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Research on Topography Mapping

Student Name

Course Name and Code

Tutor

Date of Submission
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Table of Contents

Abstract......................................................................................................................................................3
Introduction...............................................................................................................................................3
Verifying Map Features............................................................................................................................4
Physical Features of a Topographic Map................................................................................................5
Uses of the Topography Mapping............................................................................................................5
Historical Evolution of the Topography Mapping..................................................................................6
Topographic Mapping: Past, Present, and Future..................................................................................8
Objects of Large Scale Topographic Maps............................................................................................10
UAS Topographic Mapping with Velodyne Lidar Sensor....................................................................11
A machine learning approach based on generative topographic mapping for disruption prevention
and avoidance at JET..............................................................................................................................12
Methodologies and Techniques...............................................................................................................13
Applications across Disciplines...............................................................................................................13
Types of Topographic Mapping.............................................................................................................14
Significance of Topographic Mapping...................................................................................................15
Challenges and Future Directions..........................................................................................................16
Conclusion................................................................................................................................................17
References................................................................................................................................................17
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Research on Topography Mapping

Abstract

Topographic mapping is a fundamental aspect of contemporary cartography, including

intricate depictions of the Earth's surface characteristics and changes in elevation. Topographic

mapping has evolved significantly, progressing from basic drawings made by early civilizations

to advanced digital renderings facilitated by LiDAR and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).

The significance of navigation extends to other sectors like geology, urban planning, disaster

management, and environmental conservation. Although there are difficulties in achieving data

interoperability and accessibility, the future of topographic mapping shows potential with the

emergence of technology like as artificial intelligence and crowdsourcing mapping platforms.

This essay explores the complex field of topographic mapping, revealing the concealed

dimensions of the Earth and highlighting its crucial role in molding our comprehension of the

planet's landscapes.

Introduction

A topographic map in contemporary cartography is a specific kind of map that is

distinguished by its detailed depiction and numerical representation of terrain features, typically

achieved by the use of contour lines which connect points of equal height (Robinson et al.,

2015). However, in the past, many techniques were employed for this purpose. A topographic

map series follows a standardized specification that contains a variety of cartographic symbols

and a consistent geodetic framework. This framework comprises the map projection, coordinate

system, ellipsoid, and geodetic datum. Official topographic maps also utilize a national grid

referencing system. Topographic maps typically depict both natural and artificial elements. They

exhibit and identify natural formations such as mountains, valleys, plains, lakes, rivers, and
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vegetation. In addition, they recognize the primary achievements of human civilization, such as

highways, borders, power lines, and significant structures. Topographic maps include a diverse

array of information, making them highly valuable to both professional and recreational map

users. Topographic maps serve several purposes such as engineering, energy exploration, natural

resource conservation, environmental management, public works design, commercial and

residential development, and outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and fishing.

Topographic mapping, a fusion of artistic and scientific elements, provides a glimpse into

the many landscapes of Earth, revealing the complexities of terrain and elevation (Dent, 2009).

Topographic maps have undergone significant transformations throughout history, progressing

from basic drawings in ancient civilizations to advanced digital representations. These maps

have developed throughout thousands of years, serving as a testament to humanity's enduring

desire to comprehend and traverse the Earth's terrain. Therefore, this essay will examines the

concept of the topographic mapping highlighting the major development in the field of

topography.

Verifying Map Features

Field personnel utilize aerial images to delineate and authenticate map features. A field

inspection is essential due to the potential ambiguity of information depicted on an aerial

photograph. For instance, a laborer in the field can discern the distinction between a perennial

stream, which flows continuously throughout the year, and one that intermittently dries up during

specific periods. The reason for this is that a perennial stream is indicated on a map with a

continuous line, but an intermittent stream is represented by either a dashed and dotted line or a

lighter and less prominent continuous line. Individuals with extensive knowledge of the

surrounding region, such as fishermen or farmers, serve as very reliable providers of such
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information. Another crucial task in this subject involves the authentication of geographical

names and governmental borders. This task frequently necessitates examining courthouse

documents and engaging in conversations with local inhabitants. It may also involve a trip to the

nearby cemetery to verify the correct spelling of a landmark that has been named in honor of a

person interred there.

