DELTA CENTRAL COLLEGE OF MANAGEMENT AND

SCIENCE (DECCOMS)
UGHELLI, DELTA STATE.
in affiliation with,
TEMPLE GATE POLYTECHNIC
ABA, ABIA STATE.

LECTURE NOTES

ON

INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET
(COM 122)

BY

MR. PAUL APELEOKHA

COM 122 Page 1

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -2-5

THE CONCEPT OF THE INTERNET

CHAPTER TWO - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- 6 - 16

NETWORK CLASSIFICATION

CHAPTER THREE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 17 - 19

DIGITAL LIBRARY

CHAPTER FOUR - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -20 - 39

THE CONCEPT OF CYBER-CAFÉ

CHAPTER FIVE - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40- 49

TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE IN NIGERIA

REFERENCE

COM 122 Page 2

 CHAPTER ONE
THE CONCEPT OF THE INTERNET
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks
that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP).It is a "network
of networks" that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government
networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online
chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other resources of the World Wide Web
(WWW).
It is a global network connecting millions of computers. More than 1000 countries are linked into
exchanges of data, news and opinions. Unlike online services, which are centrally controlled, the
Internet is decentralized by design. Each Internet computer, called a host, is independent. Its
operators can choose which Internet services to use and local services to make available to the
global Internet community.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE INTERNET
The USSR's launch of Sputnik spurred the United States to create the Advanced Research Projects
Agency, known as ARPA, in February 1958 to regain a technological lead.The sputnik was a
series of robotic spacecraft missions launched by the Soviet Union.The first of these, Sputnik 1,
launched the first man-made object to orbit the Earth. That launch took place on October 4, 1957
as part of the International Geophysical Year and demonstrated the viability of using artificial
satellites to explore the upper atmosphere.The surprise launch of Sputnik 1, coupled with the
spectacular failure of the United States' first two Project Vanguard launch attempts, shocked the
United States, which responded with a number of early satellite launches, including Explorer 1,
Project SCORE, and Courier 1B. The Sputnik crisis also led to the creation of the Advanced
Research Projects Agency (renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972):
DARPA, and NASA, and an increase in U.S. government spending on scientific research and
education.
In 1969, ARPA, a part of the Department of Defense (DOD), awarded a contract to the firm of
Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN) to construct a computer network. The network was used to
link researchers at universities with defense contractors, researchers, scientists and military
contractors so that they can share information and resources. This network was called the
APRANET.
Between 1969 and 1983, minicomputers, mainframes and super computers made up the
networks. This network had file transfer capabilities, electronic mail and mailing list services.In
1973, Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) was changed to the Defense Advanced
Research Project Agency (DARPA) and the resulting network to DARPANET.
An important task for this newly named agency was to begin a project called “the interneting
project”, which would start the process of linking different networks together.
INTRANET AND EXTRANET

INTRANET
An Intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise.
It is a private computer network that uses Internet protocols and network connectivity to
securely share part of an organization's information or operations with its employees. Sometimes
the term refers only to the most visible service, the internal website. The same concepts and
technologies of the Internet such as clients and servers running on the Internet protocol suite are
used to build an intranet. HTTP and other Internet protocols are commonly used as well, such as
FTP.
Briefly, an intranet can be understood as "a private version of the Internet," or as a version of the
Internet confined to an organization. An intranet can also be used to facilitate working in groups
and for teleconferences.
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An intranet uses TCP/IP, HTTP, and other Internet protocols and in general looks like a private
version of the Internet. With tunneling, companies can send private messages through the public
network, using the public network with special encryption/decryption and other security
safeguards to connect one part of their intranet to another.
Typically, larger enterprises allow users within their intranet to access the public Internet through
firewall servers that have the ability to screen messages in both directions so that company
security is maintained.When part of an intranet is made accessible to customers, partners,
suppliers, or others outside the company, that part becomes part of an extranet.
ADVANTAGES OF INTRANETS
· Workforce productivity: Intranets can help users to locate and view information faster and
use applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities. With the help of a web browser
interface, users can access data held in any database the organization wants to make available,
anytime and - subject to security provisions - from anywhere within the company workstations,
increasing employees' ability to perform their jobs faster, more accurately, and with confidence
that they have the right information. It also helps to improve the services provided to the users.
· Time: With intranets, organizations can make more information available to employees on a
"pull" basis (i.e. employees can link to relevant information at a time which suits them) rather
than being deluged indiscriminately by emails.
· Communication: Intranets can serve as powerful tools for communication within an
organization, vertically and horizontally. From a communications standpoint, intranets are useful
to communicate strategic initiatives that have a global reach throughout the organization. The
type of information that can easily be conveyed is the purpose of the initiative and what the
initiative is aiming to achieve, who is driving the initiative, results achieved to date, and who to
speak to for more information. By providing this information Business operations and
management: on the intranet, staffs have the opportunity to keep up-to-date with the strategic
focus of the organization.

· Web publishing allows 'cumbersome' corporate knowledge to be maintained and easily

accessed throughout the company using hypermedia and Web technologies. Examples include:
employee manuals, benefits documents, company policies, business standards, news feeds, and
even training, can be accessed using common Internet standards (Acrobat files, Flash files, CGI
applications). Because each business unit can update the online copy of a document, the most
recent version is always available to employees using the intranet.
Intranets are also being used as a platform for developing and deploying applications to support
business operations and decisions across the inter-networked enterprise.
· Cost-effective: Users can view information and data via web-browser rather than maintaining
physical documents such as procedure manuals, internal phone list and requisition forms.
· Promote common corporate culture: Every user is viewing the same information within the
Intranet.
· Enhance Collaboration: With information easily accessible by all authorized users, teamwork
is enabled.
· Cross-platform Capability: Standards-compliant web browsers are available for Windows,
Mac, and UNIX.
EXTRANET
Intranets differ from "Extranets" in that the former are generally restricted to employees of the
organization while extranets can generally be accessed by customers, suppliers, or other
approved parties.

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An extranet is a private network that uses Internet protocols, network connectivity, and possibly
the public telecommunication system to securely share part of an organization's information or
operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers or other businesses.
An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's Intranet that is extended to users outside the
company (e.g.: normally over the Internet).
It has also been described as a "state of mind" in which the Internet is perceived as a way to do
business with a pre-approved set of other companies business-to-business (B2B), in isolation
from all other Internet users. In contrast, business-to-consumer (B2C) involves known server(s) of
one or more companies, communicating with previously unknown consumer users.
An extranet requires security and privacy. These can include firewalls, server management, the
issuance and use of digital certificates or similar means of user authentication, encryption of
messages, and the use of virtual private networks (VPNs) that tunnel through the public network.
ADVANTAGES OF EXTRANET
· Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)
· Share product catalogs exclusively with wholesalers or those "in the trade"
· Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts
· Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies
· Provide or access services provided by one company to a group of other companies, such as
an online banking application managed by one company on behalf of affiliated banks
Share news of common interest exclusively DISADVANTAGES OF EXTRANET
 Extranets can be expensive to implement and maintain within an organization (e.g.:
hardware, software, employee training costs) — if hosted internally instead of via an ASP
 Security of extranets can be a big concern when dealing with valuable information.
System access needs to be carefully controlled to avoid sensitive information falling into the
wrong hands.
 Extranets can reduce personal contact (face-to-face meetings) with customers and
business partners. This could cause a lack of connections made between people and a company,
which hurts the business when it comes to loyalty of its business partners and customers.

Differences between Internet, Intranet and Extranet

Criteria Internet Intranet Extranet

Accessibility Publicly A private network that is A private network That
Accessible Contained within an shares part of An
World-Wide enterprise. organization's Information
or operations With
suppliers, vendors,
partners, customers or other
businesses.

Privacy Limited Privacy No privacy Provides privacy.

Requires only a network
Simplicity Very Complex cable Complex requiring
Ease of Set-up Not Applicable Very easy to setup Difficult to set up
Cost Not Applicable Inexpensive-Cheap Expensive
Security Limited Minimal security Security maintained
Maintenance Not Applicable Easy to Maintain Require a staff to ensure
efficient operation.
Size Global Small in scope Larger in scope

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 CHAPTER TWO
NETWORK CLASSIFICATION
The major categories used for classifying networks are geographical coverage, internetwork
connection method and functional relationship (network architectures)

Classification of Networks by Internetwork

· When two or more networks or network segments connected using devices that operate at
layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a router.
· Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or
governmental networks may also be defined as an internetwork.
· In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol.
· There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who
participates in them:
Intranet Extranet
Internet
Classification of networks by Connection method
· Computer networks can also be classified according to the hardware technology that is used
to connect the individual devices in the network such as Optical fibre, Ethernet, Wireless LAN,
Home PNA, or Power line communication.
· Ethernet uses physical wiring to connect devices. Often deployed devices are hubs, switches,
bridges, and/or routers.
· Wireless LAN technology is designed to connect devices without wiring. These devices use
radio waves as transmission medium.
Classification of Networks by Functional relationship (network architectures)
· Computer networks may be classified according to the functional relationships which exist
between the elements of the network, e.g., Active Networking, Client-server and Peer-to-peer
(workgroup) architecture.
Peer-to-Peer
· Peer-to-Peer networks (P2P) are the simplest of all LAN set-ups.
· Not only are they easy to configure and require few resources, they are also inexpensive to
implement.
· Peer-to-Peer, also called P2P networks, are the most direct method of connecting computers,
requiring only a network cable for the simplest of networks
· A simple Peer-to-Peer network can be a simple collection of two computers and a printer.
Computer 1 will be able to print on the printer connected to Computer 2, if Computer 2 sets up
the sharing permissions for the printer.
· Already we can see the advantages of building a small LAN: Files can be shared between the
two computers and there is only one printer that must be purchased and maintained. A LAN like
this is very simple to set up. In fact, many households may have LANs just like this.

