented by the symbol [ɾ]) when it occurs between two vowels, with the
second vowel being unstressed.
• Example: In the word butter, the /t/ is pronounced as [ɾ], so it sounds like [ˈbʌɾər].
6. Reduction
Reduction is a process in which sounds, usually vowels, are weakened or shortened, especially
in unstressed syllables, making speech more efficient.
• Vowel Reduction: Unstressed vowels are often pronounced as the schwa sound [ə],
the most neutral vowel sound in English.
 o Example: The word banana is often reduced to [bəˈnænə] in casual speech, with
the first and third vowels pronounced as schwa.
• Consonant Reduction: In rapid speech, consonants can be less pronounced or
omitted entirely.
o Example: In the phrase wanna go ([wənə goʊ]), the /t/ sound in want is often
dropped.
7. Linking and Intrusive /r/
In non-rhotic accents of English (such as British English), an intrusive /r/ can appear in certain
contexts, even when it isn’t spelled in the word. This occurs between words where the first
ends with a vowel sound, and the second begins with a vowel sound.
• Example: Law and order may be pronounced [lɔːr ənd ɔːdə], inserting an /r/ sound to
create a smoother transition between words.

Morphology
Morphology studies the internal structure of words and how they are formed. Key concepts
include:
• Free Morphemes: Words that can stand alone (e.g., "book").
• Bound Morphemes: Elements that must attach to other morphemes (e.g., prefixes like
"un-" or suffixes like "-ly").
• Inflectional Morphology: Changes for grammatical purposes (e.g., "walk" vs.
"walked").
• Derivational Morphology: Creating new words (e.g., "happy" to "happiness").
Applications:
• Expanding vocabulary relevant to business contexts.
• Understanding word formation for clear communication.

Word Formation
Word formation processes are fundamental to the dynamism of language, enabling speakers
to innovate, adapt, and reflect new concepts and social changes. Whether through
compounding, blending, borrowing, or other processes, language continues to evolve as
new words are created and incorporated into everyday use. These processes also reflect the
creativity and flexibility of human communication.

1. Compounding
Compounding involves combining two or more words to form a new one. The components
retain their individual meanings but merge to express a new concept. This process is one of
the most common ways of forming new words in English.
• Examples:
o Notebook (from note + book)
o Sunflower (from sun + flower)
o Toothbrush (from tooth + brush)
o Mailbox (from mail + box)
o Firefighter (from fire + fighter)
2. Blending
Blending is a process where parts of two or more words are merged together to form a new
word. This often involves taking the beginning of one word and combining it with the end of
another.
• Examples:
o Brunch (from breakfast + lunch)
o Motel (from motor + hotel)
o Smog (from smoke + fog)
o Spork (from spoon + fork)
o Blog (from web + log)
3. Borrowing
Borrowing occurs when a language adopts words from other languages. This process has been
crucial in English, as the language has borrowed extensively from Latin, French, Germanic
languages, and more.
• Examples:
o Cliché (from French)
o Kindergarten (from German)
o Taco (from Spanish)
o Café (from French)
o Déjà vu (from French)
o Sushi (from Japanese)
In some cases, the borrowed word may undergo a change in spelling or pronunciation to fit
into the phonological system of the borrowing language.
4. Acronyms
An acronym is a word formed by taking the initial letters of a series of words, usually to make
it easier to refer to something. Acronyms can be pronounced as words or as individual letters.
• Examples:
o CEO (Chief Executive Officer)
o NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
o RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging)
o Laser (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
o FOMO (Fear Of Missing Out)
o UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization)
5. Affixation
Affixation involves adding prefixes (before the root) or suffixes (after the root) to form new
words. This is one of the most productive ways of word formation in English and can create
derivatives that modify the meaning or function of a root word.
• Prefix Examples:
o Reorganize (from re- meaning "again" + organize)
o Unhappy (from un- meaning "not" + happy)
o Preview (from pre- meaning "before" + view)
o Disagree (from dis- meaning "not" + agree)
• Suffix Examples:
o Happiness (from happy + -ness)
o Loveliness (from lovely + -ness)
o Careful (from care + -ful)
 o Teacher (from teach + -er)
o Movement (from move + -ment)
6. Conversion (Zero Derivation)
Conversion occurs when a word changes its grammatical category without any change in form.
For example, a noun can be converted into a verb, or an adjective into a noun.
• Examples:
o Noun to Verb: email → to email
o Adjective to Noun: fast → fast (as in "a fast")
o Verb to Noun: to run → a run
7. Backformation
Backformation is a process where a new word is created by removing an affix (a prefix or suffix)
from an existing word, often resulting in a word that seems to be the opposite or a more basic
form.
• Examples:
o Edit (from editor)
o Baker (from baking)
o Televise (from television)
8. Clipping
Clipping involves shortening a longer word, often removing syllables, while retaining the
original meaning. This is common in informal speech.
• Examples:
o Taxi (from taxicab)
o Flu (from influenza)
o Fridge (from refrigerator)
o Gym (from gymnasium)
o Ad (from advertisement)
9. Coinage (Neologism)
Coinage refers to the creation of entirely new words that were not previously part of the
language. Often, these are brand names, slang, or technical terms that become widely
accepted.
• Examples:
o Google (originally a company name, now used as a verb meaning "to search on
the internet")
o Kleenex (a brand name that became synonymous with tissues)
o Xerox (another brand name used as a verb for photocopying)
o Spam (originally a brand name, now used for unsolicited email)
10. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia involves creating words that imitate the sounds associated with the objects or
actions they refer to. These words often have a direct relationship with the sound they
represent.
• Examples:
o Buzz (the sound of a bee)
o Moo (the sound a cow makes)
o Splash (the sound of something hitting water)
o Click (the sound of a button being pressed)
 o Boom (the sound of an explosion)

Applications:
• Creating brand names and slogans.
• Understanding terminologies in global business.

Linking Linguistics to Business English

1. Clear Communication: Understanding pronunciation, word formation, and sentence
structure minimizes ambiguity.
2. Cultural Awareness: Sociolinguistics helps navigate cross-cultural communication.
3. Precision: Morphological knowledge aids in using precise vocabulary for professional
contexts.
4. Adaptability: Phonetic and phonological awareness supports adapting to diverse
accents and dialects.