INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Table of Contents 📱 👆 💻

Physics as a science
Meaning of physics
Branches of physics
Relationship between physics and other subjects
Career opportunities in physics
Basic laboratory rules

Specific Objectives Connections

By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to: Building on…
(a) explain what the study of Physics involves  Primary Science – Properties of
matter, Making work Easier, Energy.
(b) relate physics to other subjects and to technology
 Common phenomena
(c) identify career opportunities related to physics
(d) state and explain basic laboratory safety rules. Arriving at …
 Defining Physics, Describing the
branches of Physics and relating physics
(4 Lessons) to other subjects and to technology.

Content Looking forward to….

 Measurement (I)
1. Physics as a Science (reference to Primary Science
 A great Physics experience!
Syllabus)
2. Meaning of Physics
3. Branches of Physics
4. Relation between Physics, other subjects and
technology.
5. Career opportunities in Physics
6. Basic laboratory safety rules
 2

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

Physics as a Science
Science is human attempts to explore the universe and its contents by establishing
facts through observation and experiment.

The primary school science syllabus covers topics such as Matter and its Properties,
Energy in its various forms, e.g., heat, light, sound and their corresponding sources,
Machines and the way they make work easier, Balancing and Weighing of various
shapes of objects, Electricity and Magnetism.
All these topics form the basic foundation for Physics at secondary school level.

Meaning of Physics
Physics is the study of matter and its relation to energy.
Natural phenomena explained by physics-eclipse, lightning, rainbow, mirage
Physics explains the how and why behind the:
• falling of bodies towards the ground.
• daily occurrence of tides in the sea.
• rising up of a liquid through a drinking straw.
• cracking sound produced when removing a nylon cloth from the body, and
many more.
• rapid technological developments in communication, transport, medicine,
among other disciplines.
Scientific basis of Physics- Physics involves measurement of quantities and
collection of data. Through experimentation and observations, hypotheses are
drawn, tested and consequently laws and principles established.

Branches of Physics
Physics as a study may be divided into the following key areas:

Mechanics Electricity and Magnetism

This involves the study of motion of This deals with the relationship
bodies under the influence of forces. In between electric currents and
mechanics, the characteristics of magnetic fields and their extensive
linear, circular and oscillatory motion applications in the working of the
are explained. electric motor, magnetic relay and
telephone receiver, among others.
 In this area, the propagation of energy
through space is discussed. In
addition, effects such as reflection,
refraction and diffraction of light and
sound are explained using the wave
Thermodynamics theory.
This is the study of transformation of
heat to and from other forms of Atomic Physics
energy. This involves the study of the behaviour
of particles constituting the nucleus
Geometrical Optics and the accompanying energy
Under this title, the behaviour of light as changes. It is within this area that
it traverses various media is studied. radioactivity, nuclear fission and fusion
are dealt with.
Waves Modern Physics

Relationship between Physics, other Subjects and Technology

transfer by convection explains the
Physics and Religion formation of convectional rainfall and
Systems in the universe reveal great pressure variations that determine
orderliness which can be traced back wind patterns. All these are concepts
to the creator. The study of Physics in Physics.
comes up with findings that are in total
Physics and Home Science
agreement with this orderliness, for
example the sun rises from east and Physics knowledge has been applied
sets in the west, the anomalous in the design and manufacture of
expansion of water and its implications domestic equipment.
on aquatic life.
Physics and Biology
Physics and History
Knowledge of lenses has helped in the
Carbon dating, an application of making of the microscope which has
radioactivity, serves as a crucial tool to assisted in the study of the cell.
historians in establishing fossil ages and Similarly, the knowledge of levers helps
hence past patterns of life. Early to explain locomotion in Biology.
explorers like Vasco da Gama made
use of the magnetic properties of Physics and Chemistry
lodestone to determine direction. Physics has helped in explaining forces
within atoms and therefore, atomic
Physics and Geography
structure which determines the
Establishment of weather patterns reactivity of the atom as explained in
relies on the accurate use of Chemistry.
instruments like the thermometer,
wind-vane and hygrometer. Heat Physics and Mathematics
 4

Many concepts in Physics are Physics and Technology

expressed mathematically. In In the field of medicine, X-rays, body
manipulations involving extreme scanners and lasers are applications of
quantities like the mass of the earth or
the charge on an electron, a good
grasp of mathematical skills is essential.
Physics used in diagnosis and be fought using laser-guided bombs of
treatment of diseases. extremely high precision.
The wide range of applications of However, if technology is not used
Physics is used in information responsibly, it can lead to social and
technology and in the entertainment environmental problems. Notable
industry e.g. refinement of sound and cases are the Chernobyl nuclear
colour mixing techniques to create disaster in Ukraine of 1986 and the
special effects in stage presentations. Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bomb
attacks during the Second World War.
The defence industry has also become
highly technological. Wars can now

Career opportunities in Physics

 Careers in engineering, medicine, ICT, education, astronomy.

Basic Laboratory Rules

The laboratory is a facility designed and equipped for conducting scientific
research, experiments and measurements.
The following precautions be taken when working in the laboratory to avoid injuries.
(i) Proper dressing must be put on. Shirts and blouses must be tucked in and long
hair tied up. Closed shoes must be worn.
(ii) The locations of electricity switches, fire-fighting equipment, First Aid kit, gas
supply and water supply systems must be noted. Access to all these facilities
must remain unobstructed.
(iii) While working in the laboratory, windows and doors should be kept open. This
is to prevent inhalation of dangerous materials or gases and also to allow for
easy escape/evacuation in case of an emergency.
(iv) Any instructions given must be followed carefully. Never attempt anything
while in doubt. In case of any doubt or queries, consult your teacher or the
laboratory assistant.
(v) Never taste, eat or drink anything in the laboratory to avoid the risk of
consuming dangerous or poisonous materials or substances.
(vi) Ensure that all electrical switches, gas and water taps are turned off when not
in use. This is to avoid wastage in addition to averting the risk of fire or other
hazards.
 INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS 5

(vii) When handling electrical apparatus, hands must be dry. Do not splash water
where electrical sockets are located.
(viii) Never plug foreign objects into electrical sockets. Apart from damaging the
socket, this can also cause an electric shock.
(ix) Keep floors and working surfaces dry. Any spillage should be wiped off
immediately. Liquid on the floor surface can cause skidding, resulting in serious
injuries.
(x) All apparatus must be cleaned and returned to the correct location of storage
after use. This facilitates easy re-use of the apparatus, apart from ensuring good
order in the laboratory.

First Aid Measures

Common laboratory injuries include burns, cuts and bruises (sometimes resulting in
bleeding), poisoning and foreign matter in the eyes. These cases should be handled
in the following way.

Cuts
In case the cut results in bleeding, pressure or direct compression should be applied
directly to the wound and proper dressing applied as medical assistance is sought.

Burns
Burns should generally be treated by flushing cold water over the affected area.
Acid burns could alternatively be treated with sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking
soda), and base burns with boric acid or vinegar.

Poisoning
The poisoning agent should be noted while urgent medical assistance is sought. For
a poison ingested through the mouth, the recommended antidote should be given
to the victim, and vomiting should not be induced unless recommended by a
medical practitioner.
If the poison is in form of a gas, the first step should be to remove the victim from the
area and take him/her to an area with fresher air. If the poison is corrosive to the
skin, the victim’s clothing should be removed from the affected area, and cold
water run over the area for at least 30 minutes. If the poison gets to the eye, the
same should be flushed with clean water for at least 15 minutes, and the patient
advised not to rub the eyes.

Electric Shock
This may result from touching exposed wires or using faulty electrical appliances.
Without getting in contact with the victim, the first thing to do is to cut off the current
causing the shock by:
(i) Turning off the current at the main switch, or,
 6

(ii) Using a non-conducting object, such as wooden rod, to move the victim
away from the conductor.
In the meantime, urgently seek medical assistance. If the victim has a pulse but is
not breathing, offer mouth to mouth resuscitation as you await assistance.
If for some reason a laboratory user faints or loses consciousness, he/she should be
promptly and gently moved to an area with fresh air and placed in a recovery
position (with the head slightly lower than the rest of the body). If necessary, mouth
to mouth resuscitation should be offered.
 MEASUREMENT (I)
Table of Contents 📱 👆 💻 (click me)
Length
Area
Volume
Mass
Density
Time
Revision Exercise

Connections
Specific Objectives Building on…
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able  Primary Mathematics –
to: length, area, volume
 Introduction to Physics –
a) define length, area, volume, mass, density, time and state Scientific nature of physics
the corresponding symbols and SI units
b) convert other metric units to SI units Arriving at …
c) estimate length, mass and time  Defining various quantities and
d) use accurately the following measuring instruments; metre their SI units.
rule, tape measure, beam balance, stop clock/watch,  Using various measuring
measuring cylinder, pipette and burette instruments
e) determine experimentally the densities of substances  Working out calculations
f) solve numerical problems on density.
involving density.
(12 Lessons)
Looking forward to….
Content  Measurement (II) – Form 2
1. Definition of length, area, volume, mass, density and time  Force
2. SI units and symbols
3. Estimation of quantities
4. Conversion of units
5. Measuring instruments
6. Experiments on density
7. Problems on density
 2 Mechanics

MEASUREMENT (I)
Up to 1960, some of the common units used by scientists were the inch (2.54 cm), the mile
(1.61 km), acre (0.41 Ha), pint (0.57 litres), gallon (4.55 litres), pound (0.45 kg) and tonne (1
000 kg). Others used grams, centimetres and seconds. There was need to harmonise the
units of measurement.
Consequently, scientists agreed on one international system of units to be used, the
Systeme Internationale d’Unites (International System of Units), shortened to SI units, in all
languages.
This system has seven basic physical quantities and units.

Basic and derived physical quantities

Basic physical quantities are quantities that can only be obtained by actual measurement.

The seven basic physical quantities and their SI units are shown in the
table below.
Basic physical quantity SI unit Symbol of units

Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Luminous intensity Candela Cd
Amount of substance Mole mol

Derived quantities are quantities obtained by computation (multiplication or division) of

basic physical quantities, for example, area, volume and density.

Length
Length is a measure of distance between two points.
Breadth, width, height, radius, depth and diameter are all lengths.
The SI unit of length is the metre (m).

Multiples and sub-multiples of the metre

Unit Symbol Equivalence in metres

Kilometre km 1 000
Hectometre Hm 100
Dekametre Dm 10
Decimetre dm 0.1
Centimetre cm 0.01
Millimetre mm 0.001
Micrometre m 0.000001

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 3

Measurement of Length
Length can be determined by estimation or accurately by using a measuring instrument.
There are various instruments for measuring length. The choice of the instrument is
determined by the level of the accuracy desired and the size of the object to be measured.
Some instruments used to measure length are meter rule and tape-measure.

Metre Rules
For day-to-day work in Physics, metre rules and half-metre rules are used. They are
graduated in centimetres and millimetres.
The following procedure should always be followed when using a metre rule:
(i) Place the metre rule in contact with the object.
(ii) Place the end of the object against the zero mark on the scale.
(iii) Position your eye perpendicularly above the scale.
Note: When the eye is not perpendicular to the scale, there is an error due to parallax.

Reading a metre rule

Consider the reading shown by the arrow below.
The reading is more than 1.6 cm but less than 1.7 cm.
The second decimal place is approximated. It is 1.67
cm. It could even be 1.66 cm.
The readings from a metre rule may be written up to the
second decimal place of a centimetre. The second
decimal place should be 0 or 5. If the readings 5.6 cm
and 6 cm are taken with a metre rule, then they should be written as 5.60 cm and 6.00 cm
respectively.

Example 1
What are the readings indicated by arrows P1, P2 and P3 on the metre rule below?

Solution

P1 = 69.50 cm
P2 = 71.00 cm
P3 = 71.50 cm

Tape-Measure
There are several types of tape-measures, for example, tailor’s, carpenter’s and surveyor’s
types. The choice of a tape-measure is determined by the nature of the distance to be
measured. For example, to measure the length and breadth of a plot of land, or the
distance covered by a discus or javelin throw, a surveyor’s tape-measure would be the
most convenient.
Always ensure that the tape-measure is taut when measuring.

Measurement of Curved Length

 4 Mechanics

Curved lengths such as roads and railway lines on a map or dimensions of some containers
can be measured using a thread. The thread is placed along the required lengths and the
length is then found by placing the thread on a millimetre scale. For curved surfaces such
as a cylinder, a thread is closely wrapped around the surface a number of times.
Experiment To measure the circumference of a cylinder using a thread
Apparatus
A cylinder, a thread, a metre rule.
Procedure
• Closely wrap a thin thread 10 times around a
cylinder, as shown above.
• Mark with ink the beginning and end of the turns.
• Remove the thread.
• Measure the length between the ink marks and
call it a1
 Repeat three times recording the readings as a2
and a3 to ensure accuracy of your measurement. Find the average length a: a =
a1 +a2 +a3
3
 Divide the average length by 10 to find the length of one turn. This gives the
circumference of the cylinder. Thus;
a
 Circumference of the cylinder =
10
Note:
The diameter of the cylinder is obtained by using the formula;
Circumference = πD (where D is the diameter)
circumference
Diameter =
π
But D = 2r, where r is the radius.
circumference
Hence, r =
2π

Estimation of Length
Some lengths, like the height of a tree can be estimated by comparing them with that of a
chosen basic length called a standard length.
The height of a tree can be estimated by measuring the length of its shadow and
comparing with the length of the shadow of a rod about 2 meters long. The height of the
tree can then be estimated from the relation:
height of tree length of shadow of the tree
=
height of rod length of shadow of the rod
Consider a certain experiment in which the following measurements were recorded:
Height of the rod = 180 cm
Length of the shadow of the rod = 116 cm
Length of the shadow of the tree = 840 cm.
Height of the tree would be given by;

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 5

height of rod × length of the shadow of tree

Height of tree =
length of shadow of the rod
180 ×840
= 116
= 1 303.4 cm
= 1 300 cm
Therefore, the height of the tree is approximately 13 m.

Example 2
Atieno found that the width of her desk was approximately 10 palm-lengths. If her palm was
15.0 cm long, what was the width of her desk in centimetres?
Solution
1 palm-length is 15.0 cm long.
Therefore, 10 palm-lengths
= (15.0 × 10) cm
= 150.0 cm
Hence, width of her desk was approximately 150.0 cm.

Review Exercise 1
1. Charo found that the perimeter of his farming plot was approximately 200 strides. His
stride was 0.9 m long. What was the perimeter of the plot?
2. Devise a method that should be used to estimate the thickness of a razor blade.
3. How would you measure the length of the curve of an athletics field?

1. Area
Area is the quantity that expresses the extent of a given surface on a plane. It is a derived
quantity of length.
The SI unit of area is the square metre, written as m2.
It can also be measured in multiples and sub-multiples of m2, for example, cm2 and km2.

Example
1. Express each of the following in cm2:
(a) 7.5 m2
(b) 4.2 m2
(c) 0.09 m2
(d) 0.0000007 km2
Solution
 6 Mechanics

(a) 1m=100cm
1 m2 = 1 m × 1m
= 100 cm × 100 cm
= 10 000 cm2
7.5 × 10 000 cm2 = 75 000 cm2
(b) 4.2 m2 = 4.2 × 100 × 100 cm2
= 42 000 cm2
(c) 0.09 m2 = 0.09 × 100 × 100 cm2
= 900 cm2
(d) 0.0000007 km2 = 0.0000007 × 1 000 × 1 000 × 100 × 100 cm2
= 7 000 cm2
2. Express the following areas in m2:
(a) 9 000 cm2
(b) 0.05 cm2
Solution

Work it out 🙄

Measurement of Area

Area of regularly-shaped objects

Shape Area Shape Area

1
area = length × width A = 2(a +b) h
=l×w
= lw
The area
of
1 regularly-
A = 2 (base × height) A = πr2
shaped
1
= (b × h) surfaces
2
1 such as
= bh
2

rectangles, triangles and circles can be obtained by applying appropriate formulae.

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 7

Area of irregularly-shaped surfaces

An estimate of the area of an irregular shape can be made by dividing it up into squares,
each of area 1 cm2.By counting the number of small squares, the area can be estimated.

Example
Estimate the area of the irregular surface shown below by
counting the small squares.
Solution
The number of complete squares = 39
Number of incomplete squares = 30
39
These are equal to = 15 complete squares
2
Therefore, the number of complete squares = 39 + 15 = 54
Hence, the estimated area of the surface = 54 × 1 cm2. = 54 cm2

Review Exercise 2
1. Calculate the area of a circle of radius 7.0 cm.
2 Trace the shape of a leaf on a graph paper and estimate its area.
3 The diameter of the bore of capillary tube is 1.0 mm. Calculate the cross-section
area of the bore in cm2.(Take π = 3.142).
4 A sheet of paper measures 25 cm by 15 cm. Calculate its area in mm 2.

2. Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by matter.
The SI unit of volume is cubic metre (m3).
However, sub-multiples of m3, for example, cm3 and mm3, are commonly used since the m3
is very large.
1 m3 = 1 m × 1 m × 1 m
= 100 cm × 100 cm × 100 cm
= 1 000 000 cm3
 8 Mechanics

Other units like litres (l) and millilitres (ml) are also used.
1 ml = 1 cm3
1 000 ml = 1 litre
1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3

Example
1. Express each of the following volumes in cm3:
(a) 27 mm3
(b) 0.0005 m3
Solution – work out 🙄
2. Express each of the following volumes in m3 .
(a) 9 000 cm3
(b) 27 cm3

Volume of Regularly-Shaped Solids

The volume of regularly-shaped solids can be obtained by applying the appropriate
formula.
Object Volume (V) Object Volume(V)
V = (ab)c 4
V= πr2
= abc 3

V = (πr2)h 1
V= bhl
= (πr2)h 2

Worked Examples

1. Find the volume of a sphere whose radius is 3.0 cm.

Solution-Apply appropriate formula as above. V=113.14 cm3

2. A sphere of diameter 6.0 cm is moulded into a thin uniform wire of diameter 0.2 mm.
Calculate the length of the wire in metres.
Solution-The volume of the sphere and the wire are equal. Apply appropriate formulae for
both.
Length of wire=3600 m.
3. The volume of mercury thread in a capillary tube is 1 cm3. If the length of the mercury
thread is 1 m, calculate the radius of the bore of the capillary tube.

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 9

Measurement of Volume of Liquids

One of the methods which can be used to measure the volume of a liquid is to pour the
liquid into a container with a uniform cross-section, as shown below.
The height of the liquid, h, is measured.
The volume of the liquid is then obtained by applying the formula;

V = area of cross-section × height

V = Ah, where A = l × b and h is the height.
Therefore, V = l bh

Measuring cylinders are marked off such that volumes of liquids can be read off directly.
Measuring cylinders are made of glass or
transparent plastic and graduated in cm3 or ml.
Measuring flasks, pipettes, burettes and beakers
can also be used to measure volumes of liquids.
Measuring flasks and pipettes are used to transfer
known volumes of liquids. The burette delivers
volumes of up to 50 cm3.
 10 Mechanics

(i) The scale of the burette begins

from zero at the top and
increases downwards to the
maximum value. For example, a Measuring the Volume of an
reading of 31.0 ml on the burette Irregularly-Shaped Solid
means that the volume of the Volumes of irregular solids are measured using
liquid poured from the burette is the displacement method.
31.0 ml and the volume left in the
The method works with solids that are not
burette is (50 – 31) ml, i.e., 19.0
soluble in water, do not absorb water, do not
ml.
react with water or sink in water.
(ii) While using the measuring
Experiment To determine the volume of an
vessels shown in the reading of
irregularly-shaped object
volume is taken with the eye
(a) Using a measuring cylinder
positioned level with the bottom
Apparatus
of the meniscus, as shown below.
In the figure, the volume of the Measuring cylinder, stone, thread and Eureka

can.
Procedure
• Partly fill a measuring cylinder with water. Note the volume V1 of the water.
• Tie a stone (that can be fitted into the measuring cylinder) with a thread and lower it
gently into the cylinder until it is wholly submerged. Ensure that there are no air bubbles
surrounding the stone.
• Record the new volume V2.
Result

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 11

The volume of the stone, V = V2 – V1.

(b) Using a Eureka can

A Eureka or displacement can is a container with a spout from the side. It is used to
measure volumes by displacement method. It is also known as an overflow can.
Procedure
• Fill the Eureka can with water
until it flows out of the spout.
Once the flow has stopped,
place a measuring cylinder
under the spout of the can.
• Tie the solid whose volume
you want to determine with a
thread and lower it gently into
the can until it is completely
submerged.

Result
The volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder is the volume of the object.
NB: When finding the volume of an object that floats on water, e.g., a cork, another object
that sinks in water is attached to it so that both are totally submerged. This object is known
as a sinker.

Review Exercise 3
1. Describe how you would measure the volume of a cork using a sinker, a thread, a
measuring cylinder and water only.
2. Describe how you would calibrate a cylinder?
3. Describe how you would measure 30 cm 3 of a liquid using a burette.
4. Explain why displacement method is unsuitable for determining the volume of solids
such as charcoal, ice, wooden blocks and bricks.
5. A wire of radius 3.0 mm and length 200 m is melted into a sphere. Calculate the
radius of the sphere in metres.
6. A sphere of radius 10.0 cm is moulded into a uniform cylindrical wire of same radius
r. Calculate the length of the wire in millimetres.
7. Convert each of the following volumes to m3:
(a) 1 500 000 000 cm3
(b) 20.0 l
(c) 1.0 ml
(d) 9 000 000 000 mm3

4. Mass
 12 Mechanics

The mass of an object is the quantity of matter in it.

The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (symbol kg).
The commonly used sub-multiples and multiples of the kilogram are given in the table
below.
Unit Symbol Equivalence in kilogram

1 tonne t 1 000

1 gram g 0.001

1 milligram mg 0.000001

The mass of an object is the same everywhere because the number of particles in an object
remains constant.

Measurement of Mass
There are two common balances for measuring mass, namely, the electrical and the
mechanical types. The electrical balance is the most accurate for measuring mass.

5. Density
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume.

Its symbol is rho(ρ) and its SI unit is kilogram per cubic metre (kgm–3).
Another commonly used unit is gram per cubic centimetre (gcm –3)
From the definition, the density of a substance is given by;
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑚
ρ =
𝑉

Worked Examples
1. The
density of water is 1 gcm–3. Express this density in kgm–3.
Solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density of water =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
1g
=
1 cm3
1
1 cm3 = m3
1 000 000
1
kg
1000
Density of water = 1
1000 000
m3

= 1000 kg/m3
2. The density of a material is 22.5 gcm–3. Express this in SI units.

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 13

3. A block of glass of mass 187.5 g is 5.0 cm long, 2.0 cm thick and 7.5 cm high.
Calculate the density of the glass in kgm–3.
4. The density of mercury is 13.6 gcm–3. Find the volume of 2 720 g of mercury in m3.
5. The mass of 25 cm3 of ivory was found to be 0.045 kg. Calculate the density of ivory (in
SI units) giving your answer in Kg/m3
6. The density of concentrated sulphuric acid is 1.8 gcm–3. Calculate the volume of 3.1 kg
of the acid.
Solution
Density = 1.8 gcm–3
Mass = 3 100 g
mass
Volume =
density
3100
=
1.8
= 1 722 cm3 or 0.001722 m3

Measurement of Density

To Measure the Density of a Solid

The mass and the volume of the object is found by measurement The density of the object
is then calculated from the formula:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Experiment To find the density of a liquid
Apparatus
Clean dry beaker, balance, measuring cylinder, a burette or a pipette.
Procedure
• Find the mass m1 of a clean dry beaker using a balance.
• Measure a known volume V of the liquid using either a measuring cylinder, a burette or
a pipette.
• Transfer the liquid into the beaker.
• Find the mass m2 of the beaker with the liquid.
Result
Mass of the liquid = m2 – m1
𝑚2 −𝑚1
Density of liquid =
𝑉
 14 Mechanics

Example
A rectangular tank measures 12.5 m long, 10.0 m wide and 2.0 m high. Calculate the mass
of water in the tank when it is full. Density of water is 1 000 kgm–3. (Assume the measurements
are internal)
Solution
Volume of water in tank = 12.5×10×2
= 250 m3
Mass = density × volume
= 1 000 × 250
= 250 000 kg

Density Bottle
A density bottle is a small glass bottle fitted with glass
stopper which has a hole through which excess liquid
can flow out. Normally, the density bottle has its
capacity indicated on the side.

Experiment to find the density of a liquid using a density bottle

Measure the mass m1 of a clean dry density bottle with its stopper.
Fill the bottle with liquid and replace the stopper. Dry the bottle on the outside (excess liquid
overflows through the hole in the stopper).
Measure the mass m2 of the bottle plus the liquid.

If the capacity of the bottle is V, then;

𝑚2 −𝑚1
Density of liquid =
𝑉

Precautions when using a density bottle.

(i) The bottle is held by the neck when wiping it dry. This is because when held in the
hands, it may expand due to body warmth.
(ii) The outside of the bottle must be wiped carefully.
(iii) It must be ensured that there are no air bubbles when the bottle is filled with liquid.

Experiment To measure the density of a solid using a density bottle

This method is used for solids in form of grains, beads or turnings. It is unsuitable for solids
which are either soluble in water or react with it.
Apparatus
Density bottle and lead shot, beam balance.

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 15

Procedure

• Measure the mass m1 of a clean dry empty density bottle, (a).

