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Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2023) 000–000
Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2023) 000–000 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
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Procedia Structural Integrity 64 (2024) 693–699

SMAR 2024 – 7th International Conference on Smart Monitoring, Assessment and Rehabilitation
ofSMAR 2024 – 7th International Conference on Smart Monitoring, Assessment and Rehabilitation
Civil Structures
of Civil Structures
Advancing Smart Health Monitoring: A Review of Low-Cost
Advancing Smart Health Monitoring: A Review of Low-Cost
Sensors for Structural Assessment
Sensors for Structural Assessment
M. Komarya*, S. Komarizadehasla, N. Tošića, J.A. Lozano-Galantb, J. Turmoa
M. Komarya*, S. Komarizadehasla, N. Tošića, J.A. Lozano-Galantb, J. Turmoa
a
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, C/ Jordi Girona 31, Barcelona, 08034, Spain
b
a UnivesidadPolitècnica
Universitat de Castilla-La Mancha, C/C/Altagracia,
de Catalunya, 50, 31,
Jordi Girona Ciudad Real, 13071,
Barcelona, 08034,Spain
Spain
b
Univesidad de Castilla-La Mancha, C/ Altagracia, 50, Ciudad Real, 13071, Spain

Abstract
Abstract
In response to the global demand for structural health monitoring (SHM), particularly in the context of expanding structural assets,
this paper conducts
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for structural the integration
monitoringof (SHM),
low-costparticularly
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of expanding focusassets,
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introduce
this paper various
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a thoroughsensors commonly
exploration used
of the in SHM of
integration applications for bridges,
low-cost sensors in SHM aiming to unveilThe
applications. their full potential
primary focus is as
to
economical alternatives
introduce various to expensive
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sensors commonly sensors. This applications
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broadens accessibility,
aiming to unveilallowing structures
their full with
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sensors. points
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study begins withwith
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The paper not their
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electronic devices but also provides practical solutions to overcome identified issues, ensuring their
© 2024 for SHM purposes.
effective utilization The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
© 2024isTheanAuthors.
This open Published by Elsevier
access article B.V.
© 2024 The under the CC BY-NC-NDPublished
Authors. license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
by ELSEVIER B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review
This is anunderunder
open responsibility
access article of SMAR
under 2024
the CCOrganizers
BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review responsibility of SMAR 2024 Organizers
Keywords:
Peer-review Structural Health Monitoring
under responsibility (SHM),2024
of SMAR Low-Cost Sensor, Bridge Monitoring.
Organizers
Keywords: Structural Health Monitoring (SHM), Low-Cost Sensor, Bridge Monitoring.

* Corresponding author: Mahyad Komary

* Corresponding [email protected]
E-mail address:author: Mahyad Komary
E-mail address: [email protected]
2452-3216 © 2024 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
This is an open
2452-3216 access
© 2024 Thearticle under
Authors. the CC BY-NC-ND
Published by ELSEVIERlicense
B.V. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under
This is an open responsibility
access of SMAR
article under 2024 Organizers
the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of SMAR 2024 Organizers

2452-3216 © 2024 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of SMAR 2024 Organizers
10.1016/j.prostr.2024.09.329
694 M. Komary et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 64 (2024) 693–699
2 Mahyad Komary/ Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

1. Introduction

The integrity and safety of civil infrastructures, especially bridges, are of paramount importance. Structural Health
Monitoring (SHM) systems play a crucial role in diagnosing and prognosticating the health of these structures.
Traditional SHM systems often involve high-cost sensors, limiting widespread application [1]. This study introduces
a paradigm shift by employing the NodeMCU microcontroller as a central hub to integrate various low-cost sensors
for effective SHM, democratizing access to advanced monitoring technologies. This paper explores the integration of
several low-cost sensors into SHM applications, specifically for bridges, and demonstrates the results obtained from
their deployment in various tests. The main objective is to unveil the potential of low-cost sensors as economical
alternatives to expensive commercial sensors, broadening accessibility and enhancing measurement points for more
robust results.