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Diagram 1: Peer-to-Peer Network

· When a LAN needs to include a larger number of computers, a hub may be used.
· This hub will enable all the computers connected to the network to communicate with each
other without having to connect each individual computer to each and every other computer on
the network. This saves space and considerable set-up time and expense.
· Again, this P2P network is fairly simple to setup and allows all the computers to communicate
with each other and to print using one or two printers.
· One note of caution - Printer 1 and Printer 2 in this diagram must be network enabled. If they
are not, one could simply connect Printer 1 to Computer 4 and connect Printer 2 to Computer 3
and the printers could be shared as in Diagram 1.

Peer-to-Peer Network

Advantages of a peer-to-peer Network

· Less initial expense - No need for a dedicated server.

Client/Server Network
ADVANTAGES OF A CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK
· Centralized - Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
· Scalability - Any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.
· Flexibility - New technology can be easily integrated into system.
· Interoperability - All components (client/network/server) work together.
· Accessibility - Server can be accessed remotely and across multiple platforms.

DISADVANTAGES OF A CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK

· Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.
· Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.
· Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network

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Classification of Networks by Geographical Coverage or scale
Computer networks may be classified according to scale as follows:
Personal Area Network (PAN)
· A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among
computer devices close to one person.
· Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are printers, fax machines, telephones,
PDAs or scanners.
· The reach of a PAN is typically within about 20-30 feet (approximately 6-9 metres).
· Personal area networks may be wired with computer buses such as USB and FireWire.
· A Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) can also be made possible with network
technologies such as IrDA and Bluetooth.
Local Area Network (LAN)
· A network covering a small geographical area, like a home, office, or building is a LAN.
· Current LANs are most likely to be based on Ethernet technology. For example, a library may
have a wired or wireless LAN for users to interconnect local devices (e.g., printers and servers)
and to connect to the internet.
Campus Area Network (CAN)
· A network that connects two or more LANs but that is limited to a specific and contiguous
geographical area such as a college campus, industrial complex, or a military base.
· A CAN may be considered a type of MAN (metropolitan area network), but is generally limited
to an area that is smaller than a typical MAN.
· This term is most often used to discuss the implementation of networks for a contiguous area.
This should not be confused with a Controller Area Network.
· A LAN connects network devices over a relatively short distance.
· A networked office building, school, or home usually contains a single LAN, though sometimes
one building will contain a few small LANs (perhaps one per room), and occasionally a LAN will
span a group of nearby buildings. In TCP/IP networking, a LAN is often but not always
implemented as a single IP subnet.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

· A Metropolitan Area Network is a network that connects two or more Local Area Networks or
Campus Area Networks together but does not extend beyond the boundaries of the immediate
town/city. Routers, switches and hubs are connected to create a Metropolitan Area Network.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
· A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area (i.e.
one city to another and one country to another country) and that often uses transmission
facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies.
· WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model:
the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.

Global Area Network (GAN)

· Global Area Networks (GAN) specifications are in development by several groups, and there is
no common definition.
· In general, however, a GAN is a model for supporting mobile communications across an
arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc.
· The key challenge in mobile communications is "handing off" the user communications from
one local coverage area to the next.

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The economic benefits of the Internet
· The economies of the world are increasingly powered by the creation, use and transmission
of information and entertainment content in digital format.
· The deployment of Internet infrastructure impacts the economy both directly and indirectly.
· The effects of broadband technology on the economy are much more far-reaching than
the direct benefit created by capital investment in deployment and the manufacturing of the
components such a network requires.
· The most significant economic benefits do not come from the deployment of the technology,
but in its use.
· As Internet penetration increases, there will be resulting demand for computer and
home network equipment, software applications, wireless devices and other equipment.

· Like all infrastructure investment, the economic impacts of Internet will also include the
increased productivity and innovation that it fosters.
· The full economic impact of widespread Internet deployment and adoption cannot
be captured in even the most sophisticated econometric modelling.
· The Internet provides increases in employment and economic activity
· A study sponsored by Cisco Systems found that full implementation of currently underway or
planned Internet business solutions could result in over $528 billion in cost savings to U.S.
businesses though 2010. Additionally, this study finds that these solutions could result in a
cumulative increase of over $1.5 trillion in revenue to businesses resulting from implementation
of Internet business solutions.
· The wide-ranging deployment of Internet infrastructure will have the direct effect of
employing thousands of people: to manufacture, sell, purchase, install, manage, and maintain the
equipment and facilities, as well as the resulting services.
The social benefits of the Internet
· The Internet brings people closer together. Before the Internet, it was possible to keep in
touch with relatives and friends across the country or around the world--but it was also
expensive.
· Today, communicating with a friend in Japan is as easy and cheap as communicating with a
friend across town, and families regularly use the Internet to keep in touch with far-flung
relatives.
· Millions of people with shared interests--no matter how obscure--exchange information and
build communities through Web sites, email and instant-messaging software.
· Using innovative accessibility aids, people with disabilities can use the Internet to help
overcome barriers that prevent them from leading more productive and fulfilling lives.
· Telemedicine and e-Health are broadly defined as the application of electronic
communication technologies to the provision of healthcare, health education and health services.
The political benefits of the Internet
· Many political organizations and individuals have established Web pages.
· At their simplest, Web pages provide information about the group or individual's policies,
contact details and some brief biographical information, and perhaps link to related pages.
· More sophisticated Web pages provide interactive facilities so that the user of the page can
provide feedback about the content of the page, express opinions about the policies or issues,
offer assistance through donations or volunteering, download software, and use specifically
designed programs to find detailed information.
· Internet voting is a type of voting, embracing electronic means of casting a vote. It can also
involve transmission of ballots and votes via the Internet.

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· Internet voting technology can provide improved accessibility for disabled voters. However,
there has been contention, especially in the United States, that Internet voting especially could
facilitate electoral fraud.
· Internet voting systems have gained popularity and have been used for government elections
and referendums in the United Kingdom, Estonia and Switzerland as well as municipal elections in
Canada and party primary elections in the United States and France.

The educational benefits of the Internet

· The internet provides a powerful resource for learning, as well as an efficient means of
communication. Its use in education can provide a number of specific learning benefits, including
the development of:
- independent learning and research skills, such as improved access to subject learning
across a wide range of learning areas, as well as in integrated or cross-curricular studies; and
- Communication and collaboration, such as the ability to use learning technologies to
access resources, create resources and communicate with others.
· Access to resources: The internet is a huge repository of learning material. As a result, it
significantly expands the resources available to students beyond the standard print materials
found in school libraries. It gives students access to the latest reports on government and non-
government websites, including research results, scientific and artistic resources in museums and
art galleries, and other organizations with information applicable to student learning. The
internet can be used for undertaking reasonably sophisticated research projects.
· The internet is also a time-efficient tool for teachers that expands the possibilities for
curriculum development.
· Communication and collaboration: The internet is a powerful tool for developing students’
communication and collaboration skills.
· Above all, the internet is an effective means of building language skills. Through email, chat
rooms and discussion groups, students learn the basic principles of communication in the written
form. This gives teachers the opportunity to incorporate internet-based activities into
mainstream literacy programs and bring diversity to their repertoires of teaching strategies. For
example, website publishing can be a powerful means of generating enthusiasm for literacy units,
since most students are motivated by the prospect of having their work posted on a website for
public access.

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The cultural benefits of the Internet
Culture is defined as shared behaviors, ideas, and artifacts that create a way of life passed from
one generation to another. Every one grows up in at least one culture and their lives are
influenced everyday by being surrounded in that culture. Cultural differences occur because
every culture fulfills its needs in different ways and those ways are passed on from generation to
generation. There are millions of different cultures throughout the world and each one has its
own unique identity and way of life. Culture has greatly benefitted from the invention and use of
the internet. It has advanced in education, marketing, communication and cultural practices.

The cultural benefits of the Internet are as stated below:

· Cultural Advancement: With the easy accessibility of information, cultures have been able to
advance in many ways. Education is a way in which advancement of cultures has occurred.
People can now learn about anything using the internet as a means of information.
· Cultures have also advanced economically because the internet allows for marketing and
sales transactions. Marketers now have a whole new way of advertising and selling products or
services. They can now post something on the internet and anyone, anywhere at any point in
time can see that add. This leads to an increase in business. Businesses are also growing because
the internet allows for businesses to be internet based. They can solely run on the internet
(facebook) or they can have a land business and increase exposure with a website and/or internet
business as well. Worldwide organizations are now able to exist and run with ease because of the
advancement of communication by the internet.
· Exploration of Cultures: Cultures can more easily explore other cultures now that the internet
is available. To learn about a culture one can just use a search engine and quickly access
information about the desired culture. Prior to the internet, a person would have had to either
travel to where the culture was at or find a book which entailed information about that culture.
Both of these ways are time consuming and have the potential to be very expensive.
· Another benefit to using the internet for cultural information is that one can learn about the
beliefs of that culture before experiencing it if he/she is interested in going there. An example is
learning what that culture finds offensive so that he/she does not make the mistake of acting or
speaking in a way that offends the people of that culture. This helps with business transactions
and any kind of intercultural travel.