• Fill the bottle partly with lead shot and measure the mass m2.
• Fill up the bottle with water up to the neck and measure its mass m3, (c).
• Empty the bottle and rinse it.
• Fill it with water and replace the stopper. Wipe the outside dry and measure the mass
m4 of the bottle filled with water(d).
Results
Mass of water = (m4 – m1) g
Volume of water = m4 – m1 (since density of water is 1 gcm–3)
Therefore, volume of bottle. = (m4 – m1) cm3
Mass of lead shot = (m2 –m1) g
Mass of water present when bottle is filled with lead shot and water = (m3 – m2) g
Volume of water = (m3 – m2) cm3
Volume of lead shot= (m4 – m1) – (m3 – m2)
𝑚2 −𝑚1
Therefore, density of lead shot =
(𝑚2 −𝑚1 )− (𝑚2 −𝑚1 )

Example
1. The mass of a density bottle is 20 g when empty and 45 g when full of water. When
full of mercury, its mass is 360 g. Calculate the density of mercury.
Solution
Mass of water = 45 – 20 = 25 g
Volume of water = 25 cm3 (density of water is 1 gcm–3)
Therefore, volume of bottle = 25 cm3
Mass of mercury = 360 – 20 = 340 g
Volume of mercury = 25cm3 (volume of the density bottle)
340
Density of mercury = = 13.6 gcm–3 = 13 600 kgm–3
25

2. The mass of an empty density bottle is 20 g. Its mass when filled with water is 40.0 g
and 50.0 g when filled with liquid X. Calculate the density of liquid X if the density of
water is 1 000 kgm–3.
 16 Mechanics

Solution
Mass of water = 40.0 -20.0 =20.0 g = 0.02 kg.
Density of water = 1 000 kgm-3
0.02
Therefore, volume of water = = 0.00002 m3. This is also the volume of the bottle.
1 000
Mass of the liquid =50.0 – 20.0 = 30.0 g = 0.03 kg.
Volume of liquid = volume of bottle = 0.00002 m 3
0.03
Therefore, density of the liquid =
0.00002
= 1 500 kgm-3

Densities of Mixtures
The density of the mixture lies between the densities of its constituent substances and
depends on their proportions. It is assumed that the volume of the mixture is equal to the
sum of the volumes of the individual constituents.
mass of the mixture
Density of the mixture =
volume of the mixture

Example
1. 100 cm3 of fresh water of density 1 000 kgm–3 is mixed with 100 cm3 of sea water of
density 1 030 kgm–3. Calculate the density of the mixture.
Solution
Mass of fresh water = density × volume
𝑘𝑔 100
= 1 000 × 1 000 000 m3 = 0.1 kg
𝑚3
𝑘𝑔 100
Mass of sea water = 1 030 × 1 000 000 m3 = 0.103 kg
𝑚3
Mass of the mixture = mass of fresh water + mass of sea water
= (0.1 + 0.103) kg = 0.203 kg
Volume of mixture = volume of fresh water + volume of sea water
200
= 100 cm3 + 100 cm3 = 200 cm3 = m3
1 000 000
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 0.203 × 1 000 000
Therefore, density of mixture = = kgm-3
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 200

= 1 015 kgm-3

2.Bronze is made by mixing molten copper and tin. If 100 kg of the mixture contains 80%
by mass of copper and 20% by mass of tin, calculate the density of bronze. (Density of
copper is 8 900 kgm–3 and density of tin 7 000 kgm–3)
Solution
Mass of copper in the mixture = 100 × 80% = 80 kg
Mass of tin in the mixture =100 × 20% = 20 kg

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 17

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 80
Volume of copper = = = 0.00899 m3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 8 900
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑛 20
Volume of tin = = 7 000 = 0.00286 m3
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑛

Volume of bronze = volume of copper + volume of tin

= (0.00899 + 0.00286) m3 = 0.01185 m3
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑧𝑒 80 + 20 100
Density of bronze = = 0.01185 = 0.01185
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑧𝑒

= 8 439 kgm-3

Review Exercise 5

1. Fill the following table:

2. A density bottle has a mass of 17.5 g when empty. When full of water, its mass is 37.5
g. When full of liquid X, its mass is 35 g. If the density of water is 1 000 kgm –3, find the
density of liquid X.

6. Time
Time is a measure of duration of an event.
The SI unit to time is second(s).
Multiple and sub-multiple units of the second are shown below
Time Symbol Equivalent Seconds

Microsecond μs 0.000001
Millisecond ms 0.001
 18 Mechanics

Minute min 60
Hour hr 3 600
Day day 86 400
Week wk 604 800

Measurement of Time
In laboratories, intervals of time are measured using either a stopwatch or stop-clock,
depending on the accuracy required.
Modern stopwatches are digital. They are preferred due to their ease of handling and
reading. Stop-clocks are used when high precision is not required.

Revision Exercise
1. Outline how you would measure the circumference of a beaker and test-tube using
a thread.
2. Describe how you would measure the diameter of a tennis ball.
3. Define mass and show how it can be measured.
4. The mass of a lump of gold remains constant wherever it may be shifted to. Explain.
5. A length 550 cm of thin thread wraps around a cylinder exactly 25 times. Calculate
22
the circumference and the radius of the cylinder. (Take π = 7 )
6. The water level in a burette is 30 cm 3. If 55 drops of water fall from the burette and
the average volume of one drop is 0.12 cm 3, what is the final water level in the
burette?
7. Convert the following:
(a) 1 000 kg into g.
(b) 1 000 000 m into km.
(c) 0.0000037 kg to mg.
(d) 0.00000125 m to mm.
8. If a ream of 500 papers weighs 2.5 kg, find the mass of single sheet in:
(a) kg.
(b) mg.
9. Water has a density of 1 000 kgm–3. What does this mean? What is its density in gcm –
3?

10. In finding the density of liquid, why is the method of using a density bottle more
accurate than the one of using a measuring cylinder?
12. An empty density bottle has a mass of 25 g. Its mass is 50 g when full of water and 45
g when full of another liquid. What is the density of the liquid in kgm –3?
13. Describe an experiment to find the density of copper turnings using a density bottle
and kerosene.
14. The mass of a density bottle is 20.0 g when empty, 70.0 g when full of water and 55.0
g when full of a second liquid. Calculate the density of the liquid.

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 19

15. The mass of a density bottle of volume 50 cm 3 is 10.0 g when empty. Aluminium
turnings are poured into the bottle and the total mass is 60.0 g. Water is then added
into the turnings till the bottle is full. If the total mass of the bottle and its contents is
90.0 g, calculate the density of the aluminium turnings.
16. 1 800 cm3 of fresh water of density 1000 kgm –3 is mixed with 2 200 cm3 of sea water
of density 1 025 kgm–3. Calculate the density of the mixture.

Revision Questions

1. 2006 Q1; 2016 Q2

Figure 1 shows the change in volume of water in a measuring cylinder when an irregular solid
is immersed in it.

Given that the mass of the solid is 567 g, determine the density of the solid in gcm-3
(Give your answer correct to 2 decimal places) (3 marks)

2. 2008 Q1
A drug manufacturer gives the mass of the active ingredient in a tablet as 5 mg. Express this
quantity in kilogramme and in standard form. (1 mark)

3. 2008 Q2
The masses of equal volumes of a certain liquid and of water were found to be ml and mw
respectively. Given that the density of water is 1gcm-3, express the density, ρ, of the liquid in
terms of ml and mw. (show your working) (2 marks)

4. 2009 Q1
In an experiment to measure the density of a liquid, a student filled a burette with a liquid to
the 0 cm3 mark. Figure 1 shows a section of the burette showing the level of the liquid after
54.5 g of the liquid had been run out
 20 Mechanics

Determine the density of the liquid. (3 marks)

5. 2010 Q2
A stop watch started 0.50 s after the start button was pressed. The time recorded using the
stop watch for a ball bearing failing through a liquid was 2.53s. Determine the time of fall.
(1
mark)

6. 2010 Q16
In an experiment to determine the density of sand using a density bottle, the measurements
were recorded:

Mass of empty density bottle = 43.2g

Mass of density bottle full of water = 66.4g
Mass of density bottle with some sand = 67.5g
Mass of density bottle with the sand
filled up with water = 82.3g

Use the above data to determine the:

(a) Mass of the water that completely filled the bottle; (2 marks)

(b) Volume of water that completely filled the bottle; (1 mark)

(c) Volume of the density bottle; (1 mark)

(d) Mass of sand; (1 mark)

(e) Mass of water that filled the space above the sand; (1
marks)

(f) Volume of the sand; (3 marks)

(g) Density of the sand. (2 marks)

7. 2012 Q1
Figure 1 shows a measuring cylinder containing some water.

©VictorVC
 MEASUREMENT (I) 21

Determine the reading on the measuring cylinder, after three drops of water each of volume
0.6cm3 are added. (2 marks)

8. 2014 Q1
A student measured the length of a wire four times using a metre rule and obtained the
following readings: 18.6 cm; 18.5 cm and 18:5 cm. Determine the length the student should
record. (2 marks)

9. 2015 Q2
Figure 2 (a) shows the initial reading of a burette used to measure the volume of oil.
After 50 drops of the oil were run out, the final reading was as shown in Figure 2 (b)

Determine the volume of one drop of oil (1 mark)

10. 2015 Q13; 2016 Q1

Mechanics is one of the branches of physics. State what it deals with. (1 mark)

11. 2017 Q2
In an experiment to determine the density of Liquid R, a student obtained the followed data:
- Mass of an empty density bottle = 55.0 g
- Mass of the density bottle + water = 80.0 g
- Mass of the density bottle + Liquid R = 70.0 g
 22 Mechanics

Determine the density of Liquid R. (density of water is 1000 kgm-3) (3 marks)

12. 2018 Q2
Figure 1 shows the position of a student’s eye while illustrating the length of a wooden block
using a metre rule.

Determine the length of the block as viewed by the student. (1 mark)

©VictorVC
 FORCE
Table of Contents
Type of forces Connections
Gravitational force Building on…
Tension -Basic knowledge of forces
Upthrust
Cohesive and adhesive forces Arriving at …
Frictional force  Defining force, it’s effects on a
Magnetic force body and stating various types
Electrostatic force of forces
Centripetal force  Describing cohesive and
Surface tension adhesive forces; and surface
Action and reaction tension
Mass and weight  Differentiating between mass
Scalar and vector quantities and weight.
Revision Exercise  Explaining various occurrences –
like why water insects skid in
water
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to : Looking forward to….
a) define force and state its SI unit  Pressure
b) describe types of forces  Turning Effect of a Force
c) describe experiments to illustrate cohesion, adhesion  Newton’s Laws of Motion
and surface tension
 Magnetism, Electrostatics,
d) state the effects of force
Uniform Circular Motion,
e) state the difference between mass and weight
Floating and Sinking.
f) state the relation between mass and weight, W = mg
g) define scalar and vector quantities
h) solve numerical problems involving W = mg.

(16 Lessons)

Content
1. Definition of force and state its unit
2. Types of forces (including cohesive, adhesive and surface tension)
3. Experiments to demonstrate cohesion, adhesion and surface tension.
4. Effects of force
5. Mass, weight and their relationship
6. Scalar and vector quantities
7. Problem involving W = mg (take g = 10 N/kg
2 Mechanics

FORCE
A force is a push or pull. The SI unit of force is the newton (N).
A force acts in a particular direction and may have any of the following effects on an
object:
(i) Make a stationary object start moving or increase the speed of a moving object.
(ii) Slow down or stop a moving object.
(iii) Change the direction of a moving object.
(iv) Distort (change the shape of) an object.
Some forces are small while others are large. Forces, therefore, have size (magnitude).
A force is represented by a line with an arrow showing the direction in which it acts, thus:

There are many types of forces, both contact and non – contact.

Types of Forces
There are many types of forces some of which are listed below:
• Gravitational force
• Tension. • Surface tension.
• Upthrust force. • Molecular force.
• Frictional force. • Electric force.
• Magnetic force. • Nuclear force.
• Centripetal force. • Electrostatic force.
• Cohesive and adhesive forces.
Gravitational Force
This is the force of attraction between two bodies of given masses (m 1 and m2).
The force which pulls bodies towards the centre of the
earth is called the gravitational force of the earth.
The pull of gravity on the body towards the centre of the
earth is called weight. The weight of an object varies on
different planets because planets have different
gravitational pull.

Tension
Tension is the quantity of the pulling force exerted by a string, spring or cable on an
object.

Some materials can withstand greater tension than others. Steel can withstand very high
tension and is difficult to break. Similarly, nylon can withstand more tension than cotton.
 FORCE 3

Tension is as a result of two opposing forces Example

applied, one at each end of a body. Some
A body weighs 100 N in air and 80 N when
forces compress bodies and are called
submerged in water. Calculate the upthrust acting
compressive forces. Materials that can be
on the body.
compressed or extended without breaking are
called elastic materials. Solution
Upthrust Weight in air = 100 N; Weight in water = 80 N
Upthrust is the upward force acting on an object Upthrust = weight in air – weight in water
immersed in a fluid (liquid or gas). This upward
= (100 – 80) N = 20 N
force is called upthrust. An object in a vacuum
will not experience upthrust.
The difference in the readings when an object is immersed in liquid and when the object is
in air is due to upthrust force.

Frictional Force
Friction is a force that opposes relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Practical
applications of friction in our daily lives include walking and braking.
Friction is caused by the interlocking of the surfaces and attractive force between the
surface molecules. Frictional force can be reduced by using rollers, oiling or smoothening.
The opposing force (frictional force) involving a fluid is called viscous drag (viscosity).
Viscous drag limits the speed with which a body can move in a liquid.

Magnetic Force
The force which causes attraction or repulsion by a magnet is called magnetic force. A
magnet has two types of poles, a north pole and a south pole. Like poles repel while unlike
poles attract. Some materials are attracted by a magnet while others are not. Those which
are attracted are called magnetic materials while those not attracted are called non-
magnetic materials.

Electrostatic Force
The force of attraction or repulsion due to static charges is called electrostatic force.
When a glass window is wiped with a dry cloth on a dry day, dust particles are attracted
on it. Also, when shoes are brushed, they tend to attract dust particles. This is because
electrostatic charges formed on the rubbed surface attract dust.

Centripetal Force
Centripetal Force is a force which constrains a body to move in a circular path or orbit. This
force is directed towards the centre of the orbit. Examples of where centripetal forces is
applied include a stone tied on a string (sling), separation of ghee from milk and the merry-
go-round.

Action and Reaction

4 Mechanics

Action and reaction forces are forces which act in opposite directions when objects are at
rest. Examples of cases where action and reaction forces act are:
(a) When a block of wood is placed on a table, its weight
(action) acts on the table. It is pressed on the surface
downwards. The reaction (force in the opposite direction)
of the table acts on the block.
(b) When you hold a hose-pipe which is projecting a
powerful jet of water, you notice that there is a steady
force of reaction from the jet. This is the force which is
harnessed in some garden sprinklers, (b).
In both cases, action and reaction act in opposite directions.
Action and reaction are equal and opposite, i.e., when one force acts on a body, an equal
and opposite force acts on the body.

Cohesive and Adhesive Forces

The force of attraction between
Using glass surfaces molecules of the same kind is
Apparatus known as cohesive force, e.g.,
Clean glass slide, waxed glass slide, dropper, water. between a water molecule
Procedure and another water molecule,
while force of attraction
• Using a dropper, place a few drops of water onto
between molecules of different
a clean glass slide.
kinds is called adhesive forces,
• Similarly, place a few drops of water on the waxed
e.g., between water molecules
glass slide.
and glass molecules.
• Observe the shapes of the drops on the glass slides.
What do you notice? Experiments to illustrate
Observation cohesion and adhesion in
Water on the clean glass slide spreads on the glass liquids.
surface (wets the surface). However, small drops of
water collect into small spherical balls on the waxed
surface.
If mercury is used, small mercury drops in a clean glass
dish surface collect into spherical balls. Larger mercury
drops form oval balls.
Explanation
Water wets the glass surface because the adhesive
forces between the water molecules and the glass
molecules are greater than the cohesive forces
between water molecules. Water does not wet the
waxed glass surface because the cohesive force is
greater than the adhesive force.
The stronger cohesive forces in mercury form spherical
drops of mercury even on clean glass surface. The
weak adhesive force between mercury and glass
makes mercury not to wet the glass.
FORCE 5
6 Mechanics

Using narrow tubes

Apparatus
Narrow tubes with different sizes of bore, beaker, water,
glycerol, kerosene and methylated spirit.
Procedure
• Dip the length of clean narrow tube into water.
• Look at the shape of water inside the narrow tube.
• Compare the water level inside the tube with that outside it.
• Try another narrow tube with a different bore, i.e., a different
diameter.
• Repeat the experiment with other liquids, e.g., glycerol,
kerosene or methylated spirit.
Observation
 The level of water inside the tubes is higher than outside the
tubes.
 A meniscus is formed at top of water level. The water curves
upwards from the reading level (a concave meniscus).
 The rise in the tube with a smaller bore is higher than in the
tube with a larger bore.
Different liquids rise by different heights, depending on the
diameter of the glass tube.
If mercury is used,
 The level of mercury inside the tubes goes lower than that
outside the tubes.
 The surface of the mercury in the tubes will curve
downwards, i.e., the meniscus curves downwards from the
reading level (a convex meniscus).
 The level of mercury in the tube with the smaller bore will be
lower than that in the tube with a larger bore.
Explanation
Since the adhesive force between the water and glass
molecules is greater than the cohesive force between the
water molecules, the water rises up the tube so that more water
molecules can be in contact with the glass. This ‘wets’ the glass.
Liquids such as glycerol, kerosene and methylated spirit wet the
glass (or the vessel) and will rise in a narrow tube.
On the other hand, the force of cohesion within the mercury is
greater than the force of adhesion between the mercury and
glass. The mercury, therefore, sinks down the tube to enable
mercury molecules to keep together.
Liquids which do not ‘wet’ the container will be depressed inside
the tube.
 FORCE 7

Surface Tension
The force which causes the surface of a liquid to behave like a stretched elastic skin is
called surface tension. This force is due to the force of attraction between individual
molecules of the liquid (cohesion).

Experiments to demonstrate surface tension in liquids

Experiment 1: Using steel needle or razor blade.

When a steel needle or razor blade is placed carefully at
the surface of water in a beaker, it is observed that the
needle and the razor floats on the surface for as long as the
water surface is not broken.
Explanation
The steel needle or the razor blade floats because the
surface of the water behaves like a fully stretched, thin,
elastic skin (surface tension).
When drops of paraffin or soap solution are put on the
surface of the water around the needle, the needle sinks
on its own after a few seconds. If, alternatively, the tip of
the needle is depressed lightly into the water, the needle
sinks very quickly to the bottom of the water.
The needle or the blade sinks when a drop of kerosene or
soap solution is put in the liquid near the needle because
the kerosene or soap solution reduces the surface tension of
the water. When the tip of the needle is pressed into the
water, it pierces the surface skin and sinks.

Experiment 2: Using the behaviour of soap bubbles

Apparatus
Glass funnel, soap or detergent solution.
Procedure
• Take a glass funnel and dip it in liquid soap or detergent
solution.
• Take it out and blow a soap bubble to the wide end, (a).
• Hold the funnel with the bubble downward and leave the
top open. Observe what happens.
Observation
The bubble flattens to a film and the film slowly rises up the
funnel.
Explanation
The soap bubble behaves as if its surface is tightly stretched.
As it tries to make its surface as small as possible, it rises up
8 Mechanics

Experiment 3: Using the behaviour of soap films

Apparatus
Copper wire, thread, soap solution and needle.
Procedure
• Make a rectangular loop of copper wire.
• Tie a thread loosely across it, as in (a).
• Dip the loop in a soap solution and bring it out so that
the loop is filled with a soap film, (b).
• Break the soap film on one side of the thread by
touching it with a hot needle.
• Note the new shape of the thread.
Observation
When the film is broken on one side, the thread assumes a
perfect curve, (c).
Explanation
In figure (b), the thread lies in any position in the soap film
because the thread is being pulled on both sides by equal
forces of surface tension. However, when one side of the film
is broken, the surface tension acts only on one side of the
thread. As the water tries to make its surface as small as
possible, it pulls the thread in such a way that it forms a
perfect curve. The soap film exhibits surface tension.

Molecular Explanation of Surface Tension

A molecule, say C, deep in the liquid is surrounded by
molecules on all sides so that the net force on it is zero.
However, molecules of the surface, say A and B, will have
fewer molecules on the vapour side and hence will experience
a resultant inward force, causing the surface of the liquid to be
in tension.

Other observations due to surface tension

(i) The growth of the water drops from a

burette appears as if the mouth of the
burette is covered with an elastic
membrane which stretches as more
and more water gets into it. When it
can hold no more water, it falls
(ii) A glass tumbler can be filled with water
above the brim, (a).
(iii) When a soft brush such as an artist’s
brush is placed in water, the bristles
spread out but when it is taken out,
they cling together. (b)
 FORCE 9

Surface Tension of Different Liquids

The difference in surface tension of different liquids can be
visualised in the following demonstrations.

(i) The surface tension of soap is less than that of water

A match stick or a small toy boat rubbed at one end with
soap and placed on the surface of water starts moving
immediately. It moves in one direction only and in such a way
that the end that is not rubbed with soap is always in front.
Any attempt to make it move in the opposite direction will
fail.
Explanation
The soap at the end of the stick immediately dissolves in
water, thereby lowering the surface tension at the end of the
stick. The surface tension at the other end which is now
greater pulls the stick and makes it move in that direction.
The movement gradually weakens and ultimately ceases.
This happens when the whole surface of water is covered with
soap solution.
The camphor has the same effect as that of soap.

(ii) Oil Spreads on Water

A few drops of oil from a fine tube form a circular patch when
they fall on a clean water surface.
Explanation
The forces along the surface of oil are weaker than those of

Factors Affecting Surface Tension

1. Impurities
Impurities reduce the surface tension of a liquid. Detergents, for instance, weaken
the cohesive forces between liquid molecules.
2. Temperature
With rise in temperature, the kinetic energy of the molecules of a liquid is increased.
The inter-molecular distance increases and the force of cohesion is decreased.
Hence, the surface tension is lowered.

Consequences of Surface Tension

1. Water insects can rest on the surface of water without breaking the surface. The
insects also skate across the surface of water at high speed.
2. Mosquito larvae float on water surface. Oiling the water surface using kerosene
lowers surface tension, thus making the larvae sink. Oiling still water, therefore, controls the
breeding of mosquitoes.
10 Mechanics

Mass and Weight

While mass is the quantity of matter present in an object, weight is a measure of the pull of
gravity on the object.
This pull of gravity is always directed towards the centre of the earth. Thus, weight has both
direction and size.
The SI unit of weight is the newton (symbol N). Weight is measured by a spring balance
calibrated in newtons.
Due to the shape and rotation of the earth, the weight of an object varies from place to
place. The earth is not a perfect sphere, it is flattened at the poles such that the distance
between the centre of the earth and the poles is shorter than that between the centre of
the earth and the equator. Thus, a body weighs more at the poles than at the equator.

Relationship between Mass and Weight

When a graph of weight in newtons (y-axis) against mass in kilograms (x-axis) Is plotted, the
value of the slope is called the gravitational field strength (intensity). This is the gravitational
force on a unit mass at that place on the earth.
On the earth’s surface, an object of mass m has a gravitational pull of mg on it, where g is
acceleration due to gravity (free fall). Thus, the weight W = mg.
The earth pulls each kilogram of mass on its surface with a force of about 9.8 N, which is
approximately 10 Nkg–1.
For example, the weight W of an object whose mass is 50 kg is given by:
W = mg = 50 × 10 = 500 N
Similarly, the mass m of an object whose weight is 900 N is given by:
 FORCE 11

W 900
m= = 10 = 90 kg
g

Examples Examples
Example 1 Example 2

Calculate the weight of each of the following: An astronaut weighs 900 N on earth. On the moon, he weighs 150
(a) A cat of mass 1.5 kg. N. Calculate the moon’s gravitational strength.

(b) A pencil of mass 5.0 g. (Take g = 10 Nkg–1)

(c) A lorry of 8 tonnes. Solution

weight of astronaut
(Use g = 10 Nkg–1) The mass of astronaut =
earth's gravitational field strength
Solution 90
= 10 = 90 kg.
(a) Weight = mass × pull of gravity
Weight of the astronaut on the moon = mass of the astronaut ×
= 1.5 × 10 = 15 N moon’s gravitational strength
5
(b) Mass of pencil = = 0.005 kg ∴ The moon’s gravitational field strength
100
weight of astronaut on the moon
Weight = 0.005 × 10 = 0.05 N =
mass of astronaut
(c) Weight of lorry = 8 × 1 000 × 10 150
= = 1.67 Nkg-1
= 80 000 N 90

Differences between Mass and Weight

Mass Weight

It is the quantity of matter in the body. It is the pull of gravity on a body.

It is measured in kilograms. It is measured in newtons.

It is the same everywhere. It changes from place to place.

It is measured using a beam balance. Measured using a spring balance.

Has magnitude only. Has both magnitude and direction.

Scalar and Vector Quantities

A scalar quantity is a quantity which has magnitude (size) only but no direction.
It can be specified by a number and a unit. If the mass of a car is 800 kg or the area of a
circle is 314 cm3, then the values represent the magnitude of mass and area respectively.
Mass and area are scalar quantities. Other examples of scalar quantities are density,
volume, energy, time, pressure, temperature and length.
12 Mechanics

Scalar quantities are added by the normal rules of arithmetic. For example, 3 kg added to
2 kg make 5 kg and 4 hours added to 2 hours make 6 hours.