2. Low-cost Sensors for SHM Applications

Recently, the integration of low-cost sensors into SHM for bridges has shown promising potential to make these
systems more accessible and widespread [2][3]. This section initially delves into the specifics the NodeMCU
microcontroller used in this study as well as each sensor type, highlighting their main features and applications in
SHM programs.

2.1. NodeMCU as the Central Hub in SHM Applications

NodeMCU is an open-source IoT platform that includes a firmware that runs on the ESP8266 Wi-Fi SoC (System
on Chip) and hardware based on the ESP-12 module [4]. It is produced by Espressif Systems (China), is equipped
with digital input/output pins, analog inputs, and integrated Wi-Fi, making it highly suitable for connecting and
controlling sensors over the internet [5]. Its capacity to support various communication protocols coupled with its
programmable nature makes NodeMCU an ideal central hub for low-cost SHM systems. Figure 1 is the schematic of
the NodeMCU circuit.

Fig. 1. NodeMCU microcontroller.

2.2. Ultrasonic Sensor (HC-SR04)

The HC-SR04 ultrasonic ranging module manufactured by MULTICOMP (China) offers a 20 mm – 4000 mm
non-contact measurement function (figure 2). The accuracy of ranging for this sensor can be as high as 3 mm [6]. The
fundamental idea behind the work is to use an I/O trigger for a high-level signal that lasts at least 10µs (microseconds).
The module automatically transmits at a frequency of 40 kHz and detects the presence of a return pulse signal.
Ultimately, the range can be computed using the time difference between the trigger signal's transmission and
reception of the echo signal. Test length equals (time × sound velocity (340 m/s)).

Fig. 2. Schematic of an Ultrasonic ranging module HC-SR04.

 M. Komary et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 64 (2024) 693–699 695
Mahyad Komary/ Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000 3

2.3. Digital Temperature and Humidity Sensor (DHT22)

The DHT22 sensor, made by Kuongshun Electronic (China), measures temperature and humidity using a
capacitive humidity sensor and a thermistor, providing calibrated digital output. Variations in humidity and
temperature affect the speed of sound, which is necessary to measure the distance using the ultrasonic sensor. Figure
3 displays the sensor's schematic.

Fig. 3. Schematic of DHT22 sensor.

2.4. Time-of-Flight Laser-Ranging Module (VL53L1X)

The VL53L1X, produced by STMICROELECTRONICS (China), is the quickest small ToF sensor available on
the market, offering precise ranging up to 4 m and fast ranging frequency up to 50 Hz. It combines a 940 nm
invisible Class1 laser emitter, physical infrared filters, optics, and a SPAD receiving array into a small reflowable
module to offer optimal ranging performance under various ambient lighting situations. The VL53L1X uses ST's
latest version of ToF technology, which enables precise distance measuring regardless of the target's color and
reflectance [7]. Figure 4 shows the schematic of this sensor.

Fig. 4. Schematic of VL53L1X sensor.

2.5. Motion Tracking Device (MPU-9250)

The MPU-9250, the smallest 9-axis motion-tracking device in the world, integrates a 3-axis accelerometer,
gyroscope, and magnetometer to provide comprehensive motion tracking and orientation data. It uses the most recent
design breakthroughs from TDK InvenSense (China), which allow for significantly smaller chips and lower power
consumption without sacrificing functionality or affordability. The MPU-9250 is a System in Package (SiP) that
integrates two chips: the AK8963 3-axis digital compass and the MPU-6500, which has an onboard Digital Motion
ProcessorTM (DMPTM) that can process complex MotionFusion algorithms [8]. Figure 5 shows the schematic of this
sensor.

Fig. 5. Schematic of the accelerometer sensor MPU9250.