The cultural benefits of the Internet are as stated below:

· Cultural Advancement: With the easy accessibility of information, cultures have been able to
advance in many ways. Education is a way in which advancement of cultures has occurred.
People can now learn about anything using the internet as a means of information.
· Cultures have also advanced economically because the internet allows for marketing and
sales transactions. Marketers now have a whole new way of advertising and selling products or
services. They can now post something on the internet and anyone, anywhere at any point in
time can see that add. This leads to an increase in business. Businesses are also growing because
the internet allows for businesses to be internet based. They can solely run on the internet
(facebook) or they can have a land business and increase exposure with a website and/or internet
business as well. Worldwide organizations are now able to exist and run with ease because of the
advancement of communication by the internet.
· Exploration of Cultures: Cultures can more easily explore other cultures now that the internet
is available. To learn about a culture one can just use a search engine and quickly access
information about the desired culture. Prior to the internet, a person would have had to either
travel to where the culture was at or find a book which entailed information about that culture.
Both of these ways are time consuming and have the potential to be very expensive.
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Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce or e-Commerce, consists of the buying
and selling of products or services over electronic systems such as the Internet and other
computer networks. The amount of trade conducted electronically has grown extraordinarily
since the spread of the Internet. A wide variety of commerce is conducted in this way, spurring
and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer, supply chain management, Internet
marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory
management systems, and automated data collection systems.
· Electronic funds transfer or EFT refers to the computer-based systems used to perform financial
transactions electronically.
The term is used for a number of different concepts:
- Cardholder-initiated transactions, where a cardholder makes use of a payment card
- Direct deposit payroll payments for a business to its employees, possibly via a payroll
Services Company
- Direct debit payments from customer to business, where the transaction is initiated by the
business with customer permission
- Electronic bill payment in online banking, which may be delivered by EFT or paper check
- Transactions involving stored value of electronic money, possibly in a private currency
- Wire transfer via an international banking network (generally carries a higher fee)
· - Electronic Benefit Transfer
· Supply Chain Management (SCM) is the management of a network of interconnected
businesses involved in the ultimate provision of product and service packages required by end
customers (Harland, 1996). Supply Chain Management spans all movement and storage of raw
materials, work-in-process inventory, and finished goods from point-of-origin to point-of-
consumption (supply chain)

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

· FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is simply a way of transferring files to and from the Internet. Often
this is done using your browser, or you may obtain specialist FTP software programs.
· FTP sites are typically used for uploading and downloading files to a central server computer,
for the sake of file distribution.
· In order to download and upload files to an FTP site, you need to connect using special FTP
software. There are both commercial and free FTP software programs, and some browser-based
free FTP programs as well.
· The typical information needed to connect to an FTP site is:
- The "server address" or "hostname". This is the network address of the computer you
wish to connect to, such as ftp.microsoft.com.
- The username and password. These are the credentials you use to access the specific files
on the computer you wish to connect to.

· The objectives of FTP are:

- To promote sharing of files (computer programs and/or data).
- To encourage indirect or implicit use of remote computers.
- To shield a user from variations in file storage systems among different hosts.
- To transfer data reliably, and efficiently.

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· Most recent web browsers and file managers can connect to FTP servers, although they may
lack the support for protocol extensions such as FTPS. This allows manipulation of remote files
over FTP through an interface similar to that used for local files. This is done via an FTP URL, which
takes the form ftp(s)://<ftpserveraddress> (e.g., ftp://ftp.gimp.org/). A
password can optionally be given in the URL, e.g.
ftp(s)://<login>:<password>@<ftpserveraddress>:<port>. Most web-browsers require the use of
passive mode FTP, which not all FTP servers are capable of handling. Some browsers allow only
the downloading of files, but offer no way to upload files to the server.
TELNET
· Telnet (Telecommunication network) is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area
network (LAN) connections.
· It was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15 and standardized as IETF STD 8, one of the
first Internet standards. Typically, telnet provides access to a command-line interface on a remote
machine.
· The term telnet also refers to software which implements the client part of the protocol.
Telnet clients are available for virtually all platforms. Most network equipment and operating
systems with a TCP/IP stack support some kind of Telnet service server for their remote
configuration (including ones based on Windows NT).
· "To telnet" is also used as a verb meaning to establish or use a Telnet or other interactive TCP
connection, as in, "To change your password, telnet to the server and run the password
command"

· Most often, a user will be telnetting to a Unix-like server system or a simple network device
such as a router. For example, a user might "telnet in from home to check his mail at school". In
doing so, he would be using a telnet client to connect from his computer to one of his servers.
Once the connection is established, he would then log in with his account information and
execute operating system commands remotely on that computer, such as ls or cd.

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 CHAPTER THREE
DIGITAL LIBRARY

A digital library is a library in which collections are stored in digital formats (as opposed to
print, microform, or other media) and accessible by computers.
The digital content may be stored locally, or accessed remotely via computer networks. A digital
library is a type of information retrieval system.
The first use of the term digital library in print may have been in a 1988 report to the Corporation
for National Research Initiatives.The term digital libraries were first popularized by the
NSF/DARPA/NASA Digital Libraries Initiative in 1994.The older names electronic library or virtual
library are also occasionally used, though electronic library nowadays more often refers to
portals, often provided by government agencies, as in the case of the Florida Electronic Library.
The DELOS Digital Library Reference Model defines a digital library as: An organization, which
might be virtual, that comprehensively collects, manages and preserves for the long term rich
digital content, and offers to its user communities specialized functionality on that content, of
measurable quality and according to codified policies.
The term digital library is diffuse enough to be applied to a wide range of collections and
organizations, but, to be considered a digital library; an online collection of information must be
managed by and made accessible to a community of users.
A distinction is often made between content that was created in a digital format, known as born-
digital, and information that has been converted from a physical medium, e.g., paper, and by
digitizing.The term hybrid library is sometimes used for libraries that have both physical
collections and digital collections. They consist of a combination of traditional preservation efforts
such as microfilming and new technologies involving digital projects.
Bulletin Board Services
A Bulletin Board System, or BBS, is a computer system running software that allows users to
connect and login to the system using a terminal program.
Originally BBSes were accessed only over a phone line using a modem, but by the early 1990s
some BBSes allowed access via a Telnet or packet radio connection.
Once a user logged in, they could perform functions such as downloading or uploading software
and data, reading news, and exchanging messages with other users. Many BBSes also offered on-
line games, in which users could compete with each other, and BBSes with multiple phone lines
often offered chat rooms, allowing users to meet each other. As the use of the Internet became
more widespread in the mid to late 1990s, traditional BBSes rapidly faded in popularity. Today,
Internet forums occupy much of the same social and technological space as BBSs did. Today the
term BBS is often used to refer to any online forum or message board.

Audio/Voice Communication
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a general term for a family of transmission technologies for
delivery of voice communications over the Internet or other packet-switched networks.
Other terms frequently encountered and synonymous with VoIP are IP telephony and Internet
telephony, as well as voice over broadband, broadband telephony, and broadband phone, when
the network connectivity is available over broadband Internet access.
VoIP systems usually interface with the traditional public switched telephone network (PSTN) to
allow for transparent phone communications worldwide.
VoIP can be a benefit for reducing communication and infrastructure costs by routing phone calls
over existing data networks and avoiding duplicate network systems. Skype and Vonage are
notable service provider examples that have achieved widespread user and customer acceptance
and market penetration.
Voice-over-IP systems carry telephony speech as digital audio, typically reduced in data rate using
speech data compression techniques, packetized in small units of typically tens of milliseconds of
speech, and encapsulated in a packet stream over IP.
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Diversity of voice technologies connected through the Internet

VoIP challenges:

· Available bandwidth
· Network Latency
· Packet loss
· Jitter
· Echo
· Security
· Reliability
· In rare cases, decoding of pulse dialing

Video Communication

A videoconference (also known as a video teleconference) is a set of interactive

telecommunication technologies which allow two or more locations to interact via two-way video
and audio transmissions simultaneously. It has also been called visual collaboration and is a type
of groupware. It differs from videophone in that it is designed to serve a conference rather than
individuals.
Videoconferencing uses telecommunications of audio and video to bring people at different sites
together for a meeting. This can be as simple as a conversation between two people in private
offices (point-to-point) or involve several sites (multi-point) with more than one person in large
rooms at different sites. Besides the audio and visual transmission of meeting activities,
videoconferencing can be used to share documents, computer-displayed information, and
whiteboards.
In addition to use for personal videoconferencing, it was quickly realized that World Wide Web
users enjoyed viewing images from cameras set up by others elsewhere in the world. While the
term "webcam" refers to the technology generally, the first part of the term ("web-") is often
replaced with a word describing what can be viewed with the camera, such as a net cam or street
cam. Educators can use webcams to take their students on virtual field trips. Today there are
millions of webcams that provide views into homes, offices and other buildings as well as
providing panoramic views of cities (Metro cams) and the countryside. Webcams are used to

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monitor traffic with Traffic Cams, the weather with Weather Cams and even volcanoes with
Volcano Cams. Webcam aggregators allow viewers to search for specific webcams based on
geography or other criteria.
As webcam capabilities have been added to instant messaging text chat services such as AOL
Instant Messenger, one-to-one live video communication over the internet has now reached
millions of mainstream PC users worldwide. Increased video quality has helped webcams
encroach on traditional video conferencing systems. New features such as lighting, real-time
enhancements (retouching, wrinkle smoothing and vertical stretch) can make users more
comfortable, further increasing popularity. Features and performance vary between programs.
Some online video broadcasting sites have taken advantage of this technology to create internet
television programs centered on two (or more) people "dialoging" with each other from two
different places. Among others, BloggingHeads.tv uses this technology to set up conversations
between prominent journalists, scientists, bloggers, and philosophers.