1. Define the term force and state its SI unit.

2. Name any three types of force. Vector representation.
3. By considering action-reaction forces, identify why
water rises up a thin capillary tube.
4. What is the difference between cohesive force and
adhesive force?
5. State any five effects of force on a body
6. Distinguish between mass and weight.
7. Force is normally represented as shown below;

What do the following represent; Vector Addition

(a) arrow head?
(b) length of the arrow?
8. By giving an example, state what is meant by a scalar
quantity?
9. A water droplet emerges from the mouth of a straw as
shown in the sequence below. Explain why the water

A vector quantity is a quantity which has direction as well

as magnitude.
It can be specified by a number, unit and direction. If the Resultant Vector
weight of a car is 8 000 N, 8 000 gives the number, N is its takes a spherical shape as it
unit and it is directed towards the centre of the earth. comes out of the straw.
Other examples of vector quantities are force, velocity,
displacement, acceleration, momentum and magnetic
field strength.
• All vector quantities obey a special rule for addition
and subtraction, which takes account of direction as
well as magnitude (size). A vector quantity is
represented on a diagram by a straight line with an
arrow.
• The length of the line represents the magnitude of the
vector quantity (when drawn to scale) and the arrow
shows the direction and line of action of the vector.
• The sum of two or more vectors is the resultant vector.
Parallel forces which act on the same object can be
added arithmetically, taking account of their
directions.
• When forces are acting in opposite directions, the
resultant is their difference.
• To specify resultant force, both magnitude and
direction are given. For example, the resultant force
 FORCE 13

10. Briefly explain why the meniscus of mercury is convex while that of water is concave
when both are placed in a thin capillary tube.
11. Define surface tension.
12. How do impurities and temperature affect surface tension?
13. Describe a vector quantity and give an example of a vector quantity
14. Give three differences between mass and weight.
15. Give two examples of contact force and non-contact force.
16. A Form 1 student trapped a soap film in a loop of wire as shown below.

(a) Sketch a diagram to show the behaviour of the film when punctured at point X.
(b) Explain your observation.

17. Two tubes A and B were dipped in beakers; one with water and the other with
mercury. Show the levels of the liquids in the tubes.

18. When a paint brush is immersed in water its bristles spread but when removed
outside water they cling together as shown below. Explain.

19. Calculate the weight of objects with the following masses on earth·

(a) 12kg (b) 215 kg (c) 579 g (d) 2 g (e) 3.5 kg (f) 897 g
20. Explain how you would change the weight of a body without changing its mass.
21. Draw the resultant force in each of the following:

(a) (b)
14 Mechanics

(c) (d)
22. Explain why a needle placed very carefully horizontally on water can float but will
immediately sink when some detergent is added to the water.
23. Complete the following table by ticking the appropriate column.
Quantity scalar vector
Force
Weight
Gravitational field strength
Mass
Distance
Time
Acceleration
24. If you go from the earth to live on the moon you would have the same mass, but your
weight would be different. Explain.
25. If the gravitational field strength on the moon is 1/6 that of earth, calculate the weight
of a person whose mass is 45 kg when he is on the moon.
26. Define elastic force.
27. On a rainy day, Stephen wanted to remove rainy water that was collecting and
weighing down on the surface of the tent that they were using as shelter He was
advised not to touch the inside of the tent which appeared dump. Explain.
28. When Mwang1 was removing his cloths one dark night, he realised that the cloth was
making some crackling noise and he saw some sparks from the cloth. What force was
in effect?
29. A lorry whose mass is half a tonne on earth is taken to the moon. If on the moon, the
lorry weighs 833.33 N, what is the moon's gravitational strength?
30. What happens to a rubber band or a spring when a force is applied to it?
31. Complete the table below by naming all the forces that are in action.

Work Type of force acting

A computer resting on its stand
A submarine that is stationary inside water
A rocket just as it takes off from its base
A dragonfly walking on the surface of water
32. A thread is carefully placed in a soap film which has been formed on a wire ring as
shown in the figure below.

(a) Clearly show using a diagram what happens if the soap film inside the thread is
pierced by a needle.
(b) What name is given to the force acting on the thread?
 FORCE 15

33. Define resultant force.

34. Identify the type of force acting on each of the following:

(a) (b) (c)

35. Explain why a carefully placed needle floats on water yet its density is greater than
that of water
36. Sketch how a vector quantity is represented on a diagram.
37. A drop of water and a drop of mercury were placed on a glass surface. The result was
as shown below.

(a) Identify the drops: A-----------b------------

(b) Explain the difference in shape between A and B above

1. 2006 Q2
Figure 2 (a) shows body being acted on by two forces, F1 and F2.

On figure 2 (b), draw the force F3 that has same effect on the body as the two forces.
(1 mark)

2. 2008 Q3
Figure 1 shows a brick placed on a plane inclined at an angle θ to the horizontal.
The weight, W, of the brick is shown.

(a) On the same diagram show with arrows the other two forces acting on the brick
and name them. (1 mark)
(b) State how each of the two forces named (a) above is affected when the angle
θ is reduced. (1 mark)

3. 2009 Q3
A steel needle when placed carefully on water can be made to float. When a detergent
16 Mechanics

is added to the water it sinks. Explain this observation. (2 marks)

4. 2011 Q7
Figure 6 shows a small toy boat floating on water in a basin. X and Y are two points
near the toy.

When a hot metal rod is dipped into the water at point X, the toy is observed to move
towards Y. Explain this observation. (2
marks)

5. 2012 Q3
A solid weighs 16.5 N on the surface of the moon. The force of the gravity on the moon
is 1.7Nkg-1. Determine the mass of the solid. (3
marks)

6. 2013 Q11; 2016 Q4

Figure 6 (a) and 6 (b) show capillary tubes inserted in water and mercury
respectively.

It is observed that in the water the meniscus in the capillary tube is higher than the
meniscus in the beaker, while in mercury the meniscus in the capillary tube is lower
than the meniscus in the beaker. Explain these observations.
(2 marks)

7. 2014 Q3
State the reason why it is not correct to quote the weight of solid objects in kilograms.
(1
mark)

8. 2018 Q1
State the reason why an object on earth has a higher weight than on the moon. (1
mark)

9. 2019 Q3
 FORCE 17

State two ways of reducing the surface tension of a liquid. (2

marks)
 PRESSURE
Table of Contents 📱👈💻

Units of pressure
Pressure in liquids Connections
Liquid levels
Derivation of fluid pressure formula Building on…
Transmission of pressure in liquids
Hydraulic machines  Measurement (I)
Atmospheric pressure  Force
Mercury barometer
Arriving at …
Fortin barometer
Aneroid barometer  Defining Pressure, and
Pressure gauges working out calculations
Application of pressure in gases and liquids involving Pressure in both
Revision Exercise solids and fluids
 Describing the factors that
Specific Objectives affect pressure in fluids –
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to: and deriving the fluid
a) define pressure and state its units pressure formula
b) determine pressure exerted by solids  Describing Pascal’s principle-
c) describe experiments to investigate factors affecting and its applications
pressure in fluids;  Describing the applications
d) derive the fluid pressure formula. of pressure
e) state the principle of transmission of pressure in fluids
(Pascals principle) Looking forward to….
f) explain atmospheric pressure and its effect
g) state and explain the applications of pressure  Quantity of Heat
h) solve numerical problems involving pressure.  Gas laws
 Floating and Sinking

(24 Lessons)

Content
1. Definition of pressure
2. Pressure in solids
3. Factors affecting pressure in fluids (Experimental treatment required)
4. Derivation of P = hρg
5. Atmospheric pressure
6. Simple mercury barometer, manometers
7. Applications of pressure: drinking straw, syringe, siphon, hydraulic press, hydraulic brakes,
bicycle pump, force pump, lift pump
8. Problems on pressure
2 Mechanics

PRESSURE
The term pressure is used in day-to-day life. In many cases, a given force acting on an
area causes a penetration, depression or distortion. The effect is greater when the force
acts on a smaller area than when it acts on a larger area.
In general, when a force is applied on a given area, pressure is exerted on the surface.

Pressure is defined as the force acting normally (perpendicularly) per unit area.

Units of Pressure
force (F)
From the definition, pressure P =
area (A)
SI unit of force
Therefore, the SI unit of pressure =
SI unit of area
= N/m2 or Nm-2
The SI unit of pressure is thus newton per square metre (Nm –2), which is also called the
Pascal (Pa).
1 Nm–2 = 1 Pa
Other units include the mmHg, the cmHg and an atmosphere (atm).

Pressure in solids
Example
Pressure in solids is obtained by A brick 20 cm long, 10 cm wide and 5 cm thick has a mass of
dividing the force exerted by the 500 g. Determine the:
object (weight of the solid) by the
(a) greatest pressure that can be exerted by the brick
area in which the solid is in contact
on a flat surface;
with a surface.
(b) least pressure that can be exerted by the brick on a
(i) If area is held constant, the
flat surface. (Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
higher the force, the higher
the pressure and the lower the Solution
force, the lower the pressure. (a) Dimensions of the brick are 0.20 m, 0.10 m and
(ii) If force is kept constant, the 0.05 m.
smaller the area, the greater 500
Weight of the brick =
1 000
× 10 = 5 N
the pressure and the larger the
F
area, the smaller the pressure. from the formula P = , P is greatest when area A
A
For maximum pressure, the area in is smallest.
contact should be minimum. Area of the smallest face of the brick = 0.10 × 0.05
For minimum pressure, the area in = 0.005
which the body is in contact with a m 2

surface should be maximum. It is for F 5

this reason that trucks carrying heavy Therefore, P = =
Asmallest 0.005
loads have many wheels so that the = 1 000 Nm-2
pressure in contact with the road
(b) Pressure is least when area A is greatest.
surface is reduced thereby avoiding
5
damage to the roads. Therefore, P =
0.20 ×0.10
= 250 Nm-2
To investigate the relationship between pressure in liquids
and density.
Procedure
A tall jar is filled with liquids of different densities. A thistle Pressure in Liquids
funnel is then fitted with a U-tube filled to the same level
with water as shown below. Pressure is also exerted in
The thistle funnel is the lowered to different depths from liquids. This varies with depth,
the surface and the difference in levels, h, of water in the density and the gravitational
U-tube is noted for each liquid used. The direction of pull g.
funnel inside the liquid is then changed and the
Experiment to show that pressure in liquids varies with Generally, for liquids, the
observations noted.
depth.
Observation following observations hold:
ItAistall
observed that, three holes A, B, C have been made
tin in which (i) pressure in a liquid
(i)
on one side is filledthe
The deeper funnel
with water goes below the surface, the
as shown. increases with depth below its
greater the difference in levels, h.
Observation surface.
(ii) The differences in levels, h, obtained with more
It is observed that when
denser liquids at a the tin is filled
particular depthwithis water,
greaterthethan
lower that
hole,obtained
A, throwswith
water the farthest
water at that depth. distance z,
followed
(iii) by Bsame
At the distance
depth y and lastly C
in a given distance
liquid, x.
difference in
levels
Explanation obtained is the same regardless of the
direction which the funnel faces.
ItPressure
can thusofbewater at A isthat
concluded greater
pressure than pressure
in a at B
liquid increases
and pressure at B is greater than at C.
with the density of the liquid and with depth. Also, theHence, pressure
increases with depth.
Increase in pressure with depth explains why dam
walls are constructed thicker at the bottom than at
the top. Additionally, the walls of the dam are curved
to increase the surface area, hence reduce the
pressure.
Liquid Levels (ii) pressure in a liquid
When a liquid is poured into a set of open and increases with the density of the
connected vessels with different shapes (and area of liquid.
cross-section), it flows until the levels are the same in (iii) the distribution of
all the vessels. pressure in a liquid at a particular
This shows that the liquid flows to find its own height depth is the same in all
regardless of the shape of the vessel. directions.
Liquid Levels in a U-tube
When water is poured into one arm of a U-tube, it will
flow into the other arm. The water will settle in the
tube with the levels on both arms being the same.
When one arm of the U-tube is blown into with the
mouth, the level moves downwards, while in the other
arm it rises, (b).
This is caused by the pressure difference between the
 4 Mechanics

From the formula P = hρg, it can be seen that the

pressure due to a liquid column is directly proportional to:
(i) height h of the column.
(ii) the density ρ of the liquid.

Pressure does not depend on the

Derivation of Fluid Pressure Formula P = h𝛒g cross-section area of the container
which holds the liquid. The formula
If A is the cross-section area of the column, h the
is also used to determine pressure
height of the column and ρ the density of the liquid,
due to a column of gas.
then;
Volume of the liquid = cross-section × height = Ah Example 1

Mass of the liquid = volume of the liquid × density A diver is 10 m below the surface of the water in a
dam. If the density of water is 1 000 kgm–3,
= Ahρ
determine the pressure due to the water on the
Therefore, weight of the liquid column diver. (Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
= mass of the liquid × gravitational force per unit Solution
mass
Pressure on the diver is given by;
= Ahρg
F P = hρg
From the definition of pressure, P =
A = 10 × 1 000 × 10
weight of liquid column = 100 000 Nm–2
P =
area
Ahρg
=
A
= hρg
Therefore, pressure P exerted by the column on A is
given by, p = h𝛒g
 PRESSURE 5

Example 2
The density of mercury is 13 600 kgm–3.
Determine the liquid pressure at a point 76 cm
below the surface of mercury. (Take g = 10 Nkg–1)
Solution
Pressure is given by;
P = hρg
= 0.76 × 13 600 × 10
= 103 360 Nm–2

Transmission of Pressure in Liquids

The principle of transmission of pressure in liquids (Pascal’s Principle) states that pressure
applied at one part of an enclosed liquid is transmitted equally to all other parts of the
enclosed liquid.
Gases may transmit pressure in a similar way when they are confined and incompressible.

Hydraulic Machines
The principle of transmission of pressure in liquids is made use of in hydraulic machines
where a small force applied at one point of a liquid produces a much larger force at some
other point of the liquid.

(i) Hydraulic Lift

The hydraulic lift consists of a small piston S
of cross-section area A1 and a large piston
Consider a force F1 applied on the small L of cross-section area A2. When a force is
piston of cross-section area A1. Then, pressure applied on piston S, the pressure
P1 generated on the liquid by the piston S generated by the force is transmitted
due to F1 is given by; throughout the liquid to piston L.
F1
P1 =
A1

This pressure is transmitted by the liquid to the

larger piston L. Therefore, pressure of liquid
acting on the area A2 of the large piston is
equal to P1. Thus, the force F2 produced on
the large piston is given by;
F2 = pressure × area
= P1 × A2
Hydraulic lifts are used to hoist cars in
F1
But P1 = garages. Hydraulic presses on the other
A1
hand are used to compress certain
F1
So, F2 = × A2 materials such as cotton bales into the
A1
required shapes and sizes.
F2 A2
Therefore, =A
F1 1
 6 Mechanics

Example
A small force of 100 N applied on the small piston of area A 1
equal to 0.25 m2 produces a bigger force F2 on a larger
piston of area A2 equal to 10 m2. Calculate F2.
Solution
F2 A A2
= A2 ; F2 = × F1
F1 1 A1
10
= × 100 NB: A small force applied on
0.25
= 4 000 N the small piston produces a
much bigger force on the

The hydraulic Brake System

The force applied on the brake pedal exerts pressure
on the master cylinder. The pressure is transmitted by
the brake fluid to the slave cylinder. This causes the
pistons of slave cylinder to open the brake shoe and
hence the brake lining presses on the drum. The
rotation of the wheel is thus resisted.
When the force on the foot pedal is withdrawn, the
return spring pulls back the brake shoe which then
pushes the slave cylinder piston back.

The advantage of this system is that the pressure

exerted in master cylinder is transmitted equally to all
the four wheel cylinders. Hence, the braking force
obtained is uniform.
The liquid to be used as a brake fluid should
have the following properties:
(i) Be incompressible, to ensure pressure
exerted at one point is transmitted equally
to all other parts in the liquid.
(ii) Have low freezing point and high boiling
point.
(iii) Should not corrode the parts of the brake
system.

Atmospheric Pressure
The pressure exerted on the surface of the earth by the weight of the air column is called
atmospheric pressure.
 PRESSURE 7

Experiment to demonstrate the existence of the atmospheric

pressure (crushing can experiment)
Apparatus
Tin container with a tight-fitting cork, water, tripod stand, Bunsen
burner
Procedure
• Remove the cork from the container and pour in some
little water.
• Boil the water for several minutes.
• Replace the cork and allow the container to cool. You
may pour cold water on it to cool it faster. Observe what
happens to the container.
Observation
During cooling, the container is crushed in.
Explanation
Steam from boiling water drives out most of the air inside the
container, (a). When the cork is first replaced, the steam
pressure inside the container balances the atmospheric
pressure outside. On cooling, the steam condenses.
A partial vacuum is therefore created in the container. Since
pressure inside the container is less than atmospheric pressure
outside, the container is crushed, (b).

Maximum Column of Liquid that can be Supported by

Atmospheric Pressure
The straw
When water is sucked up a straw, the air pressure inside the straw
reduces.
The atmospheric pressure acting on the water surface is now greater
than the pressure inside the straw. Water is thus pushed up the straw by
the atmospheric pressure.
If the straw was long enough and sealed at the top, it would be
possible to estimate the height of water in the straw that would be
supported by atmospheric pressure.
Water and Mercury columns
When glass tubes of different lengths are filled completely with water
and inverted in a water reservoir, it is observed that the water column
can be very large, in fact too large for the apparatus to
accommodate.
However, if mercury, which is much denser than water is used, the
column supported is found to be much shorter(b). In this figure, the
mercury column in the tube exerts pressure at point B. For the height of
this column to remain constant, there must be a counter pressure to
hold it up. This counter pressure is provided by the atmosphere.
8 Mechanics

Example 1
A sea diver is 35 m below the surface of sea-water. If density of the sea-water is 1.03
g/cm3 and g is 10 Nkg–1, determine the total pressure on him. Take atmospheric pressure
to be 103,00 N/m–2
Solution
Pressure in liquid is given by P = hρg
But total pressure = atmospheric pressure, Pa + liquid pressure
= Pa + hρg
= 103 000 + (35 × 1 030 × 10) Nm–2 = 463 500 Nm–2

Example 2
The air pressure at the base of a mountain is 75.0 cm of mercury while at the top it is 60.0
cm of mercury. Given that the average density of air is 1.25 kgm –3 and the density of
mercury is 13 600 kgm–3, calculate the height of the mountain.
Solution
Pressure difference due to column of air (height of mountain) = Pressure difference due to
mercury column
Pressure at the top of the mountain = 0.60 × 13 600 × 10 = 81 600 Nm–2
Pressure at the base of the mountain = 0.75 × 13 600 × 10 = 102 000 Nm–2
Pressure difference = 102 000 – 81 600 = 20 400 Nm–2
Pressure due column of air = 20 400 Nm-2
haρag = 20 400
20 400
ha = = 1 632 m
1.25 ×10

The height of the mountain is 1 632 m

Measurement of Pressure

(a) U-tube Manometer

A manometer is an instrument that can

measure fluid pressure. It consists of a U-tube
filled with water or any other suitable liquid.
Suppose one limb of the manometer is
connected to a gas supply. Due to the
pressure of the gas Pg, the water level in the
other limb rises to, say, Y. This difference in
water levels is the difference between gas
pressure Pg and the atmospheric pressure Pa.
Since X and Z are at the same horizontal level,
pressure at X equals pressure at Z. Pressure at X
 PRESSURE 9

is pressure of gas Pg.

Pressure at Z = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to the column of water
Therefore, Pg = Pa + hρg
Since density of water, ρ, and g are known, we can determine pressure of gas if the
atmospheric pressure is known.
Suppose
h = 20.0 cm and Pa = 103 000 Nm–2. Then, taking the density of water as 1 000 kgm –3,
Pg = 103 000 + 0.20 × 1 000 × 10 = 105 000 Nm–2

(b) Mercury Barometer

A barometer is an instrument used to measure pressure. It is an arrangement of a liquid
column in a tube supported by atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, a column of mercury and water supported by atmospheric pressure is
approximately 76 cm and 10 m respectively.
Mercury, which is about 14 times denser than water, is chosen for atmospheric pressure
measurements since it gives a much shorter and measurable column.

Simple Mercury Barometer

The simple mercury barometer comprises a
thick-walled glass tube of about one metre
long and sealed at one end.
It is carefully filled with mercury to the top and
any bubbles of air in the tube removed by
closing the open end and inverting it severally.
It is necessary to remove the bubbles because
they make the barometer defective.
The tube is refilled and the open end closed
tightly. It is then inverted into a dish filled with
mercury and supported upright with a stand and clamp. The tightly closed end is then
opened while under the surface of the mercury. The column of mercury in the tube drops
to create a vacuum in the space above the column.
The height h of the column (barometric height) is a measure of the atmospheric pressure.
At sea level, h = 76 cmHg.
Since density ρ of mercury is 13 600 kgm–3,
Pa = hρg
= 0.76 × 13 600 × 10
= 103 360 Nm–2
This is the standard atmospheric pressure, and is sometimes referred to as one atmosphere.

Testing the Vacuum Barometer

If the barometer has air at the top, then it is faulty. The value of pressure indicated by such
a barometer is less than the actual value since the trapped air also exerts pressure on the
mercury column.
10 Mechanics

To test for the vacuum, the tube is tilted as shown

in (a) so that the topmost part of the tube is
below the height that is supported by
atmospheric pressure.
If there is air in the tube, the mercury will not fill
the tube completely. However, if the space is a
vacuum, the mercury fills the tube completely.
The space above the mercury in the tube when
upright is called Toricellian vacuum and contains
a little mercury vapour.

(c) Fortin Barometer

Fortin barometer is used where high precision is
required.
The Fortin barometer has a:
a) vertical glass tube containing mercury.
b) leather bag as the reservoir of mercury.
c) short fixed main scale and a movable vernier scale
which facilitates accurate reading of the mercury
height.
d) fixed ivory index with a sharp point at the bottom,
which acts as the ‘zero’ mark of the main scale.

Before taking the reading, the level of mercury surface in the reservoir is adjusted by
turning the adjusting screw until the surface of the mercury just touches the tip of the ivory
index. The mirror-like mercury surface produces an image of the tip which helps to make
the adjustment very accurate. The height of mercury is then read from the main scale and
the vernier scale. Any change in air pressure makes the surface of mercury in the reservoir
move up and down and therefore this adjustment is necessary before the barometer is
read. The height of mercury is read from the top part of the meniscus.
The readings obtained from the barometer are in terms of the height of mercury column
and are written as mmHg or cmHg (Hg is the chemical symbol for mercury). Therefore, the
atmospheric pressure at sea level is expressed as 760 mmHg.
The atmospheric pressure Pa when the mercury column is 760 mm long is given by;
Pa = hρg
= 0.76 × 13 600 × 10 (density of mercury is 13 600 kgm –3 and g is 10 Nkg-1)
= 103 360 Nm–2

(d) Aneroid Barometer

The aneroid barometer is a portable type of barometer consisting of a sealed, corrugated
metal box. This metal box expands a little if pressure outside is reduced, and reduces in
volume a little if subjected to higher pressure from outside. The motion due to the changes
in shape of the metal box is magnified by the corresponding movements of the spring
strips, lever arm, chain and finally the pointer on the scale.
 PRESSURE 11

Normally, the pointer would indicate a particular value of the atmospheric pressure of the
surrounding so that any changes in pressure would be noticeable by the movement of the
pointer to either side of this atmospheric value on the scale.
The aneroid barometer movements make it adaptable to measure heights. Altimeters are
basically aneroid barometers, and are used in aircrafts to measure heights.
The aneroid barometer is normally calibrated in millibars. 1 bar is a pressure of 100 000 Nm –2
(standard atmospheric pressure)
100 000
1 millibar (mbar) = = 100 Nm–2
1 000

(e) Pressure Gauges

Pressure gauges are portable and are used mostly
for measuring gas pressure, tyre pressure, pressure
of compressed air in compressors and steam
pressure.
They are basically made of coiled flexible metal
tubes which uncoil when the pressure inside
increases. The movement of the tube is made to
drive a pointer across a scale, through a combined
system of levers and gears.

(a) The Bicycle Pump

A bicycle pump is a simple form of a compression Applications of Pressure in Gases
pump. and Liquids

It has a flexible leather washer which works both as a

valve and a piston inside the pump barrel. Before the
pump is used, it is connected to the tyre which has a
rubber valve in it.
When the pump handle is drawn, the volume of air
below the washer increases and its pressure is reduced
below the atmospheric pressure. Air from outside the
pump then flows past the leather washer into the
barrel. At the same time, the higher air pressure in the
tube closes the tyre valve.
When the pump handle is pushed in, the air in the
pump barrel is compressed. The high pressure in the
barrel presses the leather washer against the sides of
the barrel. When the pressure of the compressed air
becomes greater than that of air in the tyre, air is
12 Mechanics

(b) The Lift Pump

A lift pump is used to raise water from wells. It consists
of a cylindrical metal barrel with a spout. It has two
valves, P and Q, as shown.
To start the pump, water is poured on top of the
piston (priming) so that a good air-tight seal is made
round the piston and valve P. The pump is operated
by means of a lever.
Upstroke
When the plunger moves up during the upstroke,
valve P closes due to its weight and pressure of water
above it. At the same time, air above valve Q
expands and its pressure reduces below atmospheric
pressure. The atmospheric pressure on water in the
well below thus pushes water up past valve Q into
the barrel, as shown in (a).
The plunger is moved up and down until the
space between P and Q is filled with water.
Downstroke
During downstroke, valve Q closes due to its weight
and pressure of water above, as shown alongside
Water is forced out through valve P and thus flows
out of the spout.
Limitations of the lift pump
The atmospheric pressure can only support a column
of water of about 10 m. This is, therefore, the
theoretical maximum height to which water can be
raised by the pump at normal atmospheric pressure.
In practice, the possible height of water can be
raised by this pump is less than 10 m because of:
(i) reduced atmospheric pressure in places
high above sea level.
(ii) leakages at the valves and pistons.
 PRESSURE 13

(c) The Force Pump

This pump can be used to raise water to
heights of more than 10 m.
Upstroke
During upstroke, air above the valve S
expands and its pressure reduces below
atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric
pressure on the water in the well below pushes
water up valve S into the barrel.
The pressure above valve T is atmospheric.
Hence, this valve does not open in this stroke.
Downstroke
During the downstroke, the valve S closes.
Increase in pressure in the water in the barrel
opens valve T and forces water into chamber
C so that as water fills the chamber, air is
trapped and compressed at the upper part.
During the next upstroke, valve T closes and
the compressed air expands, ensuring a
continuous flow through P.