Physical Features of a Topographic Map

According to McMaster and Shea (2015), topographic maps display the topographical

aspects of the land, enabling us to identify characteristics of the terrain such as flat areas,

elevated regions, low-lying areas, narrow gorges, and sloping slopes. Topographic maps display

contour lines that indicate variations in the height of the terrain. Contour lines are hypothetical

lines on the Earth's surface that link locations at equal elevations relative to sea level. Contour

lines are used to connect locations that have the same elevation. When contour lines are closely

spaced and do not intersect, it indicates that the elevation is changing rapidly over a short area,

indicating a steep terrain. Wide spacing between contour lines indicates a gradual change in

height, suggesting a moderate slope. Topographic maps display contour lines that indicate

variations in the height of the terrain.

Uses of the Topography Mapping

Gulij (2023) echo that topographic maps are commonly utilized by the construction

industry to aid with project planning. Designers can utilize a topographic map to make necessary

modifications based on variations in elevation and topography while strategizing a project.

Precise data is an essential element in order to prevent exceeding the budget. Familiarity with the

terrain's incline is vital for designers to plan excavation activities in accordance with the land's

slope and to guarantee the management of watersheds. Topographic maps are utilized for
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infrastructure project planning due to their inclusion of existing roads, pipelines, and electricity

transmission lines. These maps can be utilized to establish the necessary infrastructure, such as

power, water, and road access, for the new building.

According to Gulij (2023), utilizing a topographic map of the Project area or mining

sector will be advantageous for accurately measuring stockpiles. Precise data availability will be

crucial for comprehending and verifying the forecast against the actual delivery. Additionally, it

will provide a precise understanding of the quantity that must be manufactured in order to satisfy

the demand. In addition, Topographic Maps and stockpile Volume computation enable the

monitoring of the amount that has increased within a specific timeframe.

Topographic maps can be advantageous for resource management in diverse industries.

The mining sector utilizes topographic maps to monitor inventory levels and compute asset

turnover ratios. Construction firms utilize topographic maps for the purpose of monitoring

stockpile inventories. Businesses must maintain accurate records of their important resources,

not only to prevent losses but also to ascertain the timing and quantity of future orders. In the

current era of mineral exploration, the Magnetic anomaly Map, which is created by conducting a

magnetic survey using a sophisticated Magnetometer sensor, has a significant impact. It aids

clients in rapidly identifying possible mineral resources, resulting in time and cost savings for

exploration.

Historical Evolution of the Topography Mapping

Ancient civilizations developed crude maps to navigate their environment and define

boundaries, marking the origins of topographic mapping. Early cartographers, starting from the

Babylonian clay tablets and continuing with the Ptolemaic world maps, established the
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foundation for contemporary mapping methods. However, it was not until the Renaissance

period that methodical methodologies for mapping evolved, driven by scientific investigation

and technical developments. Visionaries such as Gerardus Mercator and Leonardo da Vinci

transformed the field of cartography by combining mathematical accuracy with artistic creativity

to create maps of extraordinary intricacy (Maxwell et al., 2020). In the 19th century, there was a

significant increase in the creation of detailed maps of the Earth's surface. This was primarily

motivated by military needs and the desire to expand territories. Institutions such as the

Ordnance Survey and the US Geological Survey (USGS) played a leading role in carrying out

large-scale mapping projects. These efforts represented the beginning of a new period in map-

making, distinguished by uniform methods and meticulous surveying practices.

The initial USGS topographic map was created in 1879, but the production of maps was

restricted until the 1940s and 1950s. During this time, the widespread use of aerial photography

and photogrammetric techniques allowed for the derivation of elevation data from overlapping

stereo pictures. The maps utilized in this study for the whole contiguous United States were

created on a 1:24,000 scale (Maxwell et al., 2020). These maps cover an area of 7.5 minutes of

latitude and longitude, which is referred to as 7.5-minute quadrangles. Upon its termination in

2006, the program was succeeded by the US Topo program, which produces digital maps and

their corresponding geospatial databases. The paper maps from the previous program were

digitized and georeferenced to become part of the National Map's Historical Topographic Map

Collection (HTMC). These maps are now available as digital raster graphics (DRGs) and may be

used in geographic information systems. Currently, maps can be viewed and downloaded using

topoView, which includes an interactive web map (https://ngmdb.usgs.gov/topoview/).