3. Communication with NodeMCU

Some sensors employ the inter-integrated circuit (I2C) protocol, whereas many sensors use digital and analog
interfaces to upload the measured data to the microcontroller. With the help of this protocol, one or more "master"
chips (NodeMCU) can connect with several "slave" digital integrated circuits (Sensors). similar to the Serial Peripheral
Interface (SPI), which is meant exclusively for internal, short-range communications between one device and another.
The digital ports of the NodeMCU are connected to the ultrasonic sensor and DHT22. It was necessary to link the
696 M. Komary et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 64 (2024) 693–699
4 Mahyad Komary/ Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000

laser and accelerometer to the board's SCL and SDA I2C ports [9]. Since both types of range circuits have been joined
and adhered to one another, data from both would be measured virtually concurrently on the static experiment. To
conduct the dynamic experiment, a separate circuit for the accelerometer needed to be created. The Arduino Integrated
Development Environment (IDE) was used to program the microcontroller, enabling the construction of a codebase
to handle sensor readings and data transmission. Ultimately, using a USB cord, two distinct scripts were written on
the Arduino platform and uploaded to the board. A few dynamic and static experiments have been conducted in order
to determine the primary properties of these sensors.

4. Experiments and Findings

The test program was designed to evaluate the performance of various low-cost sensors in both static and dynamic
conditions. The primary goals were to assess sensor accuracy, reliability, and suitability for SHM applications. The
following experiments were conducted.

4.1. Static Experiment

In order to measure the same distance against several materials, the two ranging sensors were tested. This static
experiment generally was conducted to determine the distance from a large book, both with and without extremely
high ambient light. The temperature sensor on the test with the extremely high ambient light (where a lightbulb was
employed) was shifted a bit away from the source of heat and light, so the sensor would not be harmed by the intense
heat generated by the lightbulb. A clear and translucent plastic cover, some thin tissues, a black paper, and a white
paper were the other items examined in this static experiment to compare the results of the both ranging sensors.
Standard deviations derived from the conducted tests are displayed in Table 1, along with the outcomes of the same
experiment conducted under other conditions.

Table 1. Results of ranging experiments.

Sensor Thick Book White Paper Black Paper Tissue Plastic Cover Extreme Light
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Ultrasonic (HC-SR04) 6.1 18.7 10 3520 7 32.3
Laser (VL53L1X) 15 14.8 18.7 16.2 31.2 219.4

It should be noted that when compared to the laser sensor, the ultrasonic sensor—which was the chipset sensor
and the simplest to install—performed better. On the negative side, this sensor requires at least 4 volts to operate fully
and 5 volts for interaction digital ports. The pace at which this sensor provides data may be the only issue. This sensor
only has a frequency of 20Hz, whereas the laser produces data at a quicker rate of 50Hz. Stated otherwise, this sensor
has a maximum data output of 20 per second.

The primary issue with ultrasonic sensors is their reliance on surrounding temperature and humidity. Considering
that sound travels differently depending on the surroundings. In order to perform proper calculations, this sensor
requires the sound speed. The idea of this research is to use a laser sensor in place of an ultrasonic sensor in situations
where there is a chance of excessive ambient light or temperature changes. The choice between using the first or
second laser sensor depends on the possible conditions and range of the experiment.

4.2. Dynamic Experiment

A test has been conducted to evaluate the accelerometer sensor's dependability. The accelerometer had saved the
vibrations, and a sinus signal had been programmed using a dynamic jack. As intended, this jack's bottom plate can
shake. The hydraulic jack was instructed to produce a wave at a predetermined frequency of 5 hertz (five full waves
 M. Komary et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 64 (2024) 693–699 697
Mahyad Komary/ Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2019) 000–000 5

in a second). To create a sinus wave, the jack was to be moved up to 0.1 millimeters up and down from its null axis.
It is possible to calculate the acceleration equation using a very basic two-time differential.

𝒚𝒚 = 𝒅𝒅 ∗ 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬⁡(𝝎𝝎 ∗ 𝒕𝒕 + 𝝋𝝋) (1)

𝝎𝝎 = 𝟐𝟐 ∗ 𝝅𝝅 ∗ 𝒇𝒇 (2)