Advantages of the force pump over the lift

pump.
(a) it enables a continuous flow of water
and;
(b) the height to which water can be raised
by this pump does not depend on
atmospheric pressure
The height to which water can be raised by a
force pump depends on:
(i) Amount of force applied during the
downstroke.
(ii) Ability of the pump and its working parts to
withstand pressure of the long column of
14 Mechanics

(d) The Siphon

A siphon is obtained when a tube (usually plastic or
rubber) is used to empty tanks or draw petrol from
petrol tanks of cars.
The pressure at the surface of the liquid is
atmospheric. The tube is first filled with the liquid and
end C held below the surface. Pressure at C is
greater than that at the surface by an amount hρg.
The liquid will continue to run out so long as the end
C is below the liquid surface. Pressure at A and B is
atmospheric pressure since they are at the same
horizontal level. Pressure at C is equal to
atmospheric pressure plus pressure due to column h
of the liquid. That is;
Pressure at C, Pc = Pa + hρg, where Pa is atmospheric
pressure and ρ the density of water.
The excess pressure hρg thus causes the liquid to
flow out of the tube at C.
The siphon will only work if:
NB: A
(i) the end C of the tube is below the surface of A
of the liquid to be emptied.
siphon can
operate in a
(ii) the tube is first filled with the liquid, without any vacuum.
bubbles in it.
(iii) the tube does not rise above the height of the
liquid surface A.
(iv) one end of the tube is inside the liquid to be
emptied.
An application of the siphon is the automatic
flushing unit.
It is used where constant cleaning is necessary, like
urinals. When the water in the tank fills above the
top of the inverted U-tube, a pressure difference
between the two arms is created. This causes the
water to flow out of the tank. The tap can be
adjusted to enable the flushing unit to flush at pre-
determined intervals.
The ordinary lavatory flusher is set to work by
mechanically filling the tube with water to create
the necessary pressure difference.
 PRESSURE 15

Review Exercises
1. Define the term pressure and give its SI unit.
2. Calculate the pressure in Nm-2 at the bottom of a well 10 m deep (density of water =
1030 kgm-3).
3. Explain why a lady wearing sharp heeled shoes is not likely to skid on a slippery muddy
road.
4. Give the factors that affect pressure in fluids.
5. What is the value of normal atmospheric pressure?
6. State Pascal's principle
7. On a certain day, the atmospheric pressure read 760 mmHg. Express this in N/m2.
(Density of mercury = 13.6 g/cm3 and g = 10 N/kg)
8. In the hydraulic system below, calculate the mass of H that will be counter balanced by
the 1 kg mass if the area of piston A= 5 cm2 and that of piston B =50 cm2.

9. Describe the principle by which the typical rubber sucker drawn below functions.

10. The pressure of the atmosphere at a certain coastal town is found to be 76 cm of

mercury. Express this pressure in SI units. (The density of mercury is 1 .36 × 104
kg/m3, g = 10 N/kg).
11. Describe with the aid of a diagram, the crushing can experiment. Explain why the can
eventually collapses.
12. State the reasons why water is not suitable as a barometric liquid.
13. A gas supply was connected to a manometer containing mercury and the levels of
mercury was as shown below

Determine the amount of pressure of the gas in:

(a) mmHg
(b) pascals
16 Mechanics

(Take density of mercury as 13 600 kg/m3 and g = 10 N/kg and atmospheric pressure
is 750 mmHg).

14. Name two practical uses of the hydraulic press.

15. In order to carry out some medical tests, doctors need blood from a patient. The
doctors use a syringe to draw blood. Explain how the syringe works in this case.
16. A block of glass of dens ty 2.5 g/cm3 has dimensions 8 cm by 10 cm by 15 cm. It is
placed on one of its faces on a horizontal surface. Calculate:
(a) the weight of the block
(b) the greatest pressure it can exert on the horizontal surface
(c) the least pressure it can exert on the horizontal surface
17. Name two characteristics of pressure at a point inside a fluid.
18. Give a reason why nose bleeding is likely to occur at the top of a mountain.
19. On the diagram below, indicate the height which measures atmospheric pressure.

20. Explain and justify why the pressure of the atmosphere on the peak of Mount Kenya is
lower than the corresponding pressure anywhere else in Kenya.
21. Draw the following and explain their action;
(a) a syringe
(b) a bicycle pump
(c) siphon
(d) mouth sucking on a drinking straw.
22. Give two properties of liquids used in hydraulic machines.
23. The reading of a mercury barometer is 75.58 cm at the base of a mountain and 66.37
cm at the summit. Calculate the height of the mountain. (Density of mercury =13 600
kg/m3 and density of air = 1.25 kg/m3).
24. State two differences in practise between a force pump and a lift pump.
25. (a) A newspaper article claimed that a woman wearing shoes with heels which have
a very small area exerted more pressure on the ground than an elephant. How could
this be true?
(b) The weight of the woman was 540 N and the heels of her shoes were 0 .9 cm2
each. The elephant weighs 31 500 N and each foot has an area of 750 cm2. Calculate
how much more pressure was exerted by the woman.
26. A piston whose diameter is 1.4 m is pushed into a cylinder containing a fluid. If the
pressure produced in the cylinder is 4.0 × 105 Pa, calculate the force applied on the
piston.
27. State two advantages of a force pump over lift pump.
28. A metallic solid block whose mass is 10 kg, has dimensions 2 m by 1 m by 50 cm. Find
the difference between the maximum and minimum pressure it can exert on a flat
surface?
29. State any three areas where we apply atmospheric pressure.
30. Name two machines that apply Pascal's principle.
31. State the reason why cranes are designed with tracks instead of wheels.
32. A block of concrete measuring 40 cm by 10 cm by 10 cm exerts a maximum pressure of
 PRESSURE 17

4.8 x 104 pa on a level ground.

(a) Determine its mass in kg.
(b) Determine the minimum pressure it can exert if placed on a horizontal
bench.

33. State the reason why it is not possible to suck a liquid into your mouth using a drinking
straw on the moon.
34. Tracy blows into the manometer shown below through X. Calculate the total pressure
exerted on the manometer. (Take atmospheric pressure as 1.0 x 105 Pa and g = 10
N/kg)

35. The diagram below shows a hydraulic press.

Work out the force that is pushing up piston A.

36. Explain how a syringe is used to inject vaccine into a patient’s body
37. Water is settled in a glass whose radius is 3.5 cm. If the height of the water from the
base of the glass is 10 cm, calculate the pressure that the water is exerting on the base
of the glass. Take the density of water =1.0 × 103 kg/m3 and atmospheric pressure =
1.0 × 105 Pa.
38. Mark the level of mercury in tubes B and C.

39. A hydraulic press has two pistons whose areas are 4 cm2 and 30 cm2 respectively. A
force of 15 KN pushes the bigger piston upwards as a result of a force applied on the
smaller piston. Calculate the force being applied on the smaller piston.
40. What is the pressure acting on a column of mercury 10.5 cm high if the density of
mercury is 1.355 × 104 kg/m3 and the gravitational force is 10 N/kg?
41. The manometer shown below indicates the pressure of the gas inside the closed
container. If the atmospheric pressure is 100 000 Pa, calculate the pressure of the gas.
18 Mechanics

42. State the principle of transmission of pressure in fluids.

43. The diagram below shows a cross section of a dam built in Mwingi.

Explain the shape of the dam's wall as you get to the bottom.

44. Most flats in the urban areas have two water storage tanks; a very large one below the
building, and the other on the roof of the building. Explain why water from the lower
tank has to be pumped with a force pump into the tanks at the top of the building.

45. Calculate the minimum length of a tube required to make a barometer using water of
density 1.03 × 103 kg/m3. Take atmospheric pressure as 1.03 × l05 N/m2.

46. Use the diagram below to answer the questions that follow

(a) Given that the density of water is 1 x 103 kg/m3, determine the density of liquid
Y
(b) Give a reason why mercury has been used.
(c) State possible reasons why the height of liquid Y column is higher than that of
the water column.
47. You are provided with liquid of density 𝜌 in a container to a height h of the container as
shown below. The cross-sectional area of the container is A.
 PRESSURE 19

Prove that the pressure (P) exerted on A is equal to h𝜌g

48. The tank shown below was filled with milk. Ten holes with a diameter of 2 cm each
were then made at the sides of the tank. A lid which exactly fit into the open end was
then placed on the liquid and pressure applied on it such that it pushed the milk
downwards.

Explain what was observed.

49. Jomo used the setup below to draw water

After some time, he noticed that nothing was happening.

(a) Explain what he has to do to get the setup working.
(b) Using a diagram correct the setup and explain how the set-up works.
50. The glass below was filled with water to its brim, then a card was used to cover it.
Explain why the card does not fall when the glass is in the inverted position.

Recent KCSE Questions

20 Mechanics

1. 2006 Q3
State Pascal's principle of transmission of pressure in fluids. (1 mark)

2. 2007 Q4, 5
Figure 3 shows the levels of two liquids A and B after some air has been sucked out of
the tubes through the tap. Use this information and the figure to answer questions 4
and 5.

4. State the reason for the rise in the levels of the liquids when air is sucked from
the tubes. (1
mark)

5. Given that the density of liquid B is 1200 kgm3, determine the density of liquid
A. (3
marks)

3. 2008 Q8
Figure 4 shows a conical flask 15cm high, filled with a liquid of density 1200kgm-3. The
atmospheric pressure of the surrounding is 8.4 x 104Pa.

Determine the pressure at the point marked X, at the bottom of the flask. (3
marks)

4. 2009 Q4
Figure 2 shows two cylinders containing a liquid and connected with a tight - fitting
flexible tube. The cylinders are fitted with air- tight pistons A and B as shown.
 PRESSURE 21

When equal forces, F are applied on the pistons as shown it is observed that piston A
moves up while B moves down. Explain these observations. (2
marks)

5. 2010 Q3
Some water in a tin can was boiled for some time. The tin can was then sealed and
cooled. After some time, it collapsed. Explained this observation. (2
marks)

6. 2012 Q15 (c)

In an experiment to demonstrate atmospheric pressure, a plastic bottle is partially
filled with hot water and the bottle is then tightly corked.
After some time, the bottle starts to get deformed.

(i) State the purpose of the hot water. (1 mark)

(ii) State the reason why the bottle gets deformed. (1 mark)
(iii) Explain your answer in c (ii). (2
marks)

7. 2012 Q19
(a) Figure 14 shows a lift pump.

Explain why, when the piston is:

22 Mechanics

(i) Pulled upwards, valve A opens while valve B closes. (2 marks)

(ii) Pushed downwards, valve A closes while valve B opens. (2 marks)

(b) After several strokes, water rises above the piston as shown in figure 15.

State how water is removed from the cylinder through the spout. (1 mark)

(c) A lift pump can lift water to a maximum height of 10m.Determine the maximum
height to which the pump can raise paraffin. (3 marks)
(take density of paraffin as 800kgm-3 and density of water as 1000kgm-3).

(d) State one factor that determines the height to which a force pump can lift water.
(1
mark)

8. 2013 Q3
Figure 2 shows some air trapped by mercury in a glass tube. The tube is inverted in a
dish containing mercury.

Given that the atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg and the height of mercury column in
the tube is 600 mm, determine the pressure of the air trapped in the tube in mmHg.
(3 marks)

9. 2014 Q5; 2016 Q10

 PRESSURE 23

Figure 3 shows two cylinders of different cross-sectional areas connected with a tube.
The cylinders contain an incompressible fluid and are fitted with pistons of cross-
sectional areas 4cm2 and 24cm2.

Opposing forces P and Q are applied to the pistons such that the pistons do not move.
If the pressure on the smaller piston is 5N cm-2, Determine force Q. (2 marks)

10. 2015 Q4
State two factors that determine the pressure at a point in a liquid. (2
marks)

11. 2015 Q5
A student wearing sharp pointed heeled shoes is likely to damage a soft wooden floor.
Explain. (2 marks)
12. 2017 Q18 (a)
Figure 8 shows part of a hydraulic brake system.

Describe how the systems works. (5 marks)

13. 2018 Q4
Figure 2 shows an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure.
24 Mechanics

State with a reason the modification that would be required in a similar set up if
mercury were to be replaced with water. (2
marks)

14. 2018 Q17

(a) State Pascal's principle of transmission of pressure in liquids.

(b) Figure 10 shows heights of two immiscible liquids X and Y in a U-tube (drawn to
scale).

(i) State with a reason which of the two liquids X and Y has a higher density.
(2
marks)
(ii) Determine the value of h. (2 marks)

(iii) Given that the density of liquid Y is ρ, write down an expression for the
density d of liquid x in terms of ρ. (2 marks)

(c) (i) With the aid of a diagram, describe how a liquid may be siphoned from
one container to another using a flexible tube. (3 marks)
 PRESSURE 25

(iii) Sums one application of the siphon. (1

mark)

15. 2019 Q2
Figure 1 shows a defective straw used to suck milk from a glass

It is observed that upon sucking the straw, milk did not rise up the straw. Explain this
observation. (2 marks)
 THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER
Table of Contents 📱 👆 💻
Investigating matter
The smoke cell experiment
Diffusion
Revision Exercise 5
Connections

Building on…

 Primary Science – Matter

Specific Objectives
 Common observations- how
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able smell of perfume spreads
to:
Arriving at …
a) show that matter is made up of tiny particles
 Describing the kinetic theory
b) describe experiments to show that particles of
of matter
matter are at constant random motion  Describing the smoke cell
c) explain the states of matter in terms of particles experiment and Brownian
motion
d) explain diffusion
 Explaining Diffusion

Looking forward to….

Content  Gas Laws
1. Experiments to show that matter is made up of tiny  Thermal Expansion
 Heat Transfer
particles (e.g. cutting papers into small pieces),
dilution experiments
2. Brownian motion
3. States of matter
4. Diffusion (Graham’s law not required)
2 Thermodynamics

THE PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter commonly exists as solid,
liquid or gas. The physical objects and materials around us like glass, water and the air
manifest the existence of matter in its three states.
The process of subdividing matter into smaller and smaller units continues indefinitely,
suggesting that matter is not continuous, but is made up of even smaller parts.

Investigating Matter
There are several experiments that can be performed to show that matter is made up of
tiny particles.
 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER 3

The Kinetic
Experiments to show that matter is made up of tiny particles. theory of
Cutting paper matter
A paper is cut into half continuously. The process of cutting can
The kinetic
continue until further subdivision becomes impracticable. The fact that
theory of
the piece of paper can be subdivided into tiny pieces suggests that
matter states
matter is made up of tiny particles.
that matter is
Diluting potassium permanganate made up of
tiny particles
The process of dilution can continue until the solution appears which are in
colourless. This suggests that the particles of potassium permanganate constant
are spread out evenly on the water. As water particles increase, the random
particles of potassium permanganate are spread further, making the motion.
purple colour less and less deep until it appears colourless.
Constant
This shows that potassium permanganate is made up of tiny particles. random
Dissolving a solid in a solvent motion in
liquids and
100 g of salt is placed in a flask and water added carefully using a pipette
gases is called
without shaking the salt, until the flask is full. The flask is then stoppered and
Brownian
shaken to dissolve the salt.
motion, a
Observation tribute to the
It is observed that the volume of the solution of salt after shaking until all the scientist by the
solid has dissolved is less than the volume initial volume before shaking. name Robert
Conclusion Brown, who
first observed
Particles of salt are able to occupy some spaces between the water the effect in
particles. This suggests that the particles of water and the particles of 1827.
salt differ in size. The particles of the solution pack more closely in the
available space, thus reducing the volume. This further suggests that
particles of salt are broken down to fit into the spaces between the
water particles.
4 Thermodynamics

Experiments to demonstrate Brownian motion

Brownian motion in liquids

Apparatus
Beaker, hand lens, pollen grains or chalk dust, transparent lid.
Procedure Explanation

 Pour water into the beaker, about three quarters full. The bright
If the temperature in
 Sprinkle pollen grains or chalk dust on the surface of the specks are
water (it is important that the grains be very small in size, particles of the smoke cell is
light and evenly sprinkled on the water surface for good raised, the kinetic
results).
energy of the smoke
 Cover the beaker with a transparent lid.
 With the help of a hand lens, observe what happens to the particles increases
pollen grains on the water surface. and hence their
Observation
It is observed that the pollen grains are in constant random
motion. smoke which scatter the light
Conclusion shining on them and so
appear as bright points. They
The grains are being continually hit by small invisible
move about in a continuous
particles of water. The movement is random, suggesting
random movement because
The Smoke Cell Experiment
of uneven bombardment by
Experiment to demonstrate Brownian motion in air the invisible particles or
Apparatus molecules in air. This suggests
Drinking straw, smoke cell, microscope and a bright light that air is made up of very
source. small particles which are in
Procedure continuous random motion.
 Burn one end of a straw and let the smoke fill the smoke Conclusion
cell from the other end of the straw. Remove the straw. From the experiment above,
 Put a cover plate on top to seal the smoke and air in the it can be deduced that
cell. matter is made up of very
 Now, set up the apparatus as shown alongside. small particles which are in
 Illuminate the cell with a bright light. Use a converging lens constant random motion. This
to focus the light on the smoke cell. is called the kinetic Theory of
 Adjust the microscope until you can see very bright specks Matter.
against the grey background.

Observation Arrangement of Particles

Bright specks in continuous random motion are seen in the in the States of Matter
 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER 5

A – Melting
B – Vaporisation
C – Condensation
D – Solidification
E – Sublimation
F – Deposition

Solids
Particles of solids are closely packed together in an organised way due to strong cohesive
forces between the particles.
In their fixed positions, the particles vibrate to and fro such that increasing the temperature
of the solid increases this vibratory motion. At a certain temperature for a particular solid,
the particles break away from this knit structure and the solid is said to have melted.
Liquids
The particles are further apart. They are not fixed as in solids but move about in Brownian
motion and can do some work like breaking down a solute put in the liquid. It is easier to
dissolve a solute in hot water because the particles have increased energy. The fact that a
solids dissolve in water suggests that a solid is made up of small particles and that a liquid
has randomly moving particles.
The cohesive forces between particles in liquids are weaker compared to those in solids.
Because of this, liquids can flow and take up the shape of a container in which they are
put. When a liquid is heated, it changes into a gaseous state by a process called
vaporisation.

Gases
The particles are further apart and have increased random motion compared to those in
the liquid state. The cohesive force between the particles is extremely small and as the
particles move, they collide with each other and with the walls of the container in which
they are trapped. This produces gas pressure.
It is easier to compress gases than liquids due to presence of large inter-molecular distance
in gases than in liquids. Gas molecules or particles can lose some of their energy and fall
back into the liquid state by a process known as condensation.
Some solids directly change to gas. This process is called sublimation and the reverse
process is called deposition.

Plasma
Related to the gaseous state is another state of matter called plasma.
Plasma is a state of matter in which a certain portion of the particles in the gas are in the
form of ions, i.e., molecules or atoms in which the number of
positively charged particles is not equal to the number of
negative electrons.
Heating a gas to very high temperatures may ionise it thus
turning it into a plasma. Common forms of plasmas include
lightning and some extremely hot flames. Plasma can also
be artificially produced, e.g., inside fluorescent tubes and in
 6 Thermodynamics

plasma television set displays.

Diffusion
The process by which particles spread from regions of high concentration to those of low
concentration is called diffusion.

Diffusion in Liquids
Experiment To investigate diffusion in liquids
Apparatus
Funnel, beaker, copper sulphate solution.
Procedure
• Pour water into the beaker until it is half full.
• Pour saturated copper (II) sulphate solution down
the funnel slowly and notice how the two liquids settle.
• Remove the funnel carefully so that the liquids are not
disturbed. Diffusion in Gases
• Repeat the same steps with another set of apparatus, but
using warm liquids. Make observations several times over a
period of, say, two days.
Observation and Explanation
Initially, the water layer floats on top of the saturated copper (II)
sulphate solution because it is less dense. After sometime, the
boundary disappears and the two liquids form a homogeneous
pale blue mixture.
Formation of the mixture is faster with hot liquids because the
movement of particles is faster due to increased energy. There is
greater movement of water particles (molecules) from the
water layer into the copper (II) sulphate layer because it has
greater concentration of water molecules than copper(II)
sulphate particles.
Similarly, there is greater movement of particles from copper(II)
sulphate layer into the water layer because of greater
 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER 7

Experiment To demonstrate diffusion in gases

Apparatus
Two gas jars, bromine gas
Procedure
A gas jar containing brown bromine gas and covered with a sheet
of cardboard is placed in contact with an open end of a gas jar of
the same diameter with the mouth smeared with grease.
The cardboard is removed and the jars pressed together tightly.
Observation and Explanation
The bromine gas spreads into the gas jar B at a
greater speed than it returns to gas jar A
because of high concentration of bromine
particles.
Likewise, air spreads into gas jar A at greater
rate than it returns to B because of high
concentration of air particles in B. A
homogeneous pale brown mixture forms in the
two jars and because this happens in a very
short time, it suggests that the random
movement of the particles is more rapid in
gases than diffusion in liquids.
Performing the same experiment with the jars held vertically instead
of horizontally slows down the rate of diffusion because of the
different densities of the gases. The less dense gas diffuses much
faster into the denser gas.
The characteristic smell of cooking gas used in laboratories can be
detected when there is a leakage. This is because the gas diffuses
Diffusion in Solids
into the air.
Diffusion in solids is
exceedingly slow,
but occurs when two metals are placed in contact with each other, e.g., lead and gold
metal blocks.
Vibrating atoms break away from the substance to which they belong and enter the other
substance to be trapped by its attractive forces. This process is speeded up by high
temperatures.

Diffusion in liquids occurs at a faster rate than in solids. Diffusion in gases

is faster due to their low density, high kinetic energy of their molecules and
low cohesive forces.
8 Thermodynamics

Rates of Diffusion
Experiment to investigate the rates of diffusion of
ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid gas
Apparatus
Long glass tube with fitting corks, cotton wool,
concentrated solution of hydrochloric acid and
concentrated ammonia solution.

Diffusion through Porous Materials

The figures below shows diffusion through a
porous pot.

Procedure
Clamp a long glass tube horizontally as shown.
Soak a piece of cotton wool in concentrated
solution of hydrochloric acid and another in
concentrated ammonia solution. Care should be
taken while handling the two solutions because of
their burning effect on the skin.
• Simultaneously insert the soaked cotton wool
pieces at the opposite ends of the horizontal glass
tube and cork it. Observe what happens.
Observation and Explanation
A white deposit of ammonium chloride forms
on the walls of the glass tube in the region
nearer end B. This suggests that although The porous pot has very fine holes through
both gases diffused, ammonia gas did so at a which the hydrogen gas diffuses into the
higher rate than the hydrochloric acid gas. pot and air diffuses out. The hydrogen gas
Conclusion bubbles out of the glass tube as shown in
Different gases have different rates of the diagram. When the gas supply is
diffusion. A gas of high density has heavier stopped, the hydrogen gas diffuses out of
particles or molecules, hence moves more the pot through the fine hole at a faster
slowly than a lighter one. rate than air gets back in the pot. This
decreases the gas pressure in the pot,
compelling the atmospheric pressure
acting on the water surface in the beaker
to push water up the tube.
Note:
The beaker in (a) is for confining the
hydrogen gas around the porous pot.
 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER 9

Review Exercises
1. Define the term matter
2. Name and explain the three states of matter in terms of particles.
3. Define diffusion.
4. When sugar crystals are added to a glass of water, they are seen to settle at the bottom
of the glass. After the water is stirred, the sugar crystals disappear. Explain what
happens to the sugar crystals.
5. State the kinetic theory of matter
6. Explain using the kinetic theory of matter why solids are considered to have definite
shape and size.
7. In a class discussion, a student suggested that matter can change from one state to
another. Describe how this can happen and what changes take place as matter changes
state.
8. It is hygienically safe to cover the opening of a pit latrine to keep away the foul smell
from spreading to the surrounding area. Explain how this smell spreads to the
surrounding when the pit is uncovered.
9. Smoke particles were suspended in a smoke cell and the cell strongly illuminated. With
the aid of a microscope, the smoke particles were observed to describe continuous,
random and haphazard movements
(a) What name is given to this experiment?
(b) What does this experiment conclude?
(c) Explain what is observed when the temperature is decreased.
10. Explain the cause of the random motion of chalk dust suspended m water.
11. (a) Why is Brownian motion easily exhibited by small particles?
(b) What does it suggest about matter?
12. A drop of blood is dropped on one end of a swimming pool. Immediately the drop hits
the water, a deep red colour is seen at that point. After a while, the colour fades and
eventually disappears. Give a reason for this observation.
13. Bright specks are normally observed moving in the smoke cell experiment. What are
these bright specks?
14. Using the particulate nature of matter, explain the difference between gases and solids.
15. State two factors that affect the rate of diffusion.
16. Explain how it is possible to smell the aroma of food cook ng from a pot in the kitchen
while you are some distance away from the kitchen.
17. An athlete added 20 g of glucose to 40 cm3 of milk and stirred the mixture. No
noticeable change in the volume of milk was observed. Why was this so?
18. Explain why it is easier for liquids to fit perfectly into a cylindrical container yet the
same is not true about solids.
19. On a cold morning a lady sprayed perfume on her clothe but could not get the odour. In
the afternoon when it was hot, she noticed that the odour of the perfume grew stronger.
Explain.
20. Explain why one canister of tear gas exploded 20 metres away from a crowd is able to
disperse the crowd.
21. Use the flow chart be ow to answer the questions that follow
melting 𝑝 𝑞 𝑟
X → Y→ Gas → Z→ Solid

(a) Name the states X, Y and Z

(b) Identify the processes named p, q and r.
22. Differentiate between melting process and evaporation.
23. (a) Name the process a solid can undergo to change its state from solid to gas directly
10 Thermodynamics

(b) Name one substance that can undergo this process.