CHAPTER FOUR
THE CONCEPT OF CYBER-CAFÉ

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 An Internet cafe or cyber-cafe is a place where one can use a computer with Internet
access, most for a fee, usually per hour or minute; sometimes one can have unmetered access
with a pass for a day or month, etc. It may serve as a regular café as well, with food and drinks
being served.
Internet cafés are located world-wide, and many people use them when traveling to access
webmail and instant messaging services to keep in touch with family and friends.Apart from
travelers, in many developing countries Internet cafés are the primary form of Internet access for
citizens as a shared-access model is more affordable than personal ownership of equipment.
There is also Internet kiosks, Internet access points in public places like public libraries, airport
halls, sometimes just for brief use while standing.
Cybercafé in Nigeria are public places that offer Internet services to their customers for a
fee.They have provided opportunities for many Nigerians to get timely and fast Internet access
and of course this has translated not only to increased efficiency, but also the creation of
additional business opportunities.This has empowered many Nigerians who would not
ordinarily have access to computers, not to talk of Internet access.It serves many business
organizations by providing a readily available backup solution when their in-house Internet
facilities are unavailable.

· If you travel and need access to the Internet, a Cyber-cafe might be one solution.
· Many Telecommunications companies provide Cyber-café setup services.

The steps involved in setting up or operating a Cybercafé

To establish or operate a Cybercafé the following steps should be taken;

Step 1:
Raise money. If this is your first venture, you will need to ask people to invest, and/or get loans so
that you can to start out your business. It is extremely important to have in place a well prepared
Business Plan to show potential investors and the bank. Nobody will invest in something that you
are not clear about 100%. Think of all the angles and if you don't know the answers up front, find
out before you seek investment funding. It is really important to address such questions as:

· The market being targeted

· The profits expected
· The expenses expected
· The market demand for your café in your chosen location
Step 2:
Choose a suitable location that will attract customers. Areas that will be likely to attract customers
include being near a school or tourist destination. Travelers are always in need of internet
resources. Places that have a heavy load of people willing to stop (for example, around other
cafés, small shops etc.) are also good.
Step 3:
Obtain permits. In order to combat terrorism, Advance Fee Fraud crimes, and Copyright violations
by clients Nigerian government requires registration of all Cybercafé with Economic and Financial
Crime Commission (EFCC) and Nigerian Communications Commission (NCC).

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Step 4:
Choose your ISP. Most likely you will need to get a business grade internet connection to provide
enough bandwidth for your café. Talk to an engineer at the ISP about the possibilities and ask
what special deals are offered for businesses.
Step 5:
Hire a designer to design the layout. Hire a carpenter to build all the necessary furniture or buy all
the computer tables. If you are having an eating/drinking area, work with the carpenter and
designer to ensure that computing equipment is kept safe from beverage and food preparation
and consumption.
Step 6:
Purchase all the necessary equipment such as computers, network cable, router, scanner, printer,
crimping tools and RJ 45 jacks. A network attached color laser printer is expensive but might be
appropriate for your café. Also purchase any food and beverage preparation items if you are
including these. Think coffee making facilities, plates and cups, microwave or other ovens etc.
Step 7:
Hire an electrician and set up all the necessary wiring.
Step 8:
Add Value by considering other elements customers are likely to seek. Printing, photocopying,
disk sale and loading, photo sending etc. are just some possible value-adding items that will set
you apart from competitors and drive customers to your café in place of others.
Step 9:
Install all the items.
Step 10:
Put up your prices and times on the wall in clear print. For example, N10 flat fee and N20 for
every minute after that or whatever works out best given your ISP deal and the need to cover
overheads wages and make some profit.
Step 11:
Set up the network or hire somebody to do it for you.
Step 12:
Manage your software effectively. Each computer is likely to have a Windows OS key, Microsoft
Office key, any games installed will also have keys.
Step 13:
Record all the serial numbers and model numbers of each computer. Store all the information in
a secure place online.
Step 14:
Firefox and Internet Explorer are the most popular and practical browsers. Not far behind in
Opera and Safari.
Step 15:
You need some form of virus protection for all your computers.
Most routers have a firewall, if yours does not, install one. Firewalls will help protect your
network from worms, viruses and outside attacks.
Step 16:
Install some sort of basic network traffic monitors. While you don't want to invade your
customer's privacy you do want to keep an eye out if one of your customers is using your
legitimate business to send out spam.

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Step 17:
The cafe computers will probably have spyware on them frequently; make it a habit to run anti
spyware programs often.
Step 18:
Install a cybercafé billing and management software with the following features:
- Computer usage billing and control
- Printing and POS billing
- Detailed reports, which can be sent by email
- Highly sophisticated pricing settings
- Employee password-protected accounts with individual user rights
- Client module has a very user-friendly Windows-like interface! Customers don't have to
spend time figuring it out.
- Comprehensive client PC security
- Client PCs are locked between sessions
- Automatic PC Hardware and Software audit
- Records PC inventory changes to a special log
- In case of specified critical changes, automatically sends email alerts
- Users are required to log in before accessing the server system ensuring
complete information privacy
- Shows a detailed report about each individual computer as well as overall statistical data
for all computers
- Remote administration via a web-based interface with any browser
Step 19:
Employ the right personnel

Personnel requirements of a Cyber-cafe

1. Network administrator is a modern profession responsible for the maintenance of
computer hardware and software that comprises a computer network. This normally includes the
deployment, configuration, maintenance and monitoring of active network equipment. A related
role is that of the network specialist, or network analyst, who concentrate on network design and
security.
2. Cleaners
3. Good manager with computer skills
4. Operators
Security devices in a cybercafé
· You need some form of virus protection for all your computers.
· Most routers have a firewall, if yours does not, install one. Firewalls will help protect your
network from worms, viruses and outside attacks.
· Install some sort of basic network traffic monitors. While you don't want to invade your
customer's privacy you do want to keep an eye out if one of your customers is using your
legitimate business to send out spam.
· You may want to block common p2p ports on your router. p2p programs can eat up a
majority of the bandwidth and can bring a lawsuit if pirated software is uploaded from your
network.

· Do not install pirated software on your computers. You may save yourself a few hundred
dollars installing one copy of MS Office on several machines but you may end up with a
lawsuit costing tens of thousands.

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· The cafe computers will probably have spyware on them frequently, make it a habit to run
anti spyware programs often.
· UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) units to protect your café from power surges

Introduction
· There are several methods that can be used to connect to the Internet.
· The method selected can have a significant impact upon how the variety of services and
applications now available online are subsequently used.
· Connection speed has become a vital factor as the requirement to download and upload large
files becomes increasingly important.
· This is something that should be considered when reviewing the options for connecting to the
Internet.
· This manual will briefly review each of the major methods of connecting to the Internet and
provide guidance on the advantages and disadvantages of each approach.
Basic hardware requirements for Internet connectivity
To connect to the Internet you will need:
· A computer plus a modem (or access to an Internet connected Local Area Network).
· Access to either a phone line (or in the case of large organizations, a Local Area Network,
which in turn allows connection to the Internet).
· You will need an Internet account. In the case of an individual computer connected to the
Internet via a phone line, this will normally come as a package allowing you to access the Internet
via an ISP (Internet Service Provider) and usually also includes an email account, which allows you
to send and receive email via the Internet.
· Lastly you will require an Internet browser (i.e. Microsoft Internet Explorer), which is software
that allows you to view Web pages.

What is a MODEM?

· Modem (from MOdulator-DEModulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to

encode digital information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted
information.
· The goal is to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the
original digital data.
· A modem is a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example,
telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information
transmitted over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts
between these two forms.

· Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given time,
normally measured in bits per second, or "bps".
· They can also be classified by Baud, the number of times the modem changes its signal state
per second.
· Baud is NOT the modem's speed.

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· The baud rate varies, depending on the modulation technique used. Original Bell 103 modems
used a modulation technique that saw a change in state 300 times per second. They transmitted 1
bit for every baud, and so a 300 bit/s modem was also a 300-baud modem. A 300 bit/s modem is
the only modem whose bit rate matches the baud rate.
· A 2400 bit/s modem changes state 600 times per second, but due to the fact that it transmits
4 bits for each baud, 2400 bits are transmitted by 600 baud, or changes in states.
· Faster modems are used by Internet users every day, notably cable modems and ADSL
modems.
· One kilobit per second (kbit/s or kb/s or kbps) means 1000 bits per second and not 1024 bits
per second. For example, a 56k modem can transfer data at up to 56,000 bits per second over the
phone line.
Types of Modems
· Fortunately, there is one standard interface for connecting external modems to computers
called RS-232.
· Consequently, any external modem can be attached to any computer that has an RS-232 port,
which almost all personal computers have.
· There are also modems that come as an expansion board that you can insert into a vacant
expansion slot. These are sometimes called onboard or internal modems.

External Modem Internal Modems

· While the modem interfaces are standardized, there are a number of different protocols for
formatting data to be transmitted

· Aside from the transmission protocols that they support, the following characteristics
distinguish one modem from another:

- Bps: How fast the modem can transmit and receive data. At slow rates, modems are
measured in terms of baud rates. The slowest rate is 300 baud (about 25 cps). At higher speeds,
modems are measured in terms of bits per second (bps). The fastest modems run at 57,600 bps,
although they can achieve even higher data transfer rates by compressing the data. Obviously,
the faster the transmission rate, the faster you can send and receive data. Note, however, that
you cannot receive data any faster than it is being sent. If, for example, the device sending data to
your computer is sending it at 2,400 bps, you must receive it at 2,400 bps. It does not always pay,
therefore, to have a very fast modem. In addition, some telephone lines are unable to transmit
data reliably at very high rates.