In equation1 y represents the displacement in time (t), d denotes the maximum movement permitted by the jack in
a cycle, ω is the angular frequency; and f is the set frequency, which is equal to 5Hz and the phase constant. Equations
1 and 2 have been used to compute acceleration on Equation 3. To accomplish this, the second order derivative of
equation one was obtained. Equation 3 was used to compute the maximum acceleration, which came out to be 10.4352
milig.
𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 ∗𝒚𝒚
𝒂𝒂 = = 𝒚𝒚̈ = −𝒅𝒅 ∗ 𝝎𝝎𝟐𝟐 ∗ 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬⁡(𝝎𝝎 ∗ 𝒕𝒕 + 𝝋𝝋) (3)
𝒅𝒅𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐

The sensor's inability to record data or its untidy data recording when it did record was the experiment's first major
issue. It was concluded that in order to obtain reliable information, the sensor needed to be adhered to the jack's bottom
plate. The second issue was that, although the sensor was reporting more than 300 data points per second, the written
Python code could only save 120 data points per second. However, data might have been saved on the computer at
the same rate of production if commercial software had been used with the serial port. Since obtaining the precise
moment of capture was crucial in this case, using Python was required to attach the given data with the appropriate
time. Reducing the speed of data capture was necessary to solve this issue and enable Python to retrieve and store the
files. The capture speed had been set at 84 Hz just to be safe. The other unforeseen problem this project encountered
was that, despite the sensor having been calibrated within the company, a constant number was added to all presented
data; hereafter, this constant number would be referred to as the "white noise" [10]. The averaged data is approximately
-50 milig, as shown in Figure 6, but it had to swing around zero. This sensor's white noise was thought to be -50 milig.
The average of 10,000 sets of data from a vibration-free test has been computed in order to accurately measure this.
The white noise for this sensor was determined to be 49.8535 milig.

-25.00
0.00 0.50 1.00
acceleration ( milig)

-35.00

-45.00

-55.00

-65.00

-75.00
time (s)

Fig. 6. Acceleration Time Diagram with White Noise.

The values had been raised to the proper levels by deducting this sum from the given accelerations. With this white
noise removed, the data became more comprehensible and clearer. This enhancement is depicted in figure 7. After
testing various accelerometer boards, it was determined that every circuit has a unique quantity of white noise that
needs to be taken care of [11]. The continuity of this white noise ought to have been guaranteed. Furthermore, neither
time nor circumstances can alter it. The jack was programmed with a lot of more distinct frequencies and
displacements as a result. The white noise in each experiment remained constant.
6698 MahyadM.Komary/
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et al. / Procedia ProcediaIntegrity
00 (2019)64 000–000
(2024) 693–699

15.00

acceleration ( milig)
5.00

-5.00 0.00 0.50 1.00

-15.00

-25.00
time (s)

Fig. 7. Acceleration Time Diagram without White Noise.

5. Conclusion

For the static experiments, the results indicate that although the laser sensor did not perform as well as the
ultrasonic sensor, it still has significant advantages. The laser sensor is relatively smaller, lighter, and faster, and it
features noise-free technology, meaning no noise can enter from the wires. Additionally, it operates independently of
the temperature of its testing environment. Optimal results would be achieved by using an ultrasonic sensor (attached
to a temperature and humidity sensor) alongside a laser sensor. This combination can cover the downsides of each
sensor and provide a comprehensive and accurate set of data.

For the dynamic experiments, Figure 7 shows that the sinus wave conducted from the accelerometer closely
matches the expected behavior. The sinus wave fluctuates about 10.5 milig from its average, which is remarkably
close to the calculated fluctuation of 10.453 milig. This similarity demonstrates the accuracy and reliability of the
accelerometer for dynamic monitoring. However, the filtered data from the 5Hz experiment, also shown in Figure 7,
indicates that the results are not entirely accurate due to the presence of unexpected data and noise. Future work should
focus on applying filters to eliminate unwanted data and ambient noises that may have inadvertently affected the
experiment.

Acknowledgements

The authors are indebted to the projects PID2021-126405OB-C31 and PID2021-126405OB-C32 funded by
FEDER funds—A Way to Make Europe and Spanish Ministry of Economy, Competitiveness
MICIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ and the European Union “NextGenerationEU”/PRTR. Project references:
PID2019-108978RB-C32, PID2021-126405OB-C31, PID2021-126405OB-C32 and PLEC2021-007982.

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