24. In a group discussion, Liz stated that in the solid state, molecules of a substance possess
more kinetic energy than in a gaseous state. Is this true? Justify your answer.
25. How does temperature affect the rate of diffusion?
26. Is it true to say that molecules of a substance are larger in gaseous state than in solid
state?
27. Why is it more difficult to compress liquids than gases?
28. The figure below shows a set up that a Form 1 student prepared in a laboratory

(a) State the possible aim of the experiment.

(b) State the observation made by the student.
(c) By using the kinetic theory explain the observation made.
29. A porous pot holding air is fitted with a tube then dipped in water.

(a) When the pot is surrounded by hydrogen, air bubbles rapidly form and rush out
of the water, but after a short time the bubbles slow down and stop forming. Explain
(b) If the jar is removed, water rises rapidly up the tube, slows down and stops then
very slowly returns. Explain these stages.
30. You are provided with the following:
(i) a sheet of paper
(ii) pair of scissors.
Using the items above, demonstrate that matter is made up of tiny particles.

Recently....in KCSE;
1. 2006 Q14 (a)
Distinguish between solid and liquid states of matter in terms of intermolecular forces.
(1
mark)

2. 2007 Q15
Brown motion of smoke particles can be studied by using the apparatus shown in
figure 9 to observe the motion, some smoke is enclosed in the smoke cell and then
 PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER 11

observed through the microscope.

(a) Explain the role of the smoke particle, lens and microscope in the experiment.
Smoke particles ………………. (2 marks)
Lens ……………………………. (2 marks)
Microscope ……………………. (2 marks)

(b) State and explain the nature of the observed motion of the smoke particles.
(3
marks)

(c) State what will be observed about the motion of the smoke particles if the
temperature surrounding the smoke cell is raised slightly.
(2 marks)

3. 2008 Q9
Explaining the difference between a liquid and a gas in terms of intermolecular
distances and forces.
(2 marks)

4. 2009 Q5
Two identical beakers A and B containing equal volumes of water are placed on a
bench. The Water in A is cold while in B it is warm. Identical pieces of potassium
permanganate are placed gently at the bottom of each beaker inside the water. It is
observed that the spread of colour in B is faster than in A. Explain this observation.
(3 marks)

5. 2011 Q10; 2016 Q12

State the reason why it is easier to separate water into drops than to separate a solid
into smaller pieces. (1 mark)

6. 2012 Q4
A bottle containing a smelling gas is opened at the front bench of a classroom. State the
reason why the gas is detected throughout the room. (1 mark)

7. 2013 Q9
Explain why brakes fail in a hydraulic braking system when air gets into the system.
(2
marks)
12 Thermodynamics

8. 2013 Q14
A drop of blue ink is introduced at the bottom of a beaker containing water. It is
observed that after sometime, all the water in the beaker turns blue. Name the process
that takes place.
(1 mark)
9. 2014 Q14
In a smoke cell experiment to demonstrate Brownian motion, smoke particles are seen
moving randomly. State the cause of the randomness. (1 mark)

10. 2015 Q6
Figure 3 shows the arrangement of molecules in the three states of matter.

(a) Name the process represented by the arrow. (1

mark)
(b) State the reason for the arrangement of molecules in state 3. (1 mark)

11. 2017 Q3
It is observed that when 20 cm3 of alcohol is mixed with 20 cm3 of water, the volume of
the mixture is 39cm3. State a reason why the volume of the mixture is not 40cm3.
(1
mark)
12. 2018 Q5
It is observed that a drop of milk carefully put into a cup of water tums the water white
after some time. State the reason for this observation. (1
mark)

13. 2019 Q17(a)

State what is meant by Brownian Motion (1 mark)
 THERMAL EXPANSION

Table of Contents 📱 👆 💻
Temperature
Expansion and contraction of solids
Expansion and contraction of liquids
Expansion of gases Connections
Measuring temperature
Revision Exercise Building on…

 Primary Science – Heat

Specific Objectives energy, expansion and
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to: contraction.
a) define temperature  Common observations- how
b) describe the functioning of various thermometers
smell of perfume spreads
c) convert Celsius scale to Kelvin scale of temperature
d) describe thermal expansion in solids, liquids and gases Arriving at …
e) explain expansion in terms of particle behaviour
f) describe the unusual expansion of water and its effects  Defining temperature and how
g) explain the effects and applications of thermal expansion. it is measured
 Describing expansion of
solids, liquids and gases –
(12 Lessons)
including anomalous expansion
of water
Content  Describing the functioning of
1. Temperature various thermometers
2. Thermometers:  Explaining the applications of
▪ liquid - in - glass, thermal expansion.
▪ clinical,
▪ six’s maximum and minimum Looking forward to…
3. Celsius and Kelvin scales
 Heat Transfer
4. Expansion of solids, liquids and gases
5. Effects of expansion and contraction  Quantity of Heat
6. Unusual expansion of water (Anomolous expansion)  Gas Laws
7. Applications of thermal expansion, include Bimetallic strip
 THERMAL EXPANSION

Temperature
The degree (extent) of coldness or hotness of a body on some chosen scale is called the temperature of the
body. The temperature of a body is measured by an instrument called a thermometer.
Temperature is a basic quantity and is measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Kelvin (K). The Kelvin is the SI unit
of temperature, which is a scalar quantity.

Expansion and Contraction of solids

Metals and other solids expand (increase in size) when heated and contract (decrease in size) when cooled.

Experiments to demonstrate expansion of solids

(a) Using the ball and ring experiment
The ball and ring apparatus contains a ball that just passes
through the ring when both are at room temperature as
shown.
When both the ball and the ring are at room temperature,
the ball just passes through the ring.
When the ball is heated, it expands so that it cannot go
through the ring. When left on the ring for some time, the
temperature of the ball decreases and it contracts. At the
same time, the temperature of the ring increases and it
expands so that the ball goes through.
(b) Using the bar and gauge apparatus
When the bar is cold, it just fits into the gauge. When heated,
the bar expands and does not fit into the gauge.

To compare the Expansion of Different Metals

The apparatus alongside can be used to compare the expansions of different metals. In this apparatus, a
small expansion of the metal bar is magnified using a long-pivoted pointer.
One end of the metal bar is fixed while the other end is in contact with the pointer.
To compare expansions of different materials, rods of same length and diameter are used. Each is fixed at a
time and heated from room temperature with the same burner for 5 minutes.
If the rods are allowed to cool to room temperature, the pointer will record the original scale reading. The
set-up can be used to show that metals expand differently when heated through the same length of time.

Force Due to Expansion and Contraction

Bar-breaking apparatus with at least two cast iron pins can be
used to demonstrate the force due to expansion in solids.
The tensioning nut is tightened until there is no room for
expansion of the steel rod. When the steel rod is heated and
cooled, the cast iron pin breaks.
The experiment shows that very strong forces are generated
when metals expand and contract due to heating or cooling.
When expansion occurs in a material, there is an increase in
volume with no change in mass, hence a decrease in density.

Linear Expansivity
Linear expansion is the change in length (increase in length) of a metal rod when it is heated.
The measure of the tendency of a particular material to expand is called its expansivity.
Material Linear expansivity (K–1) × 10–6
Aluminium 26
Brass 19
Copper 16.8
Iron 12
Concrete 11
Steel 11
Glass 9
Platinum alloy 9
Silica 4.2 The knowledge of linear expansivity values is applied
Pyrex 3.2 in the designing of materials to ensure that they are
able to operate well under varying thermal
Invar 1
conditions.
Ordinary glass expands at a higher rate than Pyrex
glass. When hot water is poured into a tumbler
made of ordinary glass, it breaks. However, when
Pyrex tumbler is used, there is no danger of it
cracking. Pyrex glass with its low value of expansivity
will not suffer very large forces of expansion as it
undergoes temperature change.
In building construction, beams can be made out of
concrete reinforced with steel because they expand
at the same rate. Similarly, platinum wires are
encased in glass for electrical insulation.
The Bimetallic Strip
When two metals of different linear expansivity are riveted
together, they form a bimetallic strip. Brass and iron are
used to make the bimetallic strip shown alongside.
On heating the bimetallic strip, brass expands more than iron. The
brass thus becomes longer than the iron for the same temperature
range. Hence, the bimetallic strip bends with brass on the outside of
 the curve.
Steel Bridges
On cooling however, the brass
In bridges made of steel girders, one end is fixed and the contracts more than the iron. It,
other end placed on rollers to allow for expansion. therefore, becomes shorter than the iron
and thus ends up being on the inner side
Rivets of the curve.
Thick metal plates, sheets and girders in ships are joined
together by means of rivets. The rivet is fitted when hot and Applications of Expansion and
then hammered flat. On cooling, it contracts, pulling the two Contraction in Solids
plates firmly together.

The Bimetallic Strip

Bimetallic strips have several applications such as in the
thermostat.
Railway lines
A thermostat is a device for maintaining a steady
Railway lines are constructed in sections held together by
temperature.
fishplates. The bolt holes in the rail are oval to allow free
A heater circuit is connected through the electric terminals
expansion and contraction of the rails with changes in
shown. If the room becomes warm, the bimetallic strip
temperature,
bends, curving away from the lower contacts. This breaks the
This rail
circuit andconstruction design
switches off the is known
heater. as thethe
On cooling, jointed track.
bimetallic
Somebends
strips spaceback,
known as expansion
closing up the gap joint is left the
between between
contactsthe
railway
and the lines to allow
heater for expansion.
is switched on again. The temperature at
which
A more themodern
thermostat
method switches the for
of allowing heater on and
expansion off is
in railway
adjusted bytaper
lines is to the setting
the endsknob.
of the rails so that they overlap.
For high temperatures, the setting knob is adjusted to push
Steam Pipes
the metal strip M such that the contacts are tight together.
The temperatures must then rise to quite high values before
Pipes carrying steam from boilers are fitted with loops or
the bimetallic strip can bend away sufficiently to break the
expansion joints, which allow the pipes to expand and
circuit. A slight drop in the temperatures will result the
contract easily when steam passes through, and when the
bimetallic strip bending back to close the contacts again.
pipe cools down.
For low temperature range, the adjusting knob is released so
Without the loop, the forces of expansion and contraction
that the position of M is lowered. The temperature then has
produced would cause the pipe to fracture.
to drop to a much lower value before the bimetallic strip
bends to make contact.
Oil companies Thermostats
make this allowanceare also constructing
when used to control
fuel
the temperature of electric irons, cookers and fridges.
pipelines.
Modern digital thermostats have no moving parts and are
Telephone
instead Wires
made up of thermistors (temperature-sensitive
resistors)
Telephoneorwires
semiconductors. They tohave
are loosely fixed allowa for
digital screen
contraction.
showing
During cold weather, they contract and when it is warm, the
the temperature reading currently and they
temperature
expand. that has been set as the threshold.
Telephone or electricity wires appear to be shorter and taunt
in the morning. However, in the hot afternoon, the wires
appear longer and slack.
 Expansion and Contraction of Liquids
To demonstrate the expansion of water, a round-bottomed flask
is filled with coloured water and a glass tube fitted on the cork.
The level of the water in the glass tube is noted.
When the flask is heated, it is observed that the level of the water
in the glass tube falls slightly at first and then starts rising.
Explanation
The initial fall of the level of the water is due to the expansion of
the glass flask which gets heated first. The water starts expanding
when the heat finally reaches it, and it rises up the tube.
To compare the expansion of different liquids, three identical
glass flasks, one filled with water, another with alcohol and the
third with methylated spirit are placed in a water bath in such a
way that they are all covered to the same depth, as shown.
When the water in the bath is heated while stirring, the levels of
the liquids in the tubes rise by different amounts as the heating
continues.
This shows that some liquids expand more than others for a given
rise in temperature. Of the three liquids used, methylated spirit
expands most, followed by alcohol and finally water.
Stirring is necessary to ensure that the temperature of water in
the bath is uniform.
The Anomalous Expansion of Water
Water shows an anomalous (unusual) behaviour in that it
contracts when its temperature is raised from 0°C.
When ice is heated from, say, –20°C, it expands until its
temperature reaches 0°C and melts with no change in
temperature. The melting is accompanied by contraction. The
water formed will still contract as its temperature rises from 0°C,
as shown.
Above 4°C, the water expands with increase in temperature. Since
volume of a given mass of water is a minimum at 4°C, water at
this temperature has maximum density, slightly higher than 1
g/cm3.
A sketch of the variation of density with temperature is shown
alongside.
At the melting point of water (0° C), there is a drastic increase in
the volume, resulting in a large decrease in density as the ice
forms.
 NB:

The water expands faster

than glass.

Variation of Volume with Temperature

Variation of Density with Temperature

Some Effects of Anomalous Expansion of Water

Freezing of lakes and ponds
In temperature latitudes, water in lakes and ponds usually freezes in winter. Ice, being less dense than
water, floats on the water. Since ice is a bad conductor of heat, it insulates the water below against heat
losses to the cold air above.
Water at 4°C, being the most dense, remains at the bottom of lake while ice, being less dense than water,
floats on the layers of water at different temperatures.
Fish and other aquatic animals and plants can, therefore, survive by living in the liquid layers below the ice.
Icebergs
Since the density of ice (0.92 gcm–3) is slightly less than that of water, it floats with only a small portion above
the water surface. The rest and the bigger portion remains under water. A big mass of such submerged ice is
known as an iceberg. It poses a great danger to ships as navigators cannot see the submerged part.

Weathering of Rocks
When water in a crack in rock freezes, it expands. This expansion breaks the rock into small pieces.
Water Pipes
Water pipes burst when the water flowing through the pipes freeze.

Expansion of Gases
To show the expansion of gases, a round-bottomed flask with a glass tube
in a tight-fitting rubber cork is inverted into a basin containing some water
as shown.
When the flask is warmed, the level of the water column inside the glass
tube drops. When the flask is warmed further, bubbles are seen on the
water. On cooling, the air inside the flask contracts and water rises up the
glass tube.
Explanation
The level of water in the column drops, indicating that air expands. On
further expansion of the air bubbles are seen at the end of the tube as air escapes from the flask.

Molecular Explanation of Expansion

The particulate nature of matter can be used to explain expansion of solids, liquids and gases.

Solids
Molecules in solids are closely packed and held together by forces of attraction. These forces are so strong
that molecules do not change positions, but vibrate about their mean positions.
When a solid is heated, the vibrations of the molecules increase, resulting in increasing distance from their
mean position. This leads to an increase in the size of the solid.

Liquids
In liquids, the forces of attraction between molecules are weaker than in solids, hence liquid molecules are
farther apart than in solids.
When a liquid is heated in a container, the vibrations of its molecules become more vigorous. The liquid will
then occupy more space.

Gases
In gases, the molecules are much farther apart than in solids and liquids. This is because the attractive forces
between gas molecules are very weak. When heated, gas molecules gain more energy and move farther
apart, occupying more space.

Measuring Temperature
Thermometers
A thermometer is an instrument used for measuring temperature.
There are many types of thermometers each being designed for a specific purpose.

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer
In this thermometer, the liquid in the bulb expands up a capillary tube when the bulb is heated. The liquid in
the bulb must:
a) expand or contract uniformly and by a large amount over a small range of temperature.
b) be seen easily (visible).
c) not stick to the inside of the tube (should not wet the inside of the tube).
d) have a wide range of temperature between boiling and freezing.
The most common liquids for use in thermometers are mercury and alcohol. Mercury freezes at –39°C
and boils at 357°C while alcohol freezes at –115°C and boils at 78°C. Alcohol is, therefore, suitable for
measurements of temperatures below –39°C.
The properties of the two thermometric liquids.
Alcohol Mercury
Low boiling point, 78°C. High boiling point, 357 °C.
Low melting point, –115°C Relatively higher melting point, –39°C.
Poor thermal conductor. Good thermal conductor
Expansion slightly irregular. Expands regularly.
Wets glass. Does not wet glass.
Transparent, and has to be coloured to make it easily Opaque and silvery.
visible.
Temperature Scale
A scale of temperature is obtained by selecting two temperatures known as fixed
points. The range between these two fixed points is divided into a
number of equal divisions.
On the Celsius scale, the lower fixed point is the temperature of pure
melting ice and is taken as 0°C. Impurities in the ice would lower its melting
point.
The upper fixed point is the temperature of steam above water boiling at
normal atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg, and is taken as 100°C.
The temperature of boiling water itself is not used because any
impurities in water would raise its boiling point. The temperature of the
steam on the other hand is not affected by impurities in water.
Methods of finding the fixed points are shown alongside. When
these points have been marked, the range between them is divided into
100 equal divisions. Each division is then called a degree.

Features of a Common Thermometer

The basic features of a common laboratory thermometer are shown
below.

Bulb
The bulb carries the liquid in the thermometer. It has a thin glass wall for How to make the thermometer
effective heat transmission between the liquid inside and the body whose more sensitive
temperature is to be taken.  Using a thin walled bulb
 Using a narrower capillary tube
Capillary Bore
The liquid expands and contracts along the capillary bore. The capillary
bore is narrow for high degree of accuracy.
Glass Stem
This is a thick glass wall surrounding the capillary bore. It also serves as
magnifying glass for easy reading of the scale.
Celsius and Kelvin Scale
The two most commonly used temperature scales are the Celsius and To change °C to Kelvin, add 273
Kelvin scales. and to change temperature in
Kelvin to degrees Celsius,
The Celsius scale has the fixed points at 0°C and 100°C. It is also referred
subtract 273,
to as Centigrade scale.
i.e., T = θ + 273, where T is the
In the Kelvin scale, the temperature of pure melting ice is 273 K while
temperature in the Kelvin scale
that of pure boiling water at normal atmospheric pressure is 373 K.
and θ the temperature on the
The lowest temperature in the Kelvin scale, the zero K, is also referred to Celsius scale.
as absolute zero. This is the temperature at which the energy of the
particles in a material is zero.
 Example 2
Example 1
Convert the following from Kelvin to °C (a) 350 K
Convert each of the following temperatures into
Kelvin: (b) 100 K

(a) 25°C (c) 1 K

(b) 100°C (d) 0 K

(c) 0°C Solution

(d) –123°C θ = T – 273
Solution (a) θ = 350 – 273 = 77°C
(a) T = θ + 273 (b) θ = 100 – 273 = –173°C
25°C = 25 + 273 = 298 K (c) θ = 1 – 273 = –272°C
(b) 100°C = 100 + 273 = 373 K (d) θ = 0 – 273 =-273°C
(c) 0°C = 0 + 273 = 273 K
(d) T = –123 + 273 = 150 K

NB: Temperature in the Kelvin scale cannot have a negative value because the
absolute zero, 0 K, is the lowest temperature attainable.

The Clinical Thermometer

This thermometer is a special type used for measuring human body temperature. Its temperature range is
about 35°C – 43°C, which makes it suitable since the temperature of a healthy person is about 37°C.

The tube has a constriction just beyond the bulb. When the thermometer is used to take the temperature of
a patient, the mercury expands, forcing its way past the constriction. When the thermometer is withdrawn,
the mercury in the bulb cools and contracts, breaking the mercury thread at the constriction. The mercury
beyond the constriction stays in the tube, showing the body temperature. After the thermometer has been
read, the mercury is returned to the bulb by a simple flick.

Methylated spirit may be used to sterilise the

thermometer after use.
The use of the non-contact infra-red
thermometer, also known as the laser
thermometer is preferred nowadays. The
thermometer operates by making use of
thermal radiation emitted by the body whose
temperature is being measured. The
thermometer is useful in measuring
temperatures of inaccessible areas, moving
objects, very hot objects, rotating objects or
those whose temperatures are rapidly changing.
It is also useful when a fast response is required.

Six’s Maximum and Minimum Thermometer

This is a special thermometer that is used to record the maximum and minimum temperatures reached in an
area during a specified period, e.g., a day.
When it becomes hot, the alcohol in bulb P expands to push the mercury up the right side of the U-tube. The
mercury, therefore, pushes the steel index A upwards. The steel index has a spring which holds it in position
in the glass tube. When the temperature falls, the alcohol in bulb P contracts and the mercury is pulled back,
rising up the left side of the U-tube. The index B is, therefore, pushed up. During contraction of the alcohol,
index A is left behind (in the alcohol) by the falling mercury. The lower end of this index indicates the
maximum temperature reached during the specific period. The minimum temperature is read from the
lower end of index B.

To reset the thermometer, a magnet is used to return the steel indices to the mercury surfaces.

The Bimetallic Thermometer

This type of thermometer consists of a coiled bimetallic strip as
shown. One end of the spiral is fixed while a pointer is attached to
the other end.
An increase in temperature causes the spiral to curl in a clockwise
direction, forcing the pointer to move over a calibrated scale. The
curling is due to the unequal expansion of the metals in the
bimetallic strip.
There are other special thermometers which include the constant
volume gas thermometer, electronic thermometer, the resistance
thermometer and the thermocouple thermometer.

Review Exercises
1. Define the term temperature.
2. What is a thermometer?
3. Use the kinetic theory of matter to account for thermal expansion.
4. What is a bimetallic strip?
5. Convert the following temperatures into Kelvin scale.
 (a) 50 °C (b) 130 °C (c) 0 °C (d) -163 °C
6. Convert the following temperatures into Celsius scale
(a) 0 K (b) 373 K (c) 250 K (d) 11 K
7. The figure alongside shows a section of a rail.
(a) Explain the cause of the bend in the rail.
(b) How would this defect be prevented when building
rails?
8. Explain why burst water pipes are common during winter
especially in countries near the poles
9. State any two limitations of using water as a thermometric
liquid.
10. With the aid of a diagram, describe how a circuit containing a bimetallic strip controls
the temperature of a room when the switch is closed.
11. State any two advantages and two disadvantages of using alcohol as a thermometric l
quid compared to mercury.
12. State two properties which make mercury more suitable than alcohol as a liquid in
thermometers.
13. What is the effect of high temperatures on overhead power cables?
14. A student observed that the mercury thread in a thermometer separated at the
constriction. She concluded that this was due to the expansion of the mercury in the
thermometer Was her conclusion correct? Explain.
15. With reference to a liquid in glass thermometer, define the following terms
(a) sensitivity
(b) linear scale.
16. (a) Why is the alcohol in glass thermometer not sterilised in boiling water?
(b) How can it be sterilised?
17. Explain how to mark the lower and upper fixed points on ungraduated mercury in-glass
thermometer
18. The distance between the ice point and the steam point on a liquid in glass
thermometer is 45 cm. What temperature is recorded when the mercury thread is 27
cm above the ice point?
19. Why is it not wise to fill a soda bottle with boiling water?
20. What is meant by ‘anomalous expansion' of water?
21. The steel ball shown below fits exactly into the steel ring when the temperature of both
is 57 °C. What will happen if the temperature is decreased to 8 °C?

22. A certain thermometer shows a length of 12 cm when placed in pure melting ice and 32
cm when placed in steam at normal atmospheric pressure What is the temperature
when it shows a length of 8 cm?
23. Explain why a glass container with a thick wall is more likely to crack than the one with
a thin wall when very hot tea is poured into them.
24. A bimetallic strip is made from aluminium and copper When heated it bends in the
direction shown below
 (a) Which metal expands more for the same temperature rise?
(b) Draw a diagram to show how the bimetallic strip would appear if cooled be ow
room temperature.
25. Explain why the mercury level in a liquid-in-glass thermometer falls before rising when
in contact with a warm surface.
26. The figure below shows a liquid-in-glass thermometer.

(a) Why is the thermometer only calibrated from 35 °C to 43 °C?

(b) What advantage does the thermometer have in terms of the temperature range over
another liquid-in-glass thermometer calibrated from O °C to 100 °C?
(c) Name the section labelled X.
(d) What is the function of the part marked W.
(e) Explain how the part labelled X makes the thermometer appropriate for its function.
27. The illustration below shows a type of thermometer.

(a) Name the parts labelled G and H and state their functions.
(b) What is the thermometric liquid used in the thermometer?
28. Katee put cold water in a bottle and dipped the bottle into boiling water. He noticed
that the level of water in the bottle first falls then rises. Explain this observation.
29. During an experiment on thermal expansion. a student used a clinical thermometer to
get the boiling point of water. What was her observation?
30. Explain how you would sterilise a clinical thermometer.
31. A company wanted to install hot water pipes in their factory
(a) Using a diagram. show how the water p pes should be designed.
(b) Explain the working of the design that you have drawn.
32. Daisy bought distilled water packed in a glass bottle She put the water which was filled
to the brim into the freezing compartment of a refrigerator overnight What observation
did she make the following morning?
33. The diagram below shows a straw inserted into a flask_ The straw has a bead of milk
trapped in it.

(a) Explain what happens to the bead when the flask Is immersed in warm water.
 (b) What happens to the bead when the flask is removed from the hot water and
then dipped into cold water?
34. When washing utensils, Tracy put a glass into another and they stuck into each other
Describe how you would help her separate these two glasses.
35. The diagram below shows a bimetallic strip just when it is placed on a hot source of
heat.

(a) Draw a diagram showing how the bimetallic strip will look after it heats up.
(b) Draw a diagram to show how the bimetallic strip would appear if it was inserted
in ice.
(c) Explain the behaviour of the strip in both cases.
36. Describe three practical applications of thermal expansion.
37. Students carried out an experiment to observe the anomalous expansion of water. They
recorded the values for the volume of water and temperature as the temperature of the
water was decreased from 15 °C to 0 °C. The pupils then plotted the values In a graph
as shown below.

(a) Explain the meaning of anomalous expansion of water

(b) What is the temperature of water at the point marked P?
(c) Describe the shape of the graph;
(i) between QP
(ii) at point P
(iii) between PM.
38. What happens to matter when it is heated?
39. Explain how rivets are fitted in order to fasten metals together
40. The figure below shows a bridge that has been constructed.