- Voice/data: Many modems support a switch to change between voice and data modes. In
data mode, the modem acts like a regular modem. In voice mode, the modem acts like a regular
telephone. Modems that support a voice/data switch have a built-in loudspeaker and microphone
for voice communication.

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- Auto-answer: An auto-answer modem enables your computer to receive calls in your
absence. This is only necessary if you are offering some type of computer service that people can
call in to use.

- Data compression: Some modems perform data compression, which enables them to
send data at faster rates. However, the modem at the receiving end must be able to decompress
the data using the same compression technique.

- Flash memory: Some modems come with flash memory rather than conventional ROM,
which means that the communications protocols can be easily updated if necessary.

- Fax capability: Most modern modems are fax modems, which means that they can send
and receive
Internet Connection Methods
If you want to connect to the Internet, here are the options.
1. Wireless
Choose this if you have a wireless router or network, or if you're connecting to a hotspot, even if
you also have a broadband connection.

2. Broadband
Choose this if your computer is connected directly to a broadband modem (also called a Digital
Subscriber Line [DSL] or cable modem), and you have a Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet
(PPPoE) Internet account. With this type of account, you need to provide a user name and
password to connect.
3. Dial-up
Choose this if you have a modem but it is not a DSL or cable modem, or if you want to use
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) to connect your computer to the Internet.

Setting up an Internet Connection

Step 1: Getting Started
To connect to the Internet, you need a PPP or SLIP account with an Internet Service Provider
(ISP). You also need the following information from your ISP:
· User name
· Password
· Local access phone number or dial-up number
· Your host and domain name
· DNS server IP address
· Authentication technique (whether or not a terminal window is used)

Step 2: Create a New Connection

· From the Start menu , Click on Control Panel
· Click on Network and Internet Connections
· Select Set up or change your Internet connection
· Click on Setup

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Step 3: New Connection Wizard

· When the New Connection Wizard starts up, click the Next button.
· Select “Connect to the Internet” and click the Next button.
· Choose the option to “manually setup the connection” and click the Next button.
· Choose the option to connect using a “Dial-Up Modem” and click the Next button.
· You should now be prompted to name your internet connection. Enter the ISP name and click
the Next button.
· For the phone number, find the appropriate number and enter it into the Phone Number
field:
· On the Internet Account Information dialog box, enter your username and password.
· Check the 1st box if you want everyone or just yourself to be able to use this connection,
· Check the 2nd box if you want to make this connection your default and click the Next
button.
When the Completing the New Connection Wizard window shows up, you can check the box to
add a shortcut to this connection on your desktop, click the Finish button. Connecting to the
Internet via wireless or Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a way to connect to the Internet without wires or cables. When you
use Wi-Fi technology, you connect wirelessly to a base station that provides the link to the
Internet or other type of network.
One of the benefits of Wi-Fi technology is its ability to quickly and wirelessly connect your
handheld or laptop to the Internet and your corporate network when you are away from the
office. Many cafes, coffee shops, libraries, airports, and other public places offer Wi-Fi Access
Points for general use by the public. These public Wi-Fi Access Points are often called Hotspots.
Using a Wi-Fi connected handheld, you can connect to various public Hot Spots.
Things you’ll need:
· Computer with wireless capability
· Wireless router or hot spot

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STEP 1
Some computers connect automatically. The only thing that you have to do is make sure the
wireless in your computer is turned on. There should be a button with an indicator light near your
keyboard. If you have trouble locating it, refer to your user’s manual for the location.
STEP 2
For older computers more steps are needed. With a computer running windows open your start
menu and find “network” or “internet connections”. There should be an option for wireless that
you can click. Your computer will search for wireless connections and you will be offered a list of
options. Find the connection in the list for the location that you are at. Once you click it you will
be connected.
STEP 3
For wireless connections that have passwords the wireless wizard is your best option. It will allow
you to first enter the SSID which is the name of the network. Usually the SSID and password are
posted in locations where the access is free. The SSID is the name of the network. Keep clicking
next through the screens and enter the user name and password in the indicated fields.
Connecting to a Wireless Network in Windows Vista
One of the networking tasks in Vista that's most similar compared to those found in XP is the
process of connecting to wireless networks. The only major change is that the connecting window
in Vista doesn’t provide direct access to the wireless network preferences and advanced settings.
To access these items in Vista, you have to go to the Network and Sharing Center.

Here’s how to connect to a Wi-Fi network in Vista:

1. Right-click on the network status icon in the system tray, and select Connect to a network.

The connection window pops up

2. Select the network you would like to connect to, and click Connect.

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You may be informed that the network is unsecured (not using WEP or WPA), in response to
which you would click Connect Anyway to proceed, or you may be prompted that the network
is secured and that you need to enter a key to continue.

3. Once the connection is complete, Vista will let you know that it has successfully connected to
the network.
Choices of Internet Access
Depending on your location, you might have several different choices for Internet access. Starting
with the most attractive technologies for home Internet access, common Internet connection
types are:
· Cable modems. The best performing and most affordable option available to customers, most
cable TV providers offer broadband Internet access.
· DSL. Digital Subscriber Line. An excellent choice for businesses, DSL typically offers better
reliability than cable modems. However, DSL tends to be more expensive than cable modems for
similar levels of service.
· Dial-up. The slowest method of connecting to the Internet, dial-up enables you to connect to
the Internet using your existing phone lines. Dial-up is convenient because it is available to any
location with a phone. However, slow performance makes using the Internet frustrating.
· Satellite. Satellite broadband services provide high-speed Internet access to any location with
a clear view of the sky (currently available in North America and certain other locations). Satellite
services may be the only broadband option for people living in rural areas. The cost of satellite
services is significantly higher than other services. While you can transfer large files quickly with
satellite, browsing the Web or playing online games can seem slower than with dial-up because of
the delay caused by sending signals to and from satellites.
What is broadband?
Broadband is the generic term that is used to cover the new generation of Internet connections.
There is no one precise definition as the term is used to describe a range of services, but they all
have common key features such as:
· fast access speeds
· a permanent "always-on" connection to the Internet
· ability to handle large files quickly
· flat-rate monthly charges
There are a number of different types of broadband - it is available by telephone line, cable, and
satellite and wireless networks, among others. The different types have varying speeds and costs.
Where you live will determine which options are available to you.

Wireless Broadband and Bandwidth

Internet bandwidth (the speed at which your computer can send and receive information) is
measured in either Kbps (kilobits per second) or Mbps (megabits per second). If you are lucky
enough to have multiple broadband options in your area, compare these factors:
- Downstream bandwidth. This is the speed with which your computer can receive
information from the Internet. The higher the downstream bandwidth, the faster your computer
can display Web pages, transfer music, and download files. For most people, downstream
bandwidth is more important than upstream bandwidth, so the speeds tend to be much higher.
For example, a cable modem service might offer 6,000 Kbps downstream and only 768 Kbps
upstream.
- Upstream bandwidth. This is the amount of data your computer can send to the Internet.
This isn't important if you just plan to read e-mail and surf the Web, because your computer only
needs to send a small request in order to receive a large Web page or e-mail. However, if you're

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into online gaming or you want to send large files to people, then higher upstream bandwidth is
important, and you should choose the highest upstream bandwidth available.
Wireless broadband
· Wireless is a collective term used to describe different technologies that use radio
transmitters and receivers to link computers.
· Wireless services are quickly gaining popularity across the world and, as they do, products and
services are being developed and upgraded to meet demand. For example, where the adoption of
broadband has been limited due to lack of broadband-enabled telephone exchanges, or
businesses being too remote, broadband has been delivered by using variations of wireless
technology.
WiFi
· Wireless local area network hotspots, known as WiFi hotspots, are being rolled out globally.
· They can be subscription only, pay-per-use or free to use and they often appear in airports,
hotels, cafes, pubs and motorway service stations.
· Some operators also offer mobile phone style "roaming" facilities.
Wimax
Wimax (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) is a fast-emerging alternative to WiFi.
Wimax offers a much greater reach than the existing WiFi broadband, making it possible to
provide broadband to areas where other technology is unsuitable.

ADVANTAGES OF WIRELESS BROADBAND

· High bandwidth.
· Access the web on the move.
· High media profile makes advice easy to come by.
DISADVANTAGES OF WIRELESS BROADBAND
· Still in its infancy, so availability is limited.
· Setting up a wireless network requires substantial technical knowledge.
· Some security concerns persist about wireless technology.