Explain why only one end of the bridge is fixed and the other is left free.
41. Why is it possible to expose a test tube to direct heat without it cracking while if the
same is done to a glass mug it cracks?
42. A student inverted a rounded flask with a glass tube and inserted it into water as
shown below
 (a) When the student warmed the flask by rubbing it with his hands, he noticed
some bubbles escaping from the end of the tube into the water. Explain.
(b) What happens in the glass tube when the student stops rubbing and lets the flask
to cool?
43. Explain how the sensitivity of a liquid in glass thermometer can be increased.
44. Why is steam used instead of boiling water to determine the upper fixed point of a
thermometer?
45. What does lower fixed point of a thermometer mean?
46. Explain what happens to the density of water as it cools from 6 °C to O °C.
47. Explain how mercury in glass thermometer may be calibrated to have a range of O °C to
100 °C.
48. State two effects of the unusual expansion of water.
49. State the function of the following features in a liquid in glass thermometer:
(a) thin walled bulb
(b) thick walled stem.

Recently…. In KCSE;
1. 2006 Q4
Figure 3 shows a bimetallic strip with a wooden handle, suspended horizontally using
a thin thread.

The strip is heated at the point shown. Explain why the system tips to the right. (2
marks)

2. 2007 Q14; 2016 Q6

Figure 8 shows a uniform light bar resting horizontally on corks floating on water in
two beakers A and B.
 Explain why the bar tilts towards side A when equal amount of heat is supplied to each
beaker. (2 marks)

3. 2008 Q5
Figure 2 shows a flask filled with water. The flask is fitted with a cork through which a
tube is inserted. When the flask is cooled, the water level rises slightly, then falls
steadily.

Explain this observation. (3 marks)

4. 2009 Q6
A clinical thermometer has a constriction in the bore just above the bulb. State the use
of this constriction. (1
mark)

5. 2010 Q 5; 2017 Q4
When a liquid is heated in a glass flask, its level at first falls, then rises.
Explain this observation. (2 marks)
6. 2011 Q4; 2016 Q7;
Figure 5 shows an aluminium tube tightly stuck in a steel tube.

Explain how the two tubes can be separated by applying a temperature change at the
junction given that aluminium expands more than steel for the same temperature rise.
(2 marks)

7. 2012 Q5
Figure 2 shows a flat-bottomed flask containing some water. It is heated directly with a
very hot flame.
 Explain why the crack is likely to crack. (2 marks)

8. 2012 Q17 (c)

In an experiment to investigate the unusual expansion of water, a fixed mass of water
at 0 °C was heated until its temperature reached 20 °C. On the axis provided, sketch a
graph of density against temperature of the water from 0 °C to 20 °C. (2
marks)
9. 2014 Q12
On the axis provided, sketch the graph which shows the relationship between volume
and temperature of a fixed mass of water in the temperature range 0 °C to 10 °C. (1
mark)

10. 2015 Q7
Two containers A and B of equal dimensions but different metals are fitted with
Identical glass casings. The two containers initially at the same temperature are
simultaneously filled with boiling water. It is observed that the glass casing on A breaks
earlier than the one on B. Explain this observation.
(2 marks)

11. 2018 Q6
Figure 3 shows the shape of a bimetallic strip after it was cooled below room
temperature.

Explain why the strip curved is as shown. (2 marks)

12. 2018 Q13

State two ways in which a mercury-based thermometer can be modified to read very
small temperature changes. (2
marks)

13. 2019 Q4
Figure 2 shows a round bottomed flask containing a coloured liquid. The flask is fitted
with a capillary tube.
It is observed that on holding the flask with bare hands, the level of the liquid in the
capillary tube initially drops slightly and then rises. Explain this observation.
(3 marks)
 HEAT TRANSFER
Table of Contents📱👈💻
Heat and temperature
Modes of heat transfer
Factors affecting thermal conductivity
Thermal conductivity in liquids
Thermal conductivity in gases
Some applications of good and poor conductors of heat Connections
Convection
Radiation Building on…
Applications of thermal radiation
 Particulate Nature of
Revision Exercise
Matter
 Thermal Expansion

Specific Objectives Arriving at …

By the end of this topic, the learner should be able
to:  Defining heat-and
a) define heat differentiating heat from
b) state the difference between temperature and heat temperature.
c) state and explain the modes of heat transfer  Describing the modes of heat
d) describe experiments to illustrate factors affecting heat transfer in solids, liquids and
transfer
gases.
e) explain applications of heat transfer.
 Explaining some applications
of heat transfer – including
ventilation, thermos flask.
(12 Lessons)
Looking forward to….

Content  Gas Laws

1. Heat and temperature  Quantity of Heat

2. Modes of heat transfer
3. Factors affecting heat transfer (Experimental treatment
required)
4. Applications of heat transfer on:
▪ Vacuum flask,
▪ Domestic hot - water system,
▪ Solar concentrators.

HEAT TRANSFER
 - 2 - Thermodynamics

Heat and Temperature

Heat is a form of energy which passes from a body at
a higher temperature to a body at a lower
temperature. If a body receives heat energy, its
temperature increases whereas the temperature of a
body that gives away heat energy decreases. If two
bodies at the same temperature are in contact, there
is no net heat flow from one body to the other.
The SI unit of heat is the joule (J).

Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat can travel through a medium and also through a vacuum. There are three modes of
heat transfer, namely, conduction, convection and radiation. Both conduction and
convection require a material medium, but radiation can take place in a vacuum.
Conduction of heat takes place in solids while convection takes place in fluids (liquids and
gases).

1. Conduction
Different materials have different thermal conductivities. Metals are generally good
conductors of heat. Non-metals are poor conductors of heat (insulators).
Mechanism of conduction in metals
(i) Vibration of atoms - Heat energy entering the metal from the hot end increases the
vibrations of the atoms in the metal at this end. These atoms in turn collide with
neighbouring atoms, increasing their vibrations and hence passing the heat energy
along.
(ii) Free electrons - Metals have free electrons which travel throughout the body of the
metal. Heat energy injected at the hot end of the metal increases the vibrations of the
particles at the end. The free electrons in that region, gain more kinetic energy and
because they are free to move, spread heat energy to the other parts of the metal.
Solids that are good conductors of heat (metals)
use both vibration of the atoms and free electrons NB: During thermal conduction, heat
to conduct heat. Solids that are poor conductors of flows through the materials without the
heat like glass, wood and rubber make use of material shifting or flowing. Conduction
vibration of atoms as a mechanism to conduct is, therefore, the transfer of heat as a
heat because they have no free or mobile
electrons.

Experiment to compare conductivities of wood and iron rods

Apparatus
Iron rod and wooden rod of the same diameter joined end
to end, Bunsen burner, a piece of paper.
Procedure
• The piece of paper is wrapped round the joint so that
some of the paper is over the iron rod and some over

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 HEAT TRANSFER -3-

the wooden rod.

• A flame is passed over the paper several times.

Observation and Explanation

The paper gets charred (blackened) on the region covering the wooden rod. This is
because the wood does not conduct heat from the paper. Wood is said to be a bad
conductor of heat while iron is a good conductor.

Factors Affecting Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity in materials depends on the following factors:
(i) The temperature difference (Δθ) between the ends of the conductor.
The rate of heat flow (thermal conduction) increases with increase in temperature
difference.
A high temperature difference (∆θ) between the ends of the conductor sets the atoms into
vibration more vigorously and since the atoms are joined by spring-like bonds, the
vibrations are passed on more quickly to the cool end. The electrons in a similar way gain a
lot of kinetic energy, causing them to spread the heat energy to cooler parts of the metal
within a short time.
(ii) The length of the conductor, l.
Thermal conductivity increases with decrease in length.
Heat travels within a conductor along imaginary
lines called lines of heat flow. These lines diverge
from the hot end, as shown.
The lines of heat flow passing through the cross-
sectional area of the metal rod at X are more than
those passing through the same cross-sectional area
at Y which is a point farther away from the hot end. This indicates that the shorter the
length of material, the higher the amount of heat energy reaching the end. When the
conductor is lagged, the lines of heat are uniform as shown alongside.

Lagging is the covering of good

conductors of heat with insulating
materials to reduce heat loss through the

(iii) The cross-section area (A) of the conductor.

Thermal conductivity increases with increase in area of cross-section of the conducting
material. The number of free electrons per unit length of a thicker metal rod is more than
those in a thin metal rod.
(iv) The nature of the material (k).
Different materials have different strengths of force bonding the atoms within the material.
The number of free electrons also differs from material to material. Materials with many free
electrons are better conductors of heat. Copper has more free electrons than iron.
In summary, the rate of heat flow (thermal conductivity):
 - 4 - Thermodynamics

(i) increases with increase in temperature difference, i.e., the rate of heat flow is directly
proportional to the temperature difference.
(ii) increases with decrease in length l, i.e., the rate of heat flow is inversely proportional
to the length of a conductor.
(iii) increases with increase in cross-sectional area (A) of the material, i.e., the rate of heat
flow is directly proportional to the area of cross-section of a material.
(iv) increases with the thermal conductivity value (k) of the material.

Thermal Conductivity in Liquids

Liquids are generally poor conductors of heat.
Experiment to demonstrate that water is a poor conductor of heat
Apparatus
Boiling tube containing water, ice wrapped in a wire-gauze,
Bunsen burner.
Set up the apparatus as shown.
• Heat the water at the top until it starts boiling
• Note the changes, if any, in the ice.
Observation
Water at the top of the test tube boils while the ice remains
unmelted.
Conclusion
Water is a poor conductor of heat.
Points to note:
(i) The test tube is made of glass (a poor conductor of heat), which limits possible
conduction of heat down the tube.
(ii) The ice is wrapped in wire gauze to ensure that it does not float.
(iii) The fact that the wire gauze is a good conductor of heat and yet the ice remained
unmelted shows that there is very little heat transfer in the water, unable to melt the
ice.
(iv) Water is heated at the top to eliminate possibility
of heat transfer to the ice by convection.
Although liquids are in general poor conductors of
heat, the experimental set-up shown can be used to
show that some liquids are better heat conductors than
others.
The test-tubes are coated with a uniform layer of candle
wax. When region A of the copper rod, which is midway
from the centres of the test-tubes is heated for some time,
the wax on the test-tube with mercury begins to melt. Later,
the wax near the top of the test-tube with water melts while
the wax lower down the test-tube does not melt. This shows
that mercury is a better conductor of heat than water.

Why Liquids are Poor Conductors of Heat

Pure liquids have molecules further apart from each other. Although molecules move
about within the liquid bulk, they are slow to pass heat to other regions compared to the

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 HEAT TRANSFER -5-

free electrons in metals. This is because there are large inter-molecular distances between
liquid molecules. There are also fewer collisions between the molecules. Electrolytes, e.g.,
salt solution, are better conductors of heat than pure liquids because of an increased
compactness of the particles. Mercury is a metal existing as a liquid at room temperature.
Bromine, the only non-metallic element existing as a liquid at room temperature, is a poor
conductor of heat.

Thermal Conductivity in Gases

Since thermal conduction is by means of vibration of atoms
and the presence of free electrons, gases are worst conductors
of heat because of large inter-molecular distance between the
atoms.
A match-stick held within the unburnt gas region of a Bunsen
burner flame is not ignited by the heat from the hot part of the
flame. This is because gas is a poor conductor of heat.

Some Applications of Good and Poor Conductors of Heat

1. Cooking utensils, soldering irons and boilers are made of metals which conduct heat
rapidly. For cooking utensils, the handles are made of insulators such as wood or plastic.
Metal pipes carrying water from boilers are lagged with cloth soaked in plaster of Paris
to prevent heat losses.
2. Overheating of integrated circuits (ICs) and transistors in electronic devices can
drastically affect their performance. Such components are fixed to a heat sink (a metal
plate) to conduct away undesired heat. The fins increase the surface area of the heat
sink. This increases the rate of heat loss to the surroundings.
3. Fire-fighters put on suits made of asbestos material to keep safe while putting out fires.
Film directors cloth their characters in similar suits as the latter act in stunts involving
burning.
4. Birds flap their wings after getting wet as a means of introducing air pockets in their
feathers. Air, being a poor conductor, reduces heat loss from their bodies. Wool, fur and
thatch on roofs make use of the same concept. A soft-board ceiling is better than a
concrete ceiling because it has many air pockets.
Concrete is a better conductor of heat than air.
5. In modern buildings where the desired inside
temperature is to be stabilised, double walls are
constructed. Materials that are good insulators of heat
and can trap air and are put between the walls.
Examples of such materials are glass wool (fibre glass)
and foam plastic.
Air on its own may not effectively give the desired insulation because it undergoes
convection.
Double-glazed windows used for the same purpose have air trapped between two
glass sheets.
8. In experiments involving heating water or liquid in a glass beaker, the beaker is placed
on wire gauze. The gauze is heated and spreads the heat to a large area of the beaker.
If a Bunsen burner flame is used to heat the beaker without the gauze, the heat from
the flame may concentrate on a small area and this can make the beaker crack.
 - 6 - Thermodynamics

Convection currents in liquids

Convection in liquids can be demonstrated using some
crystals of potassium permanganate. Convection
A beaker is half filled with water. Some crystals of Convection is the process by
potassium permanganate are placed in one corner of a which heat is transferred
large beaker. through fluids (liquids and
The beaker is placed on a stand and the corner of gases). The heat transfer is by
beaker containing potassium permanganate is heated. the actual movement of the
Observation fluid, called convection
currents, which arise out of
A purple colouration rises up from the potassium the following:
permanganate, forming a loop.
(i) Natural convection:
Alternatively, a rectangular tube filled with water up to
Involves change in density of
the neck can be heated at one end, say A, as shown.
Potassium permanganate is then introduced through the
neck of the tube.
It is observed that the colouration from the potassium
permanganate flows in a clockwise direction.
Conclusion
From the two experiments, it is clear that when a liquid is
heated, it rises while cooler liquid replaces it.
the fluid with temperature.
Explanation
(ii) Forced convection:
When the volume of the substance increases with the Mixing of hot and cold parts
mass remaining constant, its density decreases. When a of the fluid through some
liquid is heated, it expands and this lowers its density. The external stirring, like a fan or
less dense liquid rises and its place is taken by more dense pump.
colder liquid. This movement of liquid forms convection
currents.

Convection Currents in Gases

Convection currents are set up when air or gas is heated.
A box with two chimneys and a transparent front can be
used to demonstrate convention currents in gases.
When a smouldering straw is placed at the mouth of
chimney A and left for some time, smoke is sucked into
the box through chimney A and exits through chimney B.
When the candle is put off, the smoke is not drawn into
the box.
The candle heats up the air above it, which expands and

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 HEAT TRANSFER -7-

Molecular Explanation of Convection in Fluids

Molecules in fluids are further apart and have negligible cohesive force. Heating a fluid
increases the kinetic energy of the vibrating molecules and their random movement. As
the fluid rises, these molecules pass energy to the molecules in the colder regions which
have less energy. Because the molecules are further away from the heating source, their
temperature is reduced. Meanwhile, the pressure near the heating source decreases
because of depletion of molecules as they rise. Colder molecules move into the low-
pressure zone to fill the void being created.
Cumulatively, this movement of molecules constitutes the convection current. Convection
currents are set up much faster in gases than in liquids because of the extremely low
cohesive forces existing between the molecules of the gases.

Some Applications of Convection in Fluids

Domestic Hot Water System

Initially, the two beakers A and B contain cold water.
Water in beaker A is coloured to distinguish it from that in
beaker B. When the water in beaker A is heated, it is
observed to rise up through tube X and emerges on top of
cold water in beaker B. The cold water flows down from
beaker B to beaker A. As long as the heating continues,
there will be movement of hot water into beaker B and
cold water will flow down into beaker A. A thermometer in
beaker B will show increase in temperature of the water
contained in B.
The commercial domestic hot water system, shown
alongside, utilises the same principle of operation. The hot
water rises up because of the effective lowering of its
density. The force of gravity helps the cold water to flow down from the cold-water tank to
the boiler. Simple Domestic Hot-water System

The top part of the cylinder contains hot water while the
lower part contains cold water. The hot water tap and
expansion pipe are connected to the upper region of the
cylinder. The expansion pipe is an outlet for excess water
that could have resulted from overheating. Once the cold
water flows down the cylinder, the main pipe allows more
cold water to flow into the cold-water tank. When filled to
capacity, the ball cock lever floating on the water closes
a valve in the main pipe, stopping further inflow of cold
water. An overflow pipe lets out water from the cold-water
tank if the valve fails.
 - 8 - Thermodynamics

The piping that conveys the hot water and the cylinder is lagged to minimise heat losses.
Commercial Domestic Hot-water System
Ventilation
This is the supply of fresh air to a room. Normally, a room has large windows close to the
floor and ventilation holes or openings high up in the walls.
Air expelled by the room occupants is warm and less dense. It rises up and escapes
through the ventilation holes. Cool fresh air flows into the room to replace the risen warm
air. The room thus gets a continuous flow of fresh air. Some houses are fitted with air
conditioning devices which cause forced convection of air, giving out cold dry air and
absorbing warm moist air.

Car Engine Cooling System

Heat conduction and convection play a very crucial role
of taking away heat from a car engine that would
otherwise reduce its efficiency. In the figure below, the
engine is surrounded by a metal water jacket that is
connected to the radiator.

The metal surface conducts away heat from engine. This

heats up the water, setting up convection currents. The
hot water is pumped into the radiator which has thin
copper fins that conduct away heat from the water. Air
flowing past the fins speeds up the cooling process.

Land and Sea Breeze

This is a natural convection mechanism, and occurs especially at sea shores because of
temperature differences between the mass of water and the land. The mass of water takes
much longer time than the nearby land to be heated to the same temperature by the sun.
Water also takes a longer time to cool than the land after being raised to the same
temperature.
During the day, the land heats up much faster than the
sea. The air just above the land gets heated up and rises
because of reduced density. Cold air above the sea
blows towards the land to replace the void being
created by the warm rising air. This is called sea breeze.
In the evening, the temperature of the sea water is higher
than that of the land. The air above the sea gets heated
up and rises. Cold air from the land blows to the sea in
what is called land breeze.

Radiation
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 HEAT TRANSFER -9-

Heat transfer through vacuum is called thermal radiation. All bodies absorb and emit
radiation.
The higher the temperature of an object, the greater the amount of radiation. A body
emitting thermal radiation can also emit visible light when it is hot enough. An electric bulb
in a room produces both light and radiant heat. The radiant heat is absorbed by the
materials in the room, which in turn give out radiant heat of lower energy.
The material must have received the heat through radiation only. This is because air is a
bad conductor of heat and if convection currents are set up, they will transfer heat
upwards.
Nature of Radiant Heat
Radiant heat, like light, can be concentrated to a point using a lens. Thermal radiation is a
wave, like light and can therefore be refracted. Because of
the nature of its production, radiant heat is an
electromagnetic wave that causes a heating effect in
objects that absorb it.
For example, when a hand lens is held above a piece of paper
such that light from the sun is focused onto the paper, it is
observed that the paper catches fire.
Radiation is also described as the flow of heat from one place to another by means of
electromagnetic waves.

Emission and Absorption of Radiation

Generally, good absorbers of radiant heat are also good emitters, while poor absorbers of
radiant heat are also poor emitters. In addition, poor emitters of radiant heat are also good
reflectors.
(a) Emission of radiant heat by different surfaces
Black surfaces are better emitters of heat than shiny surfaces.
To compare the rate of absorption of radiation from different surfaces, a U-tube containing
coloured water is connected to two boiling tubes A and B painted black.
A hollow cube painted black on one side and
polished (shiny) on the opposite side is placed in
between the boiling tubes as shown.
When hot water is poured into the cube, it is
observed that after some time, the water level in
limb A rises while the level in B falls.
Explanation
The boiling tube B receives more heat than boiling
tube A, warming the air inside it. The air expands, increasing air pressure that pushes down
the coloured water in limb B. When the sides of the metal cube are exchanged, the level
of the water in limb A falls while the level in B rises. This experiment suggests that black
surfaces are better heat emitters than polished (shiny) ones.
Alternatively, when two similar tins A and B with equal amounts of water, tin A blackened
and tin B shiny are warmed then a thermometer is placed in each tin, it is noted that after
sometime, the temperature recorded by TB is lower than that recorded by TS.
When a graph of temperature against time is plotted
for both surfaces, the curve alongside is obtained.
 - 10 Thermodynamics
-

The graph shows that water in a shiny (polished) tin lost heat less rapidly than the
blackened tin showing that black surfaces are better emitters of heat than shiny surfaces.

(b) Absorption of radiant heat by different surfaces

Black surfaces are better absorbers of radiant heat than polished surfaces.
To demonstrate absorption of radiant heat by different
surfaces, two similar sheets of aluminium plates, one polished
and the other painted black(dull) are placed on opposite
sides of a source of heat. A cork is fitted with wax on the
opposite side of the aluminium sheet facing away from the
source of heat.
After sometime, it is observed that the cork fixed on the dull
plate falls off after the wax melts, while the cork on the polished plate remains fixed for a
longer time.

Similarly, a thermometer TB immersed in water in a

blackened tin records a higher reading than that of a
thermometer Ts immersed in a tin with a polished
surface when both tins are placed on opposite sides of
a source of heat as shown alongside.

From the sketch of graph of temperature against time

for both surfaces shown, the temperature of water in
the polished tin does not increase as fast as the
temperature of water in the blackened tin.
This confirms that black or dull surfaces are better
absorbers of radiant heat than shiny or polished
surfaces.

Applications of Thermal Radiation

1. Kettles, cooking pans and iron boxes have polished surfaces to reduce heat loss
through thermal radiation.

2. Petrol tanks are painted silvery bright to reflect away as much heat as possible.

3. Houses in hot areas have their walls and roofs painted with bright colours to reflect
away heat, while those in cold regions have walls and roofs painted with dull colours.

4. In solar concentrators, electromagnetic waves in the

form of radiant heat are reflected to a common point

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 HEAT TRANSFER - 11 -

(focus) by a concave reflector. The temperature at this point can be sufficiently high to
boil water.

A solar concentrator

5. The Greenhouse Effect (Heat Trap)

A greenhouse has a transparent (glass or plastic) roof through which radiant heat energy
from the sun passes. This heat is absorbed by objects in the green house, which then emit
radiation of lower energy that cannot penetrate the glass. The cumulative effect is that the
temperature of the houses increases substantially. Greenhouses are used in providing
appropriate conditions for plants in cold regions.
It is feared that carbon dioxide and other air pollutants in the lower layers of the
atmosphere are having the same effects as glass, raising the temperature on earth to
dangerous levels. This is known as The Greenhouse Effect.

6. Solar Heater
The solar heater uses solar energy to heat water.

It consists of coiled blackened copper pipe on a blackened insulating surface. Radiant

heat from the sun passes through the glass and is absorbed by blackened copper pipes
that contain water, which is heated up. Copper pipes and copper collectors are used
because copper is a good conductor of heat. They are however painted black to increase
their absorbing power.
Lower energy emitted after absorption of radiant energy does not escape because it
cannot penetrate the glass. The temperature of the air above the pipe thus increases,
boosting the heating of the water. A good insulating material is used as a base.

7. Thermos Flask (Vacuum Flask)

A thermos is designed to keep its contents at a fairly
constant temperature by minimising transfer of heat
 - 12 Thermodynamics
-

between the contents of the flask and the surroundings

The flask is made of high-quality glass, blown in such a way that it is double-walled. The air
between the walls is pumped out to create a vacuum. This vacuum is an excellent
insulator, minimising heat transfer by conduction and convection
Heat transfer by radiation, which might be relatively large, is reduced by a silver
coating on the inside surfaces, so that each wall is a poor emitter and poor absorber of
heat. Heat loss by evaporation from the liquid surface is prevented by a well-fitting cork.
The metal or plastic case is necessary as a protection for the glass envelope. The soft
padding holds the glass flask firmly in the case.

Review Exercises

Recently…. In KCSE;
1. 2007 Q 6,7
Figure 4 show two identical balloons A and B. The balloons were filled with equal amounts of
the same type of gas. The balloons are suspended at distances X1 and X2 from a metal cube filled
with boiling water and placed on an insulating material. Use this information to answer
questions 6 and 7.

6. State the mode by which heat travels from the cube to the balloons. (1 mark)

7. The face of the cube towards A is bright and shiny and the face towards B is dull black.
State with reason the adjustments that should be made on the distances X1 and X2 so
that the rate of change of temperature in both balloons is the same. (2 marks)

2. 2008 Q6,7; 2016 Q5

Figure 3 shows a hot water bath with metal rods inserted through one of its sides. Some wax is
fixed at the end of each rod. Use this information to answer questions 6 and 7.

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(a) What property of metals could be tested using this set-up? (1 mark)

(a) Besides the length of the rods that is kept constant, what else should be kept constant
when comparing the property for the different metal rods? (1 mark)

3. 2009 Q7,8
Use the following information to answer questions 7 and 8
Two identical empty metal containers P and Q are placed over identical Bunsen burners and the
burners lit. P is dull black while Q is shiny bright. After each container attains a temperature of
100 °C, the burners are turned off. Identical test tubes containing water are suspended in each
container without touching the sides as shown in figure 3.

7. Explain why the container Q may become hot faster than P. (2 marks)

8. Explain why the water in test- tube in P becomes hot faster than in Q. (2 marks)

4. 2010 Q4
A paper windmill in a horizontal axis was placed above a candle as shown in Figure 2.
 - 14 Thermodynamics
-

When the candle was lit, the paper windmill begun to rotate. Explain this observation.
(2 marks)
5. 2011 Q5
Figure 4 shows two identical beakers P and Q full of water at 90 °C. Two similar cold wet
clothes are wrapped, one around the top of P and the other around the bottom of Q.

State, with a reason, the beaker in which the water cools faster. (2 marks)

6. 2012 Q17 (a), (b)

(a) Figure 11 shows how an underground room was ventilated. It had two vents, one at A
and other at B. A fire was lit at point C.

Explain what happened to the ventilation when the fire was lit. (3 marks)

(b) Explain how a vacuum flask minimizes loss of heat through radiation. (1 mark)

7. 2013 Q7
Figure 3 shows a piece of wood fitted into a copper pipe and a piece of paper wrapped tightly
around the junction.

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 HEAT TRANSFER - 15 -

It is observed that when a flame is applied around the paper at the junction, the side of the
paper around the wood burns first. Explain this observation. (2 marks)

8. 2014 Q7
Figure 4 shows a source of heat placed at equal distances from two identical flasks X and Y
containing air. The surface of X is painted black while Y is clear.

X and Y are linked by U- tube filled with water whose levels S and T are initially the same. It is
later observed that S falls while T rises. Explain this observation. (2 marks)

9. 2015 Q12
Figure 6 shows a glass tube with water fitted with two identical thermometers A and B. It is
heated as shown.

Figure 6
State with a reason which one of the two thermometers shows a higher temperature.
(2 marks)

10. 2019 Q5
Figure 3 shows two metal rods A and B of equal length made of the same material but different
diameters. Wax is attached at one end of each rod. A source of heat is placed between the two
metal rods.
 - 16 Thermodynamics
-

State, with a reason, what is observed in the wax. (2 marks)

@VictorVC
 RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION AND REFLECTION AT
PLANE SURFACES
Table of Contents📱👈💻
Sources of light
Rays and beams of light
Types of beams of light Connections
Rectilinear propagation of light
Shadows Building on…
Eclipse
 Primary Science – Light
The pinhole camera
Magnification Energy, Shadows.

Reflection of light  The plane mirrors we use

Rotation of a mirror through an angle every day
Formation of images by plane mirrors  Common phenomena – Eclipse
Images formed by mirrors at an angle
Arriving at …
Applications of plane mirrors
Revision Exercise  Describing rectilinear
Specific Objectives propagation of light – formation

Specific Objectives of shadows and eclipses.

By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:  Describing the working of the

a) perform and describe experiments to show that light pin-hole camera

travels in a straight line  Stating and verifying the laws
b) describe the formation of shadows and eclipses of reflection
c) explain the functioning of a pin-hole camera  Describing image formation and
d) state the laws of reflection characteristics in plane mirrors
e) verify experimentally the laws of reflection and the applications of plane
f) state the characteristics of images formed by plane mirrors
mirrors
g) explain the applications of reflection at plane surfaces Looking forward to….
h) solve numerical problems involving pin-hole camera and
mirrors inclined at an angle.  Reflection at curved surfaces
(16 Lessons)  Refraction of light
 Thin Lenses
Content
1. Rectilinear propagation of light (experimental treatment
required)
2. Formation of shadows and eclipses (umbra and penumbra)
3. Pin-hole camera image formation and magnification
4. Laws of reflection
5. Images formed by plane mirrors, ray diagrams, parallel and inclined mirrors
6. Devices based on reflection: periscope, kaleidoscope
7. Problems on pin-hole camera and mirrors inclined at an angle
 2 Geometric Optics

RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION AND REFLECTION AT

PLANE SURFACES

Light is a form of energy that makes visual perception possible. For a person to see an object, light energy
from the object must enter the eye. This energy is converted into a ‘picture’ and interpreted in the mind.
Besides helping us to see our surroundings, light is also very essential as a source of energy for the
process by which plants manufacture their food (photosynthesis).

Sources of Light
Objects which produce their own light are known as luminous sources of light. Examples of such objects are the
sun, stars, burning candles, a wood or charcoal fire, a red-hot heating element, electric light bulbs, television
screens and glow worms.
Non-luminous objects do not produce light of their own. They are seen when light falling on them from luminous
sources is reflected. Examples of such objects include the moon, planets, plants, people, books, walls,
clothes and wall charts.

Rays and Beams of Light

The path along which light energy travels is referred to as a ray of light. In diagrams, rays are represented by lines
with arrows on them to show the direction of travel.
A beam is a stream of light energy which is considered to be a bundle of rays of light.
Beams of light are readily seen:
(i) in the morning as the sunlight breaks through the clouds.
(ii) when a spotlight is shone in a smoky room or a car drives along a dusty road at night with its
headlamps on.
(iii) when sunlight streams into a smoky dark room through a small opening.

Types of Light Beams

Beams of light that appear to spread out (diverge) are referred to as
divergent beams, for example, beam of light from a spotlight. Parallel
beams are those that appear to be perfectly parallel to each other,
e.g., beam of light from the sun reaching the earth’s surface.
Beams of light that appear to collect (converge) to a point are
referred to as convergent beams.

Opaque, Translucent and Transparent Objects

Opaque objects do not allow light to pass through them at all, e.g.,
brick walls, metals, wood and stone. Translucent objects allow light to
pass through, but we cannot see through them, e.g., some glass panes
used in toilet and. bathroom windows (frosted glass) and greased paper.
Transparent objects are objects which allow light to pass through and we see clearly through them, e.g., car
windscreens and ordinary window panes.

Rectilinear Propagation of Light

©Victor VC
 REFLECTION AT PLANE SURFACES 3

Rectilinear propagation of light is the travelling of light in straight lines.

When light from a source falls on an opaque object, it casts a shadow of
the object with sharp edges on a screen placed behind it. This suggests
that light travels in straight lines in a uniform transparent medium.
When the holes in the cardboards shown alongside are in a straight line,
light travels through the holes and the lamp is seen from the other side.
When one of the cardboards is displaced, the beam of light is cut and
since light cannot bend to follow the displaced hole, the lamp cannot be
seen.

Shadows
Shadows are formed when an opaque object is in the path of a beam of light. The type of shadow formed
depends on:
(i) the size of source of light.
(ii) the size of opaque object.
(iii) the distance between the object and the light source.
Shadows formed by a point source of light
The shadow formed by a point source of light is called the umbra
(Latin for shade). It is a uniformly and totally dark shadow with a
sharp edge, supporting the idea that light travels in
straight lines.
Shadows formed by extended sources of light
Extended light sources produce shadows that is much
softer and without sharp edges.
The centre of the shadow is uniformly dark. It is edged
with a border of a partial shadow called penumbra.
Light from some parts of the extended source of light reaches the centre parts of the shadow on the screen,
but light from other parts is cut off by the opaque object, resulting in a partial shadow at the edges.
An application of this is the use of frosted light bulbs and lamp shades to provide a more pleasant lighting
with less sharp shadows. Fluorescent tubes are usually surrounded by a frosted diffuser to scatter the light
and reduce the sharpness of shadows.
Effect of object distance on shadows formed by extended sources of light
The effect of varying the object distance from the source of light
in shadow formation can be demonstrated using a ball placed in
between a screen and an extended source of light.
When the ball is moved closer to the source, a ring of penumbra
is formed. No umbra is seen.

The centre of the shadow receives light from the extended

source. Since the ball is smaller than the source of light, its umbra
does not reach the screen because of the distance.
 4 Geometric Optics

When the ball is far away, there is umbra surrounded by penumbra. Since the ball is moved closer to the
screen, the tip of the umbra reaches the screen.

Eclipse
An Eclipse is the total or partial disappearance of the sun or moon as seen from the earth. Eclipses are explained in
terms of the relative positions of the earth, the moon and the sun.

Solar Eclipse
The sun is eclipsed when the moon passes between the sun and
the earth. When this happens, the moon intercepts light from
the sun, thereby casting a shadow on the earth and causing
darkness during the day.
When a solar eclipse does occur, the path of the moon’s umbra
across the surface of the earth is very narrow (never wider than
272 km), so that most people on the earth see mainly a partial
eclipse. In the umbra, the sun is completely covered, giving rise
to a total eclipse (point Y). In the penumbra, the sun is only
partially covered, giving rise to partial eclipse of the sun (points
X and Z).
The total eclipse, which never lasts more than about 8 minutes,
allows us to see the sun’s atmosphere which is normally not
visible because of the brightness of the sun’s disc itself. Red
prominences and the rim of the sun’s disc called the corona,
which now surrounds the circumference of the moon, can be
seen at the same time as the stars in the sky.

Annular Eclipse
Sometimes the umbra of the moon is not long enough to
reach the earth because the distance between the moon
and the earth varies (the moon’s orbit is elliptical).
When the moon is farther away from the earth, its disc is
slightly smaller than the sun’s disc. So, when a solar
eclipse occurs, the moon is not large enough to cover
the sun totally. A bright ring of sunlight can be seen
round the edge of the dark disc of the moon as shown
below. This is an annular or ring eclipse.

Lunar Eclipse or Eclipse of the Moon

A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes through the earth’s umbra, as shown below.

A lunar eclipse only happens occasionally when the moon

is full. It can last for as long as 1 hour 45 minutes, because

©Victor VC
 REFLECTION AT PLANE SURFACES 5

the moon is much smaller than the earth and takes sometime to pass through the earth’s umbra.

During a total lunar eclipse, it is still possible to see the moon because a small amount of sunlight reaches it.
The sunlight is bent or refracted by the earth’s atmosphere giving the moon a dim a coppery colour.

The Pinhole Camera

This is a simple camera with a small aperture but no lens. It is a light proof box with a small hole on one side.

Images in a pinhole camera

When the camera is set up with the pinhole facing a brightly-lit object
pin, a sharp inverted image of the illuminated pin is seen on the
screen.

When the camera is moved near to the object, the size (height) of the
image formed on the screen increases, i.e, the image becomes larger.
Conversely, when the camera is moved farther away from the object,
the image becomes smaller.

When more holes are added close to the first main pinhole, images of
each point are seen overlapping on the screen.

When the pinhole is enlarged, a brighter but very blurred image is

seen on the screen.
Explanation
Each point on the object acts as a source of light, emitting rays in all directions. The pinhole admits narrow
cones of light from all points of the object facing the hole. When these cones of light fall on the screen they
produce bright spots on every part of the object, hence
the formation of the image.
The image is real as it is formed on a screen. The image is
inverted (upside down) because light from the top of the
object forms the lower portion of the image while light
from the bottom of the object forms the upper section of
the image. This further confirms the rectilinear
propagation of light.

If the camera was made in such a way that it could be elongated by moving the screen farther away from the
pinhole but keeping the distance between the object and
the pinhole fixed, it would be observed that the image
enlarges when the length of the camera is increased and
diminishes when the length of the camera is reduced.

Enlarging the pinhole is equivalent to adding an infinite

number of other small holes close to the original pinhole.
Each of the imaginary pinhole allows a narrow cone of
light to reach the screen from each point on the object.
Hence, several images of each point are formed
overlapping on the screen.
 6 Geometric Optics

The additional brightness of the resultant image is due to more light which now gets into the camera
through the enlarged hole. The image appears blurred due to the overlapping of different images falling on
the same area of the screen.

Magnification
The change in the size of an image relative to that of the object is called the magnification, m.
height of image hi
Thus, magnification, m =
height of object ho
It can be proved from the geometry of similar triangles that:
distance of image from pinhole (v)
Magnification, m =
distance of object from pinhole (u)
height of image hi
Hence, =
height of object ho
distance of image from pinhole (v)
distance of object from pinhole (u)

Example 2
An object of height 5 m is placed 10 m away from a
pinhole camera.
Calculate:
(a) the size of the image if its magnification is 0.01.
(b) the length of the pinhole camera.

Solution
height of image hi
(a) Magnification =
height of object ho
Example 1 hi
0.01 =
5
The distance between the pinhole and screen of a pinhole
camera is 10 cm. The height of the screen is 20 cm. At what hi = 0.01 × 5 = 0.05 m
minimum distance from the pinhole must a man 1.6 m tall the image is 5 cm high.
image distance (v)
stand if a full-length image is required? (b) Magnification = object distance (u)
v
Solution 0.01 =
10
The information can be represented as: v = 0.01 × 10 = 0.1 m
the length of the pinhole camera is 10 cm.

hi v
Magnification m = =
ho u
But hi = 20 cm = 0.2 m; ho =1.6 m and v
= 10 cm = 0.1 m
ho × v 1.6 ×0.1
Therefore, u = = =0.8 m
hi 0.2

©Victor VC
Example 3

The photographic film of a pinhole camera is 20 cm away from the pinhole. A student of height 1.6 m stands 8
m from the opening of the pinhole. Find the height of the student’s image.

Solution
height of image h distance of image from pinhole (v)
Magnification M = height of object h i = distance of object from pinhole (u)
o

But ho = 1.6 m; v = 20 cm =0.2 m; u = 8 m

0.2 h
= 1.6i
8

Therefore hi = 0.04 m
The student’s image height is 4 cm.

Reflection of Light
Bouncing off of light is called reflection.
The amount of light energy reflected by a body depends on the nature of the surface of the body (smooth or
rough). The smoother the surface, the greater the fraction of light reflected from the body and the brighter
the body appears to our eyes.

Regular and Diffuse Reflection

Regular or specular reflection occurs when very smooth surface, such as that of a polished sheet of metal or a mirror,
reflects all the parallel rays of light from a particular source in one direction only.

The irregular reflection of the light rays in different directions by a rough surface is called diffuse reflection.

Reflection by Plane Mirrors

A plane mirror is a flat smooth reflecting surface which forms images by regular reflection.
The silvered side of the mirror is shown by the shading behind the reflecting surface. When using a glass
plane mirror in an experiment, the silvered surface should be placed on the reflecting line drawn for the
experiment.

Definition of Terms used in the Reflection of Light

The incident ray is the ray that travels from the source to the
reflecting surface.
 8 Geometric Optics

The angle of incidence is the angle between the incident ray and the normal.
The normal is the line drawn perpendicularly at the point where the incident ray strikes the reflecting
surface.
The reflected ray is the ray that bounces from the reflecting surface.
The angle of reflection is the angle between the reflected ray and the normal.

Laws of Reflection
There are two laws of reflection which hold true for all reflecting surfaces.
(i) The angle of incidence, i, equals the angle of reflection, r.
(ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie on the same
plane.

Rotation of a Mirror Through an Angle

When a mirror is rotated through an angle such that the direction
of the incident ray remains constant, the angle of rotation of the
reflected ray is twice the angle of rotation of the mirror.
This property is used in instruments where a beam of light is used
as a pointer. For example, it is used in the mirror galvanometer
(used for measuring very small electric currents) and the sextant
(used in navigation for measuring the angle of elevation of the sun
or stars).
Example 1
A plane mirror lying with its face up makes an angle of 10° with the
horizontal. A ray of light shines down vertically on the mirror as shown
in the figure below.
(a) What is the angle of incidence?
(b) What angle will the reflected ray make with:
(i) the vertical?
(ii) the horizontal?

Solution
(a) The incident ray is perpendicular to the horizontal. A normal
drawn to the inclined mirror through the point of incidence makes
an angle i with the incident ray. Using the property of vertically
opposite angles, the angle i is 10°.
(b) Since i = r, angle of reflection is also 10°.
Therefore, the reflected ray makes:
(i) angle of 20° with the vertical.
(ii) angle of (90 – 20) = 70° with the horizontal.

©Victor VC
 REFLECTION AT PLANE SURFACES 9

Example 2

The figure alongside shows a ray incident at an angle of 25° at

position 1. The mirror is turned through 6° to position 2. Through
what angle is the reflected ray rotated?

Solution
The incoming ray is fixed.
Rotation changes the angle of incidence from 25° to (25 + 6) =
31°. Hence, the angle of reflection is 31° from the new normal.
Since this angle is measured off the normal to the mirror
which itself has rotated through 6°, the total change in the
angle of reflected ray is 12°.
Example 3

A suspended plane mirror makes an angle of 20° with a wall. Light

from a window strikes the mirror horizontally. Find:
(a) the angle of incidence.
(b) the angle between the horizontal and reflected ray.

Solution
(a) From the figure alongside, the light makes an angle 70°
with the mirror. Hence, the angle of incidence equals 20°.
(b) Since i = r = 20°, the reflected ray makes an angle of 40°
with the horizontal.

Formation of Images by Plane Mirrors

Characteristics of Images Formed by Plane Mirrors

The 3 characteristics of the images formed by a plane mirror are:
(i) The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
(ii) The image is the same size as the object.
(iii) The image is virtual, erect and laterally inverted.
Images from rays which only appear to come from them, but are not real rays, are called virtual images.
Such images cannot be formed on the screen as they are only imaginary (as seen by the observer’s eye).

Parallax
This apparent relative motion of two objects due to the movement of the observer is called parallax.
Parallax occurs only when objects are some distance apart. When the objects are at the same position, there
is no parallax.
 10 Geometric Optics

Example
A girl stands 2.0 m in front of a plane mirror.
(a) Calculate the distance between the girl and her image.
(b) If the mirror is moved 0.6 m away from the girl, what will be
the distance between her and the image?
Solution
(a) Since object distance equals image distance, the image is 2.0
m behind the mirror. Thus;
Distance between object and image
= object distance + image distance
= 2.0 + 2.0 = 4.0 m
(b) When the mirror is moved 0.6 m away; object distance
becomes 2.0 + 0.6 = 2.6 m. The image distance is also 2.6
m.
Hence, distance between them = 2.6 + 2.6 m = 5.2 m

Images Formed by Mirrors at an Angle

When two mirrors are placed at an angle with each other, it is observed that the number of images formed
by the mirrors increases as the angle is reduced.
The actual number (n) of images when the mirrors are inclined at an angle is given by the formula;
360°
n= -1
θ

Mirrors parallel to each other

When the mirrors are parallel, i.e., θ = 0°, number of images formed is given by;
360°
n= -1 = ∞ (n is infinite)
θ

This is evident as one walks between parallel mirrors, as in some wash rooms or a barber’s shops. The
farther images are fainter due to absorption of light on reflection.

Example 1

Two parallel plane mirrors are placed 30 cm apart. An object placed

between them is 10 cm from one mirror. Determine the image distance of
two nearest images formed by each mirror.

Solution
The figure alongside illustrates the set-up. Since image distance
equals object distance;
The image of the object on mirror 1 is I1. Image distance is 10 cm.
The image of object on mirror 2 is I2. Image distance is 20 cm.
The image distance of I2 on mirror 1 is 50 cm.
The image distance of I1 on mirror 2 is 40 cm.

©Victor VC
 REFLECTION AT PLANE SURFACES 11

Example 2

Two plane mirrors are inclined at angle 60° to each other. A ray of light
makes an angle of 40° with mirror M1 and goes on to strike mirror M2.
Find the angle of reflection on the second mirror M2.

Solution
The angle of incidence on mirror 1 is 50°.
Since I = r, the angle of reflection is also 50°.
Hence, the incident ray makes an angle of 10° with the normal
of mirror 2.
Therefore, the angle of reflection on mirror 2 is 10°.

Applications of Plane Mirrors

The Kaleidoscope
The kaleidoscope applies the principle of mirrors at an angle. Initially, it
was produced as a toy under the name ‘mirrorscope’.
It consists of two mirrors M1 and M2 placed at an angle of 60° to each
other inside a tube.
The bottom of the tube is a ground glass plate for admitting light. On
this plate is scattered small pieces of brightly coloured glass, which act
as objects.
When one looks down the tube, five images of the object are seen
which together with the object form a symmetrical pattern in six sectors, as shown in the figure. The
instrument is used by designers to obtain ideas on symmetrical patterns.

The Periscope
This is an instrument used to view objects over obstacles. It is used in
submarines and also to watch over the heads of crowds. The images
seen with aid of the instrument are erect and virtual.
A simple periscope may be constructed by arranging two plane mirrors
inclined at 45° to the horizontal. The rays from the object are reflected
by the top mirror and then reflected again by the bottom mirror into
the observer’s eye.
More elaborate periscopes are used in submarines. Here, prisms are
used instead of mirrors and the tube supporting them incorporates a
telescope to extend the range of vision.
 12 Geometric Optics

Review Exercises

Recently...in KCSE;

©Victor VC
 ELECTROSTATICS (I)

Table of Contents 📱👆💻

Origin of charge
The electroscope
Charges in air
Applications of electrostatic charges Connections
Dangers of electrostatics
Building on…
Revision Exercise  Forces – Electrostatic force

Arriving at …
 Defining electrostatics
 Describing the electrostatic
Specific Objectives
charging of objects by
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able rubbing, contact and
to: induction.
a) describe electrostatic charging of objects by rubbing  Describing the working; and
b) explain the source of electrostatic charges uses of the leaf electroscope.
c) state the two types of charges  Explaining some applications ;
d) state the basic law of charges
and dangers of electrostatics.
e) state the unit of charge
f) construct a simple leaf electroscope Looking forward to….
g) explain the charging of a leaf electroscope  Cells and Simple circuits
h) use a charged leaf electroscope to identify conductors,
 Electrostatics (II)
insulators and types of charges.

(12 Lessons)

Content
1. Electrostatic charging of objects by rubbing (experimental treatment required)
2. Types of charges and law of charges
3. The source of charge
4. The coulomb
5. Leaf electroscope: features, charging and discharging
6. Charging by contact and by induction
7. Identification of charge
8. Conductors and insulators
 2 Electricity and Magnetism

ELECTROSTATICS I

Household mirrors and windows attract dust and other small particles when wiped with a dry
duster. A crackling sound is sometimes heard when a nylon cloth is taken off the body. A
plastic comb attracts some pieces of paper when rubbed.
These observations are as a result of the formation of static charges. The charges found on
the surfaces of the materials are caused by friction between the rubbed surfaces. The
materials are said to be charged.
The study of static charges is called electrostatics.

There are two types of charges negative and positive charges.

The SI unit of charge is the coulomb(C). Subunits of the coulomb, millicoulombs (mC) and
microcoulombs (µC) are also used.
1000 mC = 1C
1 000 µC = 1 mC
1 000 000 µC = 1C

Charge is neither created nor destroyed but simply transferred from one body to another

Origin of Charge
Matter is made up of atoms. The nucleus of the atom consists of particles known as protons
which are positively charged, and neutrons which have no charge. The electrons move in
orbits around the nucleus and are negatively charged.
The whole atom is neutral since the positively charged nucleus is
neutralised by the negative charges of the elections in the energy
levels.

Electrons in the outermost orbit are weakly held by the nucleus and
can be transferred easily from the atoms of one material to another
by rubbing.

The material that gains electrons becomes negatively charged and the one which loses
electrons becomes positively charged. A negatively or positively charged atom is called an
ion.
When a polythene rod is rubbed with a piece of cloth, the cloth loses negative charges to
the rod, making the latter negatively charged. Consequently, the cloth becomes electron
deficient and it acquires positive charge.

Materials such as polythene and most plastics

acquire extra electrons on their surface and
hence become negatively charged when
rubbed. The rubbing material (cloth or duster)
loses an equal number of negative charges and
becomes positively charged.
 ELECTROSTATICS (I) 3

On the other hand, materials such as acetate, Perspex and glass have electrons removed
from their surface when rubbed. They thus become positively charged while the rubbing
material (duster) gains an equal number of negative charges.

The basic law of charges

The basic law of electrostatic charges states that like charges repel and unlike charges
attract each other.
Practically, when a charged glass rod is moved close to a suspended charged glass rod,
they repel each other. When a charged polythene rod is moved close to a suspended
charged glass rod, they attract each other.
Since the glass rods were rubbed with the same material, both acquired a positive charge.
The repulsion between them implies that like charges repel each other. The polythene rod
(negatively charged) attracted the glass rod (positively charged), showing that unlike
charges attract each other.

Charging by Induction
When a body is charged by induction, it acquires charges that are opposite to the inducing
charge.
Experiment To charge a conductor by the induction
method
Apparatus
A polystyrene ball coated with aluminium point, silk
thread, glass rod, silk cloth, stand, polythene rod.
Procedure
• Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with
aluminium using dry silk thread.
• Bring a charged glass rod close to, but not
touching the suspended ball. (a)
• Touch the side of the ball away from the glass
rod with a finger, (b).
• While holding the glass rod near the ball,
withdraw the finger and then the glass rod, (c).
• Bring a charged polythene rod (negatively
charged) close to, but not touching the
polystyrene ball.

Explanation
Initially, the positive glass rod attracts negative charges on the ball at the side close to it,
leaving positive charges to the farther right side of the ball ( a).
Touching the ball with fingers makes negative charges flow from the earth through the body
to the sphere. The electrons neutralise the positive charges on the right part of the ball.
When the rod is withdrawn, negative charges on the ball spread all over the ball. Hence, the
ball becomes negatively charged (c) as confirmed by the repulsion from the negatively
charged polythene rod.
 4 Electricity and Magnetism

Charging by Contact
When a body is charged by contact method, it acquires charges that are similar to the ones
on the charging rod.
Experiment To charge a conductor by the contact method
Apparatus
Polystyrene ball coated with aluminium paint, silk thread, glass
rod, silk cloth, polythene rod, woollen cloth.
Procedure
• Suspend the polystyrene ball coated with aluminium with a
dry silk thread.
• Bring a charged glass rod close to, but not touching the ball,
(a).
• Bring the charged glass rod in contact with the ball, rolling it
over the surface, as shown in (b).
• Withdraw the charged rod.
• Bring a charged polythene rod close to, but not touching
the suspended ball and observe what happens.
Observation
The suspended ball is attracted by the polythene rod. If the
charged ball is tested with a positively charged glass rod, they
Explanation
When the positive rod is rolled on the ball, some of the negative charges induced in the ball
are neutralised by some positive charges on the rod.
When the rod is withdrawn, the positive charges redistribute themselves all over the surface
of the ball (c). The ball therefore gets positively charged.

Charging by Separation
 ELECTROSTATICS (I) 5

Experiment To charge a conductor by the separation method

Apparatus
Two metal spheres A and B with insulating stands, a polythene rod, woollen
cloth, stand, thread.
Procedure
• Place the two spheres A and B together so that they form a single
conductor.
• Charge a polythene rod and place it close to, but not touching sphere
A.
• Move sphere B away so as to break contact, while holding the
charged polythene rod in position.
• Withdraw the polythene rod.
• Test the two spheres A and B using a suspended negatively charged
polythene rod for the presence and type of charge in each sphere.