Introduction
Wireless networking simply refers to creating a network with no wires or cables. This is achieved
in one of 2 ways, either using radio frequency or an infra-red port connection.
Wireless internet is a new technology and not many internet service providers offer it. Wireless
internet refers to establishing an internet connection over a wireless network via an antenna.
Wireless Internet connections do not require a modem.
Benefits of Wireless Internet connection
A wireless internet connection is very fast and stable as opposed to other broadband solutions.
Wireless internet does not need to be connected to any main phone line hence the line would be
freed for other uses. To connect to wireless internet would just be a matter of setting up a long
range antenna which will establish a connection as soon as it can pick up our signal.
Wireless internet is also very affordable as opposed to prices 5 years ago and is also very easy to
install. It is just a matter of installing all the hardware and software and you'll be ready to access
the internet. Wireless networks are also very efficient. In some instances Wireless Internet has
proven to be faster than a broadband connection. Most broadband solutions offer a fixed
download/upload ratio, but with wireless, the speed at which you download can be the same as
what you upload. Hence you are not restricted to fast download speeds and slow upload speeds.
This makes wireless versatile and a worthwhile solution for businesses in demand of fast internet
access.
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Wireless Internet connection options
VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) Internet connection
· A VSAT is a small-sized telecommunications earth station that transmits and receives via
satellite.
· The terminal size is 1.2 to 2.4 meter in diameter.
· VSATs are becoming increasingly popular, because they are a single, flexible communications
platform that can be installed quickly and cost effectively to provide telecoms solutions for
consumers, governments and corporations.
· They have been in use for more than 10 years and, with more than 500,000 systems
operating in more than 120 countries, VSATs are a mature and proven technology.
· VSAT networks may transmit and receive voice, data, fax, or video conferencing.
· VSAT represents a cost-effective solution for those who want an independent
communications network to connect sites, especially sites where any other connectivity options
are not possible or realistic to implement.
VSAT Applications
· VSAT networks offer value-added satellite-based services capable of supporting the Internet,
data, LAN, voice/fax communications, and can provide powerful, dependable, private and public
network communications solutions.
· VSATs are used for a wide variety of telecommunications applications, including corporate
networks, Internet service provision, rural telecoms, distance learning, telemedicine, cybercafés,
banking, oil and gas exploration, manufacturing, government agencies and departments and
much more.
· As Internet traffic continues to grow at exponential rates worldwide, Internet services
providers (ISP's) everywhere are turning to satellite to keep with demand for network bandwidth.
VSAT has offered ISP's and telecommunications service providers easily scalable, cost-effective
Internet access since 1989.
· A VSAT has certain clear advantages over terrestrial networks and other wireless
communications media.
· Fast & smooth installation: Satellite services are usually activated much more quickly than
terrestrial networks. Since meters or kilometers of cable need not be installed. An antenna,
modem and satellite circuit can be installed and made operational in just a few weeks rather than
the months installation of cable may take.
· It is easily implemented due to the wireless nature of connectivity. And as a network grows,
additional capacity can be obtained in just as short a time.
· Satellite networks offer much higher reliability than terrestrial networks. Network
performance is enhanced with satellite by linking directly to an Internet backbone, bypassing
congested terrestrial lines, exchanges and numerous interconnections. This reduces the potential
points of failure.
Economic Network Costs
· The broadcast nature of satellites allows for the simultaneous delivery of information to wide
geographic areas without regard to terrestrial infrastructure or geographic barriers.
· Charges for terrestrial services are nearly always distance-dependent, while VSAT connections
cost the same whether sites are one or 1000 Km apart
· VSATs are capable of sending and receiving all sorts of video, data and audio content at the
same high speed regardless of their distance from terrestrial switching offices and infrastructure.
· Telephony and broadband infrastructure require heavy infrastructure and are
particularlyexpensive to deploy and maintain especially to remote and subserviced locations.
And with most VSAT services the cost-per-connection comes down considerably when a customer
adds users.

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· Technology is also changing rapidly to make satellite access to the Internet more affordable.
Global Availability
· The key advantage of a VSAT earth station, versus a typical terrestrial network connection, is
that the reach of buried cable does not limit VSATs.
· Satellite is the only telephony and broadband wide-area network technology that is available
everywhere - in even the most remote urban and rural areas, rain forests or concrete jungles,
anywhere in the world.
· A VSAT earth station can be placed anywhere - as long as it has an unobstructed view of the
satellite.
Site Relocation and Addition
· Relocating and adding network sites is much simpler and cheaper with a satellite network
than with most terrestrial technologies.
Flexibility & Expansion
· VSAT networks are highly scalable, i.e. it provides the ability to scale according to the
customer's requirements with low incremental cost. This is especially important as businesses
grow over time.
· A VSAT network can support thousands of VSAT remotes. Hence, a customer may start with
Data services (internet browsing & e-mail) and then adding more bandwidth can be done over
time by a simple reconfiguration at the Network Operating Center. In addition customers are able
to add voice capabilities or video applications when the need arises.
VSAT Bands
· There are 3 major signal bands available on the VSAT system. They are the C-band, KU-band
and the KA- band.
· The C-Band is the lowest frequency signal based transponder, which exhibits reliable
capability to withstand weather interference. It also allows the largest bandwidth upgradability.
· The KU band is subject to weather change interference. A prolonged rain or cloudy weather
sometimes affects transmission.
· Typically, interactive Ku-band antenna sizes range from 75 centimeters to 1.8 metres and C-
band from 1.8 metres to 2.4 metres.
·· Wireless Radio Frequency Internet Connection
·
· Wireless Internet is achieved by sending data on a radio frequency rather than the
conventional way through copper wiring (phone lines). This is achieved by using a long range
antenna and a wireless network card.
·
· The antenna will pick up radio waves from a Wireless Internet access point and send data
to your server terminal through a Wireless Network Card.
·
· This network interface differs from the conventional Ethernet network card as it is
responsible for converting radio wave signals to manageable computer data.
·
· This concept works similar to watching TV or listening to the radio. As soon as your
hardware is up and running a connection would be established. Your computer would then be
able to send and receive information on this network.
·
· For wireless Internet to be fully operational a line of sight must be visible between the
antenna and our access point.
·
· Distance depends on how powerful the antenna is, but typically the closer an antenna is
to an access point, the better the reception will be. Hence the transfer speed would be greater.

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Wireless Internet Locations
· To be able to establish a wireless internet connection, an antenna must be within 22kms and
in the line of sight of an access point.
· You will need to contact your ISP and discuss your location, specifically whether you are in
one of their coverage areas or not.
Costs of Wireless Internet
· The cost for Wireless internet depends on the transfer speed of your connection and how
much data you wish to download.
· A Setup fee consisting of an Access Point, Antenna, Mast, Mounting Kit, labour to install and
configure Cable and sundries will also be paid.
Obstacles to Effective Transmission
· If you are located more than 2 miles from a cell, the wireless Internet connection will require
a direct radio line of sight. As a general rule, if you cannot get a direct radio line of sight from
your location to an access point, you can't get wireless access.
· Busy lines while trying to establish phone connection with ISP

· Congestion of bandwidth leading to slowing down of speed

· Bad Weather conditions
· Outages from ISP during Maintenance
· Power failure

Network Protocol
· In computing, a protocol is a convention or standard that controls or enables the connection,
communication, and data transfer between two computing endpoints.
· In its simplest form, a protocol can be defined as the rules governing the syntax, semantics,
and synchronization of communication.
· Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of the two.
· At the lowest level, a protocol defines the behavior of a hardware connection.
Typical properties of protocols
· It is difficult to generalize about protocols because they vary so greatly in purpose and
sophistication.
· Most protocols specify one or more of the following properties:
- Detection of the underlying physical connection (wired or wireless), or the existence of
the other endpoint or node

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- Handshaking :
- Negotiation of various connection characteristics
- How to start and end a message
- How to format a message
- What to do with corrupted or improperly formatted messages (error correction)
- How to detect unexpected loss of the connection, and what to do next
- Termination of the session and or connection.
Importance of Network protocols
· The widespread use and expansion of communications protocols is both a prerequisite for
the Internet, and a major contributor to its power and success.
· The pair of Internet Protocol (or IP) and Transmission Control Protocol (or TCP) are the
most important of these, and the term TCP/IP refers to a collection (or protocol suite) of its
most used protocols.
· Most of the Internet's communication protocols are described in the RFC documents of the
Internet Engineering Task Force (or IETF).
· The need for protocols also applies to network devices. Computers have no way of learning
protocols, so network engineers have written rules for communication that must be strictly
followed for successful host-to-host communication.
· These rules apply to different layers of sophistication such as which physical connections to
use, how hosts listen, how to interrupt, how to say good-bye, and in short how to
communicate, what language to use and many others.

· These rules, or protocols, that work together to ensure successful communication are
grouped into what is known as a protocol suite.
Types of network protocols

· IP (Internet Protocol)
· UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
· TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
· DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
· HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
· FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
· Telnet (Telnet Remote Protocol)
· SSH (Secure Shell Remote Protocol)
· POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)
· SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
· IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
Advantages of TCP/IP for Internet Connectivity
· The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly TCP/IP) is the set of communications protocols used
for the Internet and other similar networks.
· It is named from two of the most important protocols in it: the Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols defined in this
standard.
· The Internet Protocol Suite, like many protocol suites, may be viewed as a set of layers.
· Each layer solves a set of problems involving the transmission of data, and provides a well-
defined service to the upper layer protocols based on using services from some lower layers.
Upper layers are logically closer to the user and deal with more abstract data, relying on lower
layer protocols to translate data into forms that can eventually be physically transmitted.

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· The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method or protocol by which data is sent from one computer
to another on the Internet. Each computer (known as a host) on the Internet has at least one IP
address that uniquely identifies it from all other computers on the Internet.
· When you send or receive data (for example, an e-mail note or a Web page), the message
gets divided into little chunks called packets.
· Each of these packets contains both the sender's Internet address and the receiver's address.
· Any packet is sent first to a gateway computer that understands a small part of the Internet.
· The gateway computer reads the destination address and forwards the packet to an adjacent
gateway that in turn reads the destination address and so forth across the Internet until
onegate way recognizes the packet as belonging to a computer within its immediate
neighborhood or domain.

· That gateway then forwards the packet directly to the computer whose address is specified.
· Because a message is divided into a number of packets, each packet can, if necessary, be sent
by a different route across the Internet.
· Packets can arrive in a different order than the order they were sent in. The Internet Protocol
just delivers them. It's up to another protocol, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) to put
them back in the right order.
· IP is a connectionless protocol, which means that there is no continuing connection between
the end points that are communicating.
· Each packet that travels through the Internet is treated as an independent unit of data
without any relation to any other unit of data. (The reason the packets do get put in the right
order is because of TCP, the connection-oriented protocol that keeps track of the packet
sequence in a message.)
· In the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) communication model, IP is in layer 3, the
Networking Layer.
· The most widely used version of IP today is Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4). However, IP
Version 6 (IPv6) is also beginning to be supported. IPv6 provides for much longer addresses and
therefore for the possibility of many more Internet users. IPv6 includes the capabilities of IPv4
and any server that can support IPv6 packets can also support IPv4 packets.

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 CHAPTER FIVE
TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE IN NIGERIA

Telecommunication infrastructure remains one of the major issues affecting technology

deployment required for growth and development in Nigeria. There has however, been massive
improvement in infrastructure over the past few years. Nigeria has certainly left the telecomm
state where there were only a few dial-up e-mail providers and Internet service providers (ISPs)
and when Nigerian Telecommunications Limited (NITEL) was the only Telecommunications
operator. It was a dark era characterized by slow Internet links, poor service, high cost, lack of
infrastructure and an unprogressive telecoms monopoly. Things have certainly changed.
Deregulation of the telecommunications sector led to the introduction of major Global System of
Mobile Communications (GSM), mobile phone providers MTN Nigeria, V-Mobile, Globacom and
Mtel. Nigeria's government had earlier provided the impetus for liberalization by setting up the
Nigerian Communications Commission. Although NCC became the regulatory body for Nigeria's
telecom sector in 1992, it is the present government that dealt with the telecom policy,
interconnection agreements and the empowerment of NCC. NCC issues licenses to private
telecoms companies providing a variety of telecom services to the Nigerian populace.
According to NCC, deregulated telecommunications services include:
"Sales and Installation of Terminal equipment (Mobile Cellular Phones, Satellite Communication
and Switching equipments etc); Public Payphone Services; Internet Services; Prepaid Calling Card
Services; Community Telephony with exchanges; Paging Services; Trunk and 2-Way Radio Network
Services; Fixed Telephony Services, employing cable and Radio; Satellite Network Services (e.g.
Domestic VSAT networks); Repairs & Maintenance of telecommunications facilities; Cabling
services; Tele-Centers/Cyber Cafes".

ICT boom - Combined Effort

But Nigeria's telecom infrastructure story and growth has not been due to GSM alone. For
example, GSM doesn't have much to do with the upsurge in Internet usage and access. In essence
it is the combined activities of Nigeria's telecoms providers GSM, FWA, PTOs, telephony and VSAT
operators and NCC's regulatory efforts that has led to increased competition and availability of a
wide range of voice, data and internet applications and services. The improvement in the telecom
situation in Nigeria has made significant impact in all sectors - commerce, social and educational.
Although most of the impact is presently felt only in the urban centers, NCC has announced plans
to ensure the telecommunications revolution also touches the rural populace. As noted by one of
the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) publications, there is "a direct correlation
between access to telecommunications, economic wealth, and social development".
The telecommunications boom has resulted in greater usage of Internet Technology, growth and
availability of cyber cafés, increased Internet provision by ISPs and PTOs, increased
communications services (mobile telephony, e-mail, VOIP), reduction of Internet costs, online
information gathering and research, e-learning, Internet business opportunities, online advertising
opportunities as well as developments in e-banking.
OBSTACLES TO INTERNET GROWTH IN NIGERIA
Access is not just about availability. Cost affects usage. High cost is still a barrier. While prices
have definitely come down the cost of access is still too high to have a transformatory impact.
There are presently price competition battles going on involving PTOs and GSM providers, which
are steps in this direction. The provision of Internet by PTOs is also helping. But more needs to be
done about bringing down call tariffs and rates not just communications acquisition cost. The aim
should be low cost Internet and phone service. The efforts of Nigerian computer manufacturers
such as Omatek and Zinox Technologies are commendable and should be encouraged. However,

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because most of the computer hardware in use in Nigeria is imported, high computer prices are a
barrier to access. E-business, telecommunications infrastructure is incomplete without affordable
computing facilities. Although just like the phone and Internet costs, computer prices have been
falling, more people, not just businesses, need to have access to reasonably priced computers for
education, recreation, business and other creative activities.
Poor Electricity Supply
Epileptic power supply increases the cost of access. Supply of electricity needs to be optimal to
enable businesses and banks to provide seamless online services through local areas networks,
wide area networks and the Internet. Inefficiency is the word to describe a situation where
everybody has to depend on power generators, as the primary, reliable power supply. This
constitutes a barrier to growth and sustainable development. The growth of real e-business
cannot take place or be of any significance in an environment with unreliable public power
supply.
Quality of service
While availability has grown, this has not been matched by quality of service. It is not enough to
have cheap lines and low cost bandwidth. Efficiency and accessibility of telecoms service should
be paramount. Most operators have a lot of work to do in quality service especially in the areas of
congestion and support. NCC may have to wield the big stick by sanctioning poor performers.
Appropriate Licensing fees
NCC has done a lot as a pacesetter. But NCC needs to review the appropriateness of its license
fees. How realistic are such fees for healthy competition? Will such fees as they are stimulate
telecoms growth or increase the number of competent market players?
ICT Incentives
The market is large – the biggest in Africa! Opportunities abound! But more needs to be done to
encourage investment in ICT, especially in the knowledge and creative areas. There is a need for a
combination of incentives: reduction of import duties on ICT equipment, tax incentives for ICT
companies, tax incentives for investment in ICT research, development and training efforts, local
manufacture of telecommunications equipment and infrastructure. Again the essence of these
incentives is to encourage growth and reduce access cost. If most ICT providers are faced with the
problem of multiplicity of taxes, as is the case now, is this in sync with the growth that is needed?
The NITEL question
NITEL's performance as a national operator or even as a telecom provider is still way below
standard. Although NITEL may no longer be the sole or dominant operator, its 450,000 lines is still
a major chunk of infrastructure that can't be ignored. The Pent scope (present commercial
managers of NITEL) experiment is clearly not working. For the many that depend on NITEL,
improvement in performance and quality of service is key.
The SAT-3 project
The SAT3/WASC (Southern Africa Western Africa Submarine Cable) and SAFE (South Africa-Far
East) cable system is a 15,000 km high performance fibre optic cable linking Europe, South Africa
and the Far East. The essence is to provide cheaper and high quality telecoms alternatives to
satellite links. However NITEL, the member of the consortium from Nigeria has not been able to
use SAT-3 to add value to Telecoms in Nigeria. It is hoped that current discussions involving NITEL,
government, Globacom and other members of the consortium will yield useful results.

TECHNICAL KNOW-HOW: BUILDING EXPERTISE IN NIGERIA

More efforts should be invested in encouraging the development of IT and Telecoms expertise in
Nigeria. "The biggest market", "the fastest growing tele density" or just "the biggest consumers"
Consumption alone cannot engender growth. There is a need to develop human capacity in areas
such as: technical, management, research and development, security, strategic and operational.

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For example, while there has been a cyber café boom, management has been a major source of
concern for cyber café businesses. Also with the many IT and Telecoms projects that are taking
off, project management skills will be required to get benefit.
Human development in ICT can be encouraged through increased awareness of opportunities and
capabilities in ICT.
Level of Awareness
The main issue facing Nigeria and its ICT program is “quality manpower.” The primary reason that
ICT has not grown in the country is attributed to the fact that Nigerian workforce lacks essential
computer literacy and IT preparation. Poverty is an obstacle for the computer educational
program, in a country where education itself, has become highly controversial. Government
districts administrate over the Nigerian educational system, although the private sector has
become increasingly popular. Government schools are notorious for unsuccessful curriculums and
unconcerned teachers, making private schooling a seemingly wiser alternative. Most of the people
who own private schools genuinely care about a solid educational system.
Infrastructural Vandalism
As infrastructural vandalism continue to affect efficient service delivery in the telecom industry,
there is need for a concerted effort to curtail the hydra-headed problem affecting the sector
became pronounced. In these days, 'area boys' would optically prevent telecommunications
companies from gaining access to their base stations supply diesel to generators at the base
stations. In many instances, as the delay prolonged, several base stations would go down,
creating network outages for the telecom companies and severe problems for millions of
subscribers.
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
An Internet service provider (ISP, also called Internet access provider or IAP) is a company which
primarily offers their customers access to the Internet using dial-up or other means of data
telecommunication.
ISPs may provide Internet e-mail accounts to users which allow them to communicate with one
another by sending and receiving electronic messages through their ISPs' servers. ISPs may
provide other services such as remotely storing data files on behalf of their customers, as well as
other services unique to each particular ISP.
· The most important services an ISP offers are:
- Internet access. Access any Web site, send instant messages to your friends, play online
games, or use any other Internet service.
- E-mail. You can access your e-mail with Microsoft Outlook Express or your Web browser.
Most ISPs offer multiple e-mail addresses, so everyone in your family can have an account. ISPs
typically provide spam filtering that reduces, but does not eliminate, unwanted messages.
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING AN ISP
· Bandwidth
Internet bandwidth (the speed at which your computer can send and receive information) is
measured in either Kbps (kilobits per second) or Mbps (megabits per second
· Reliability and Customer Service.
ISP reliability has increased significantly in recent years; however, it is still not as reliable as your
phone or television service. There is no objective way to measure reliability and customer service,
so you should talk to your neighbors about their experiences and search the Web for reviews of
ISPs in your area.
· Technical Strength
Of major concern to you must be whether the ISP has the technical capabilities to meet your
present and future Internet requirements. The ISP itself has to tell you what its technical strength
is like, i.e. in terms of personnel and equipment. In view of the number of “cowboys” claiming to
be ISPs, such information provided by the ISP should be verified. Always ask technical questions,
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no matter how awkward. Is onsite support available? What is their response time to issues like? Is
emergency support available? What are the limits, if any, on disk storage, e-mail or other Internet
traffic?
· Busy Signals.
Busy signals are an indication of performance problems that affect Internet usage. What is the
ISP’s policy on busy signals? How busy are their modems? When are the peak usage hours? How
will the ISP protect you from busy signals? Failure to demand for truthful answers can eventually
turn out to be costly in terms of time, funds and opportunities.
· Professionalism:
The professionalism of the prospective ISP is equally important. How professional is the outfit’s
customer service? Are they the sort who promise heaven but deliver hell? You have to be careful
not to be taken in by sugar coated stories, or window dressed adverts. Always separate the hype
from the real facts on the ground. Are staffs courteous, trained and professional? Remember
you’re the customer.