Observation
When the two spheres in turn are brought close to the suspended charged
Explanation
Sphere A attracts the negative rod because it has acquired positive
charges which are opposite to the charges on the rod.
Sphere B repels the rod because it has acquired negative charges
which are similar to the charges on the rod.

The Electroscope
This is an instrument which works on the principle of electrostatic charges. It is used for
investigating the effects of electric charges.
The gold-leaf electroscope consists of a thin gold
or aluminium leaf on a plate connected to a metal
rod that has a brass cap at the top.
The cap acquires a charge through induction or
contact and spreads it down the rod to the plate
and leaf. The cap is circular to ensure uniform
distribution of charges on it.

Both the plate and the leaf show the presence of charges by repelling each other, making
the leaf diverge. The absence of charges is also shown when the leaf divergence decreases.
The metal casing is for protecting the leaf from the effects of draught. The casing has a glass
window through which observations are made.
The rod is supported by passing it through a plug of good insulating material such as rubber.
The insulator stops charge given to the cap from spreading onto the case and leaking away.
The casing may have a terminal for connection to the earth. This is labelled E.

When the electroscope is touched by a finger or connected to the earth by a wire, electrons
either flow to the earth or from the earth, depending on the charge on the electroscope.

This process of losing charges to or gaining charges from the earth through a conductor is
called earthing.

Charging an Electroscope by the Contact Method

 6 Electricity and Magnetism

Charge a polythene rod by rubbing it with a clean, dry duster. Roll the charged rod over the
brass cap of the electroscope and subsequently withdraw it.
The negatively charged polythene rod repels the
negative charges which spreads on the plate and the
leaf. Repulsion between the plate and the leaf occurs
and the leaf divergence increases, (a).
When the process is repeated several times with the
negatively charged polythene rod, the leaf divergence
increases to a maximum point. The electroscope is said
to be charged negatively by contact method.
The electroscope can be discharged by touching the
brass cap with a finger.
The electroscope can be charged positively through
the same process by using a different charging
material, e.g., glass rubbed with a clean dry silk cloth. In
this case, electrons are attracted from the cap to the
rod. They neutralise the rod and the electroscope
becomes positively charged.
In the contact method, the charged material coming
into contact with the cap of the electroscope is an insulator. Only the charges on the rod’s
surface coming into contact with the cap are used in neutralising the charges induced on
the cap.

Charging an Electroscope by Induction

The most effective way of charging an electroscope is by the induction method.
 ELECTROSTATICS (I) 7

Experiment To charge an electroscope by induction

Apparatus
A gold leaf electroscope, polythene rod, woollen cloth.
Procedure
• Touch the cap of a gold-leaf electroscope with your finger to
ensure that it is fully discharged.
• Bring a charged polythene rod close to the cap of the uncharged
electroscope, (a). Note what happens to the leaf of the
electroscope.
• While the rod remains in its position, touch the cap and note again
what happens to the leaf.
• Withdraw your finger and subsequently remove the polythene rod.
Note what happens.
Observation
When the charged polythene rod is brought close to the cap, the leaf
rises. When the cap is touched while the rod is still in position, the leaf
divergence decreases, (b).
When the earth connection is removed by removing the finger and the
polythene rod subsequently withdrawn, the leaf diverges, (c).

Explanation
When the charged polythene rod is brought close to the cap,
electrons are repelled to the plate and the leaf, making the leaf
diverge. When the cap is touched, the negative charge
(electrons) flow to earth through the body.
When the earth connection is broken by removing the finger and
the polythene rod withdrawn, the positive charge which was
attracted to the cap redistributes onto the plate and the leaf.
The leaf as a result diverges and the electroscope becomes

Uses of the Electroscope

An electroscope has a number of uses, some of which are described below.
1. To detect the presence of charge on a body
The material to be tested is placed on or brought close to the cap of the electroscope. If it
is not charged, the leaf does not diverge.
2. To test the quantity of charge on a charged body
Two pith balls coated with aluminium and having different radii are placed on insulating
handles. They are charged by rubbing with a duster. The charged balls are brought close to
the cap of a charged electroscope.
The ball with a smaller radius causes a slight increase in divergence while the larger ball
causes a greater increase in divergence.

3. To test the sign of charge on a charged body

 8 Electricity and Magnetism

Charge an electroscope negatively by contact method. Slowly bring a negative rod to be

tested close to the cap of the electroscope. The leaf diverges more. It does so because the
negative charges on the rod repel more charges from the cap to the plate and the leaf.
Similar charges in the plate and the leaf are repelled.

When a strong positively rod is brought from high position towards the negatively
electroscope, the leaf divergence first decreases then increases as the rod approaches the
cap. The leaf divergence reduces slightly first because the positive charges on the rod
attract negative charges on the leaf and the plate, making the electroscope neutral. On
moving the rod much lower, the leaf divergence increases again to higher position. This is
because the strong positive rod attracts more electrons from the plate and the leaf, making
them more positive. Hence, they repel further.

The same observations are made when a negatively charged rod is brought towards a
positively charged electroscope.

On moving a neutral conductor close to a charged electroscope. Leaf divergence

decreases. Charges on the electroscope induce opposite charges on the conductor.
The table below shows a summary of the results obtained when we test the sign on a charged
object using differently charged electroscopes.
Charge on electroscope Charge brought near cap Effect on leaf divergence
+ + Increase
– – Increase
+ - Decrease
- + Decrease
+ or - Uncharged body Decrease

An increase in the divergence of the leaf is therefore the only sure way of confirming the kind
of charge on a body.
4. To test for insulation properties of a material
Conductors such as copper, iron, aluminium, zinc and graphite have free electrons. They
make the leaf divergence decrease because they allow electrons to flow between the
electroscope and the earth.
 ELECTROSTATICS (I) 9

Materials like plastic, glass, wood, do not affect the divergence of the leaf because they do
not allow electrons to flow between the electroscope and the earth. In these materials, the
electrons are not free to move and they are strongly bound to their nuclei. Such materials
are called insulators.
There are other materials like silicon and germanium which are conductors under special
conditions. Their conductivity is between the conductivity of insulators and conductors. Such
materials are called semiconductors.

Charges in Air
Air can also be charged. The presence of charges in air can be shown by heating air above
a charged electroscope. It observed that the leaf divergence decreases.
When a fuel burns, chemical reactions yield ionised products. The ions move and collide with
air molecules, causing air to become ionised. Ionisation produces both positive and negative
charges. The ions carrying opposite the charge to the electroscope are attracted to the cap
of the electroscope, resulting in the discharge of the electroscope. Charges on insulators
can be removed by ionised air.
Other than heating, air can also be ionised by radiations.

Applications of Electrostatic Charges

Some of the applications of electrostatics include electrostatic precipitators, spray painting
and photocopiers.

Spray Painting
The spray gun can is filled with the paint and its nozzle charged. During spraying, the paint
droplets acquire similar charges and, therefore, spread out finely due to repulsion. As they
approach the metallic body, they induce opposite charges which in turn attracts them to
the surface. Little paint is therefore used.

Electrostatic Precipitator
Electrostatic precipitators are used in heavy industries to
minimize air pollution.

The precipitator consists of cylindrical metal plate fixed

along the walls of the chimney and a wire mesh
suspended through the middle. The plate is charged
positively at a potential of about 50 000 V while the mesh
is negatively charged. A strong electric field is set up
between the plates, which ionises the particles of the
pollutants. These are then attracted to the plate. The
resulting deposits are then removed from the plates
occasionally.

Photocopier
A photocopier produces paper copies of documents using heat and electrostatic charges.
Inside a photocopier is a cylindrical drum that is charged negatively.
The bright light is used to illuminate the original document. The unprinted areas reflect light
and become negatively charged while the toner is positively charged and, therefore, sticks
on the negatively charged areas. The toner image is transferred to the paper which is
 10 Electricity and Magnetism

negatively charged. The hot drum melts the toner to the paper and pressure rollers help to
ensure complete and dry bonding to the paper. A copy of the original document is,
therefore, produced.

Dangers of Electrostatics
Some dangers associated with electrostatics include:
(i) Sparks and fires
• Fuel rubbing the inside of a pipe becomes charged and can cause a spark which ignites
the fuel.
• Fuel in plastic cans generates charges as it rubs with inner walls of the can.
• Fast moving water jets become charged and may cause fuel tanks in shops to explode
while cleaning them out.
(ii) Electric shock
• A person walking on a nylon carpet can experience shock by touching metallic door
handles in the building.
• A car radiator generates charges that can cause shock if touched.
(iii) Lightning
• Electrostatic charges from lightning cause shock leading to death.
 ELECTROSTATICS (I) 11

Review Exercises
 CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS
Table of Contents 📱👆💻
A simple electric circuit
Connecting cells in series and parallel Connections
Conductors and insulators Building on…
Sources of electricity  Electrostatics (I) – Charges
Revision Exercise  Primary Science –
Electricity, Dry Cells.

Arriving at …
Specific Objectives  Defining electric current
By the end of this topic, the learner should be  Identifying circuit symbols,
able to: drawing and setting up simple
a) draw and set-up simple electric circuits circuits.
b) identify circuit symbols  Describing conductors and
c) define electric current insulators.
d) explain the working of primary and secondary cells  Describing the working, care
e) explain the care and maintenance of secondary cells.
and maintenance of primary
and secondary cells.
(12 Lessons)
Looking forward to….
 Current Electricity (II)
 Magnetic Effect of an
Electric Current
Content
 Heating effect of an
1. Simple electric circuits: cell, ammeter, voltmeter,
variable resistor, connecting wires, bulb and switches 
2. Circuit symbols

3. Electric current and its units
4. Primary and secondary cells (simple cell, dry Leclanche‟ cell, Lead acid cell)
5. Care and maintenance of secondary cells.
 2 Electricity and Magnetism

CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

Electricity is one of the most common forms of energy. It is used, among other things, for
lighting, heating and powering devices like television, radio, mobile phones, computers and
high-speed trains.

Electric Current
The rate of flow of charge (charge per unit time) is called an electric current and is measured
using an ammeter. The SI unit of current is the Ampere (A).
Q
From the definition of current; I =
t

Where I is current flow in Amperes, Q the charge in coulombs and t the time in seconds.

Example
Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb if 300 coulombs of charge flows
through it in 2.5 minutes.
Solution
Q 300
I= = =2A
t 2.5 ×60

Conventional Circuit Diagrams

An electric circuit that allows charges to move in a complete path when the switch is closed,
is said to be closed.

When a gap is introduced in the circuit, for instance by

opening the switch, the charges stop flowing. The circuit is then said to be open (broken
circuit). Loose connection of wires or components in the circuit may open the circuit.
For clarity and neatness, symbols are used in representing components of an electrical
circuit.
Connecting wires are drawn as straight lines with right angle corners, although the actual
wires are flexible and bent. The arrow-heads drawn on the lines indicate the direction of flow
of electric current.
 CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS 3

A condition can cause an electric current to accidentally flow through a path of extremely
low resistance and avoid the path of the load. This condition is referred to as short circuit.

In (a), the cell and bulb are short circuited by the wire AB while in (b), only the bulb is shorted.

The table below shows some of the electrical symbols used in drawing circuits.
Device Symbol
Cell
Battery
Switch
Bulb/Filament lamp
Wires crossing with no connection
Wires crossing with connection
Fixed resistor
Variable resistor
Potential divider

Fuse
Capacitor
Rheostat

Ammeter
Voltmeter
Galvanometer

Electromotive Force and Potential Difference

The electromotive force (emf) of a cell is the voltage across its terminals when it is supplying
no current in the circuit (an open circuit), while the potential difference (pd) of a cell is the
voltage across the cell in a closed circuit.
Both the potential difference and emf are measured in volts, by an instrument called
voltmeter.
The difference between the readings of emf and pd in a circuit is known as the lost volts. This
voltage is lost because of the opposition to the flow of charges within the cell (internal
resistance).
 4 Electricity and Magnetism

Connecting Cells in Series and Parallel

Cells in Series
When two or more cells are connected such that the positive
terminal of one is joined to the negative of another one, then they
are said to be in series. Two or more cells connected in series
make a battery.
Connecting cells in series increases the emf and the
current in the circuit is higher. If two cells each with an
emf of 1.5 are connected in series, then the total emf is
3 V (emf’s are added).

NB:
The ammeter is always
connected in series while
the voltmeter is connected

Cells in parallel
Cells are said to be in parallel when placed side by side, the positive terminals
joined together and the negative terminals also connected together as
shown below.
The effective emf for identical cells in parallel is the same as the emf of a single
cell.

NB:
(i) Cells should be arranged in parallel when they have
identical emfs, otherwise one will drain the other.
(ii) The advantage of connecting cells in parallel is that

Bulbs in series and parallel arrangement.

 CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS 5

Bulbs connected in series give out light of the same brightness

and when one is disconnected, the others go off too.
In the parallel circuit, the three bulbs give out light of the same
brightness, but brighter than the ones connected in series.
When some of the bulbs are disconnected, the rest continue
with the same brightness.
The same current flows through devices connected in series.
If one of the devices is disconnected, it introduces an open
circuit. Electrical devices connected in series offer greater
opposition (resistance) to the flow of current.
For devices connected in parallel, the current flowing in one
does not affect the current flowing in the other devices. If one
of the devices causes an open circuit, current will still flow in
the other devices.
In domestic electrical wiring (lighting circuit),
bulbs are connected in parallel, as shown.
The three bulbs can be switched on or off
independently, and one bulb blowing out does
not affect the working of the remaining bulbs.

Example 2
Three cells have an emf of 1.5 V
each. What is the total emf when
the cells are in parallel and when in
series?
Solution
When in parallel;
Effective emf = the emf of
one cell
= 1.5 V
When in series;
Effective emf = 1.5 + 1.5 + 1.5
= 4.5 V
 6 Electricity and Magnetism

Example 1

Diana connected three identical bulbs, as shown below.

Explain what happens, indicating the path of current

when:
(a) S1 is closed while S2 and S3 are open.
(b) S2 is closed while S1 and S3 are open
(c) S1 and S2 are closed while S3 is open.
(d) S1 and S3 are closed while S2 is open.
(e) S2 and S3 are closed while S1 is open.

Solution
(a) Bulb B2 lights because it is in a closed circuit, while B1
and B2 do not light because they are in open circuits.
Path of current; O → P → R → S → U
(b) Bulbs B1 and B2 light because they are in a closed
circuit. The bulbs are less bright, since they are in Conductors and Insulators
series. Path of current is; O → P → R → S → T → U
Conductors are materials which allow
(c) Bulbs B2 lights brightly. B1 does not light since it is short- electric current to pass through them.
circuited. B3 is in an open circuit. Path of the current Examples are copper, silver and
is; O → P → R → S → U aluminium.
(d) B1 does not light (open circuit). B2 and B3 are in a Conductors can either be good or
closed parallel circuit. They light with the same poor. Examples of good conductors
brightness. Path of the current; are copper, silver and aluminium. An
O → P → R→ S → U and example of a poor conductor is
O→P→Q→R→S→U graphite.
Current through B2 is the same as current through B3.
(e) The three bulbs light. B1 is brighter than B2 and B3. B2
and B3 share the current flowing through B1.
Path of the current is; O → P → R → S → T → U
and O → P → Q → R → S → T → U
Metals are in general good conductors of electricity.
They have a large number of free electrons moving
randomly within them, as shown in (a). When a cell is
connected across the ends of the conductor, the free
electrons move in the direction, as indicated in (b).
 CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS 7

When electrons are made to drift in a given direction, current is said to be flowing through
the conductor. Conventionally, current is taken to flow in the direction opposite to that of
electron flow.

Poor conductors like graphite have fewer free electrons.

Those materials which do not allow electric charges to pass through them are called
insulators. Examples of insulators are plastic, rubber and dry wood. Insulators have their
electrons tightly bound to the nuclei of their atoms. Because they cannot conduct electric
current, insulators are used as cover materials for good conductors.
Semiconductors are materials whose electrical properties fall between those of conductors
and insulators. Examples of semiconductors are silicon and germanium. It is these elements
that form the basis of diodes, transistors and integrated circuits which have wide
applications.
Some liquids like dilute sulphuric acid, sodium chloride solution and potassium hydroxide are
good conductors of electric charge. These liquids are called electrolytes. Others like paraffin
and cooking oil are poor conductors.

Sources of Electricity
The main sources of electricity present are chemical cells and generators driven by water
(hydro) steam (geothermal) and fuel oil. The alternative sources gaining prominence are
wind-driven generators and solar cells. Other sources of electricity include solar cells or
panels, thermocouples and some crystals when under pressure (piezo electric effect).

Chemical Cells
Chemical cells produce an electromotive force as a result of a chemical reaction.
There are two types of chemical cells, namely, primary and secondary cells.

(a) Primary Cells

Primary cells cannot be renewed once the
chemicals are exhausted while secondary cells
can be renewed by recharging. A simple cell is
shown below.
The two metal plates (electrodes) when dipped
in the dilute sulphuric acid (electrolyte) carry
electric charges (current) into and out of the
electrolyte. Dilute sulphuric acid exists as hydrogen ions (H+) and sulphate ions (SO42–), as seen
in the chemical equation below;
H2SO4(aq) ⇌ 2H+ (aq) + SO42– (aq)
The chemical action between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid liberates electrons, which flow
through the connecting wire and the bulb to the copper plate.
Zn (s) → Zn2+ + 2e–
The hydrogen ions (H+) move to the copper plate, where they are neutralised by the electrons
that had come from the zinc and acid reaction. This produces hydrogen gas bubbles around
the copper plate.
2H+ (aq) + 2e–→ H2(g)
 8 Electricity and Magnetism

Copper receives more electrons from the reaction of the zinc and the acid. This makes the
zinc plate negative and copper plate positive. Conventionally, the direction of current is
from the positive plate to the negative plate.
Defects of a simple cell
Polarisation and local action are the main short coming of a simple cell.
(i) Polarisation is the accumulation of bubbles around the copper plate. This effect
produces a resistance to the flow of current and also sets up some ‘local’ cells with in
the copper whose electron flow tends to oppose the flow of electrons from the zinc
plate. The overall effect is increase in the internal resistance of the cell, which reduces
the flow of current.
To solve this, a depolariser, potassium dichromate, is added. Some of its oxygen atoms
combine with the hydrogen atoms to produce water. This boosts the current flow
once more, but the electrolyte gets more diluted by the water.
(ii) Local action occurs when the zinc plate is ‘eaten’ away as it reacts with dilute
sulphuric acid. Impurities in zinc promote local action. The use of pure zinc or coating
the zinc with mercury (amalgamation) reduces this effect.

The Leclanché cell

The Leclanche’ cell is an improvement of the simple
cell. Defects of polarisation and local action have
been minimised.

The carbon rod (positive terminal) is surrounded with

manganese (IV) oxide mixed with carbon powder.

The manganese (IV) oxide acts as a depolariser,

reacting with the hydrogen gas formed on the
carbon rod to produce water. This process is
however slow and hence large currents cannot be
drawn out of this cell steadily for a long time. The
carbon powder increases the effective area of plate, which in effect reduces the opposition
to flow of current.
The zinc plate is immersed in ammonium chloride solution, which converts zinc to zinc
chloride when the cell is working. Local action is still a problem in this cell.
The cell is used for purposes where current is not drawn from it for a very long time, like
operating bells and telephone boxes. It has a longer life span than the simple cell.

The Dry cell

 CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS 9

This type of cell is referred to as dry cell because

it has no liquid. The ammonium chloride solution
in the Leclanché cell is replaced with the
ammonium chloride jelly or paste. Manganese
(IV) oxide [or (II) dioxide] and carbon powder act
as the depolariser. The hydrogen gas produced
is oxidised to water, making the cell become
wetter as it is used.

The zinc case acting as the negative electrode

gets eaten away by the ammonium chloride
and changes to zinc chloride. Local action is still
problem in this cell.

The cell cannot be renewed once the chemical action stops. A new dry cell has an e.m.f of
about 1.5 V.

Large currents should not be drawn from the dry cell within a short time. Shorting its terminals
can also ruin it. The cells must be stored in dry places.
Dry cells are used in torches, calculators and radios.

(b) Secondary Cells

Secondary cells are cells that can be recharged once they are used up by applying direct
current to them. Examples are the lead-acid accumulator and nickel alkaline cell.
Secondary cells are also called storage cells because they can store electrical energy as
chemical energy.
During charging, sulphuric acid is electrolysed, giving off oxygen at the anode and hydrogen
at the cathode. The oxygen reacts with the lead to give lead (IV) oxide, which is deposited
at the anode. Hydrogen gas formed at the cathode has no effect. The flow of current
through the ammeter decreases with time because the cell starts supplying current in the
opposite direction to the charging current. In discharging, the current flows in the direction
opposite to that when charging. Oxygen gas bubbles form at the cathode while hydrogen
gas forms at the anode. The dark brown colour on the positive plate changes to grey.

Lead-acid Accumulator
This is the most reliable, long lasting and cost effective of the secondary cells.
A 12 V lead-acid accumulator has six cells connected in series. Each cell has several plates
made in the form of a lattice grid, the positive plates carrying lead (IV) oxide and the
negative plates having spongy lead.
The plates are very close to one another and are prevented from getting into contact (short
circuiting) by having insulating sheets separating them.
The surface area and the number of plates in a given cell determine the current-carrying
capacity of the cell. The charge (electrical energy) stored is directly proportional to the
surface area of the plates,
The container used in the construction of the lead-acid accumulator must be mechanically
strong, acid-proof and with insulating properties. The electrolyte is a solution of about 64 per
cent water with relative density of 1.00 and about 36 per cent sulphuric acid with relative
 10 Electricity and Magnetism

density of 1.84. When the accumulator is discharging (giving out electrical energy), the
sulphuric acid dissociates into hydrogen ions (H +) and sulphate (SO42–) ions.

At the positive plate, a sulphate ion reacts with the lead to form lead sulphate, while the
hydrogen ions react with the oxygen in the lead (IV) oxide to form water, as below;

2PbO2 (s) + 2H2SO4 (aq) → 2PbSO4 (s) + 4H2O (l)

At the cathode, lead reacts with sulphuric acid to form lead sulphate and hydrogen gas;
Pb (s) + 2H2SO2 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + H2 (g)
During these processes, electrons are amassed at the negative plate while positive charges
develop at the anode because of the deficiency of electrons. This generates an
electromotive force between the anode and the cathode. A single cell has an emf of 2.2V
when fully charged but this drops to 2.0 V when it is working. As the battery continues working,
lead sulphate (white deposit) forms on the plates and the
relative density of the electrolyte drops because of the
formation of water.
In recharging, a direct current is passed through the cell in
the opposite direction to that during discharging.
The process that takes place during discharging is reversed
during recharging.

Capacity of Lead-acid Accumulator

The capacity of the lead-acid accumulator is the amount of current that can be drawn in a
given time from the battery. This is the total amount of charge, Q = It, and is expressed in
ampere-hours (Ah).
Lead-acid accumulators give strong current over a long time compared to other cells
because of an effective low internal resistance. The internal resistance of a cell is inversely
proportional to the linear dimensions of the plates.
 CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS 11

Example 1 Example 2
The charge stored by a cell A of plate dimensions 0.2 A battery is rated at 30 Ah. Find how
m × 0.2 m is 108 000 C. long it will work if it steadily supplies a
(a) Calculate the charge is stored by cell B of plate current of 3 A.
dimensions 0.4 m × 0.4 m? Solution
(b) Find the ratio of internal resistance of cell A to that
of cell B. Q = It

Solution But I = 3 A and Q = 30 Ah

charge stored by cell A area of A 30 = 3 × t

(a) =
charge stored by cell B area of B Therefore, t = 10 hours
108 000 0.2 × 0.2
= 0.4 ×0.4
charge stored by B

∴ charge stored by B = 432 000 C

Resistance of cell A length of plate B 0.4 2
(b) = length of plate A = 0.2 = 1
Resistance of cell B

The ratio is 2 : 1

Maintenance of Accumulators
1. The level of the electrolyte should be checked regularly and maintained above the
plates. Topping up should be done using distilled water not acid. Acid can only be used
in cases where there has been spillage.
2. The accumulator should be charged when the emf of the cell drops below 1.8 V and
when the relative density of the acid falls below 1.12. The relative density of the acid is
measured using a hydrometer.
3. Large currents should not be drawn from the battery for a long time. This loosens the lead
(IV) oxide and the lead in the mesh framework of the plates, causing them to fall off. The
plates then buckle.
4. The accumulator should not be left in a discharged condition for a long period. The lead
(II) sulphate deposits on the plates harden up and cannot be converted back to lead (II)
oxide and lead. This is called sulphation.
5. Shorting or overcharging the accumulator should be avoided.
6. The terminals should always be kept clean and greased.
7. The accumulator should not be directly placed on the ground during storage. It should
be rested on some insulator like a wooden block.

Alkaline Accumulators
The electrolyte in this case is an alkaline solution,
such as potassium hydroxide. The common types
are nickel-cadnium and nickel-iron
accumulators.
 12 Electricity and Magnetism

Advantages of Alkaline Accumulators over Lead-acid Accumulators

1. Large currents can be drawn from them.
2. They can be kept in a discharged condition for a very long time before the cells are
damaged.
3. They require very little attention to maintain.
4. They are lighter (more portable) than the lead-acid accumulators.

Disadvantages
1. They are very expensive.
2. They have a lower emf per cell.

Uses of Alkaline Accumulators

They are used in ships, hospitals and buildings where large currents might be needed for
emergencies.

Solar Electrical Energy

Solar energy is preferable since it is clean and
renewable.
The main component of a solar electrical system is the
solar panel consisting of solar cells. Solar cells convert
energy from the sun into electricity.
The solar cell contains a special crystalline material
based on silicon which absorbs energy from the sun
resulting in generation of electrons hence current flow.
Solar cells are used in:
(i) Solar calculators and mobile phones.
(ii) Solar powered car
(iii) Powering of space stations

Review Exercises.

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