· Total Internet Solutions

Additionally, assess the ISP’s attitude to Total Internet Solutions (TIS). Any truly professional ISP
should be able to provide TIS, not just an Internet connection. Can the ISP fulfill all your needs?
Can it provide services such as Domain Name Services, Onsite installation and maintenance, Web
services, Internet security services, and Network Consulting? It is important that you identify and
choose an ISP who is focused on solutions - TIS. Providing an Internet connection is not enough.
·
· Cost
The cost of the Internet service is of course important. But it must be stressed again that cost
should not be the sole determining factor in choosing an ISP. Some ISPs might offer very cheap
rates, as a way of attracting customers, while the quality of their service is very poor. In such a
situation, you find that your Internet service is actually very expensive as the only Internet
services you’re paying for are excuses and busy signals.
· Charges/ Payment Methods
In addition, how does the ISP charge for its services? Are charges based on flat rate access (which
requires you to pay a fixed amount for a given period, independent of usage), or usage access –
“pay-as-you-go”. The charge / payment method used by the ISP must be one you are comfortable
with, and must make financial sense to you. You must have a focus on how you want to use the
Internet.
· Track Record
Another crucial factor is the track record. What is the track record of the ISP? This could be track
record of the ISP itself, as well as the track record of key professionals in the organization. With
regard to the track record of the ISP, the ISP should be able identify successful working sites as
evidence of past and current performance. The previous performance of the key professionals is
important, especially if it is a new ISP, with a few clients.
· The future
What is an ISP’s plan for the future? This is important since the Internet is a medium for the
future, and in view of the rapidity of developments on the Internet. Does the ISP have an idea of
how it will offer quality services in future, not just today? Anything as dynamic as the Internet
changes daily. Does it have any future plans, or it is just going along for the ride? What are the

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ISP’s growth plans? If such plans exist are they realistic? Simply put, the ISP must have a vision of
the future. The ISP’s vision of the future depends to a large extent on its understanding of the
future.
Domain Name
In computer networking, a domain name is a name given to a collection of network devices that
belong to a domain which is managed according to some common property of the members or
within a common administrative boundary. In particular, the term is used to describe the regions
of administrative authority within the Domain name system used for the Internet.
It is a name that identifies one or more IP addresses. For example, the domain name
microsoft.com represents about a dozen IP addresses. Domain names are used in URLs to
identify particular Web pages. For example, in the URL
http://www.pcwebopedia.com/index.html, the domain name is pcwebopedia.com.

· Every domain name has a suffix that indicates which Top Level Domain (TLD) it belongs to.
There are only a limited number of such domains. For example:

- gov - Government agencies

- edu - Educational institutions
- org - Organizations (nonprofit)
- mil - Military
- com - commercial business
- net - Network organizations
- ca - Canada
- th – Thailand
· The Internet is based on IP addresses, not domain names, every Web server requires a
Domain Name System (DNS) server to translate domain names into IP addresses.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
URL is the global address of documents and other resources on the World Wide Web.
The first part of the address is called a protocol identifier and it indicates what protocol to use
and the second part is called a resource name and it specifies the IP address or the domain name
where the resource is located. The protocol identifier and the resource name are separated by a
colon and two forward slashes.
For example, the two URLs below point to two different files at the domain pcwebopedia.com.
The first specifies an executable file that should be fetched using the FTP protocol; the second
specifies a Web page that should be fetched using the HTTP protocol:
ftp://www.pcwebopedia.com/stuff.exe http://www.pcwebopedia.com/index.html
IP Addresses
· IP Address is an identifier for a computer or device on a TCP/IP network.
· An IP address (Internet Protocol Address) is a logical address of a network adapter.
· The IP address is unique and identifies computers on a network.
· An IP address can be private, for use on a LAN, or public, for use on the Internet or other
WAN.
· IP address can be changed and hidden
· Networks using the TCP/IP protocol route messages based on the IP address of the
destination. The format of an IP address is a 32-bit numeric address written as four numbers
separated by periods. Each number can be zero to 255. For example, 1.160.10.240 could be an IP
address.

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· Within an isolated network, you can assign IP addresses at random as long as each one is
unique. However, connecting a private network to the Internet requires using registered IP
addresses (called Internet addresses) to avoid duplicates.
· The four numbers in an IP address are used in different ways to identify a particular network
and a host on that network. Four regional Internet registries -- ARIN, RIPE NCC, LACNIC and APNIC
-- assign Internet addresses from the following three classes.
Class A - supports 16 million hosts on each of 126 networks Class B - supports 65,000 hosts on
each of 16,000 networks Class C - supports 254 hosts on each of 2 million networks
The number of unassigned Internet addresses is running out, so a new classless scheme called
CIDR is gradually replacing the system based on classes A, B, and C and is tied to adoption of IPv6.
Web Server
· A web server is a computer that delivers (serves up) Web pages. Every Web server has an IP
address and possibly a domain name. For example, if you enter the URL
http://www.pcwebopedia.com/index.html in your browser, this sends a request to the server
whose domain name is pcwebopedia.com. The server then fetches the page named index.html
and sends it to your browser.
· Any computer can be turned into a Web server by installing server software and connecting
the machine to the Internet. There are many Web server software applications, including public
domain software from NCSA and Apache, and commercial packages from Microsoft, Netscape
and others.
How Web Servers Work
· Have you ever wondered just exactly how a Web page you are reading found its way into your
browser and onto your computer screen? The process largely depends on Web servers
· Typically, users visit a Web site by either clicking on a hyperlink that brings them to that site
or keying the site's URL directly into the address bar of a browser. But how does the same site
appear on anyone's computer anywhere in the world and often on many computers at the same
time?

· Let's use Webopedia as an example. You decide to visit Webopedia by typing its URL --
http://www.webopedia.com -- into your Web browser. Through an Internet connection, your
browser initiates a connection to the Web server that is storing the Webopedia files by first
converting the domain name into an IP address (through a domain name service) and then
locating the server that is storing the information for that IP address (also see Understanding IP
Addressing).
· The Web server stores all of the files necessary to display Webopedia's pages on your
computer -- typically all the individual pages that comprise the entirety of a Web site, any
images/graphic files and any scripts that make dynamic elements of the site function.
· Once contact has been made, the browser requests the data from the Web server, and using
HTTP, the server delivers the data back to your browser. The browser in turn converts, or
formats, the computer languages that the files are made up of into what you see displayed in
your browser. In the same way the server can send the files to many client computers at the
same time, allowing multiple clients to view the same page simultaneously.
Domain Name System (DNS)
The Domain Name System (DNS) is the way that Internet domain names are located and
translated into Internet Protocol addresses. A domain name is a meaningful and easy-to-
remember "handle" for an Internet address.Maintaining a central list of domain name/IP
address correspondences would be impractical; the lists of domain names and IP addresses are
distributed throughout the Internet in a hierarchy of authority. There is probably a DNS server
within close geographic proximity to your access provider that maps the domain names in your
Internet requests or forwards them to other servers in the Internet. The Domain Name System

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(DNS) associates various information with domain names; most importantly, it serves as the
"phone book" for the Internet by translating human-readable computer hostnames, e.g.
www.example.com, into IP addresses, e.g. 208.77.188.166, which networking equipment needs
to deliver information. A DNS also stores other information such as the list of mail servers that
accept email for a given domain. By providing a worldwide keyword-based redirection service,
the Domain Name System is an essential component of contemporary Internet use.
The Domain Name Space
The domain name space consists of a tree of domain names. Each node or leaf in the tree has
zero or more resource records, which hold information associated with the domain name. The
tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the root zone. A DNS zone consists of a collection of
connected nodes authoritatively served by an authoritative DNS name server. (Note that a single
name server can host several zones.)
When a system administrator wants to let another administrator control a part of the domain
name space within the first administrator’s zone of authority, control can be delegated to the
second administrator.
This splits off a part of the old zone into a new zone, which comes under the authority of the
second administrator's name servers. The old zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone. A
hostname refers to a domain name that has one or more associated IP addresses; i.e. the
'www.example.com' and 'example.com' domains are both hostnames, however, the 'com'
domain is not.
DNS Servers
The Domain Name System is maintained by a distributed database system, which uses the
client-server model. The nodes of this database are the name servers. Each domain or sub
domain has one or more authoritative DNS servers that publish information about that
domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is
served by the root name servers.

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