Historic topographic maps record several mining and prospecting characteristics such as

pits, strip mines, disturbed surfaces, mine dumps, quarries, and tailings. These features are

represented on the maps using point symbols, areal symbols, and text. The maps are created by

the process of manually interpreting photographs and conducting some field validations. Surface

mining disturbances are typically represented by a standard brown and pink pattern, with

additional distinctive symbols used for specialized elements like tailings.

Topographic Mapping: Past, Present, and Future

Topographic maps have become highly valuable instruments for investigating,

comprehending, and managing the environment. An exemplary instance is the systematic Carte

Géometrique de la France, created by various generations of the Cassini family between 1750

and 1815, at a scale of 1:86,400 (Kent & Hopfstock, 2018). This map has served as a prototype

and a source of inspiration for other European nations. The significance of topographic data has

been a driving force behind numerous state map-making projects, especially those aimed at

military and cadastral applications. Over time, surveying techniques evolved to include

photogrammetry, and advancements in cartographic production, such as color lithographic

printing, allowed topographic maps to be considered the pinnacle of modern mapping.

Today, topographic maps continue to have a distinct position of influence among

cartographic products. According to Kent and Hopfstock (2018), the authority of the map is

derived from its scientific precision in representing real-world features, as well as its association

with state authorship and production. Governmental entities, such as the military and National

Mapping and Cadastral Agencies (NMCAs), have the primary responsibility for the

comprehensive and precise maintenance of topographic maps that cover the entire national area.

This involves ensuring that the depiction of natural and cultural elements, such as elevation,
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water bodies, plants, transportation, cities, and place names, adheres to high standards of

cartographic precision. The National topographic map series serves as a repository and

distributor of topographic data across a range of scales, providing a spatial reference framework

for other Earth-related data and resources (Kent and Hopfstock, 2018). They fulfill several

functions, including infrastructure planning and management, resource use, demographic

analysis, leisure activities, and military planning. The topographic map series exhibit a uniform

range of map scales, geodetic base information (such as ellipsoid and height datum), projection,

content, and sheet design that are consistent across the nation. Topographic maps are very

intricate maps that contain a full depiction of the landscape and a wide variety of functions and

users. These maps consist of multiple interconnected map components.

The proliferation and utilization of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have

fundamentally revolutionized the technological process of creating topographic maps, as well as

their application. In order to address these growing requirements, National Mapping and

Charting Agencies (NMCAs) have developed national topographic databases that are built upon

their existing traditional topographic map series. The information contained in topographic maps

has transformed into topographic reference data, which is organized according to specific themes

and types of features. These databases offer comprehensive, object-oriented reference data at the

national level for utilization in NSDI services, GIS applications for spatial analysis and

modeling, and the creation of cartographic products (Kent and Hopfstock, 2018). However, an

urgent concern voiced by Morrison regarding the future of cartography is the unavoidable time

lag caused by new technology between user expectations and the ability to provide the

corresponding products. Advancements in display technology suggest that in the future, there

may be no need to create separate design concepts for multiple output mediums. There is a belief
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that the creation of a sizable, adaptable, and easily transportable screen, with improved visual

capabilities and a pixel size similar to that of a printed paper map, could ultimately result in the

complete substitution of traditional topographic maps.

Characteristics of Large Scale Topographic Maps and Databases

Topographic maps of metropolitan areas including intricate information are created at

scales of 1:10,000 and higher (Höhle, 2017). The contents of these maps vary depending on their

intended function. Planning and management are crucial applications. The different object kinds

are kept in separate layers and can be shown either individually or together. Databases enable the

study of map data in addition to storing it. Mapping organizations today face a significant

responsibility in generating and upgrading geographic information systems (GIS). Metadata

contains information regarding the assessed correctness, time of acquisition, and other relevant

details. Topographic maps are consistently georeferenced and may also incorporate altitudes. A

current trend in mapping, particularly in updating, involves the division of data into a planimetric

(2D) map and a corresponding digital elevation model (DEM). Another emerging trend in the

field of cartography is the creation of three-dimensional maps and databases. Their development

and maintenance require a higher level of detail and proficiency in GIS software.

Objects of Large Scale Topographic Maps

Objects depicted on large-scale topographic maps include structures such as buildings,

carports, walls, roads, parking lots, walkways, bridges, as well as natural features like trees,

bushes, and hedges (Höhle, 2017). In order to accurately depict them on a map, it is necessary

for them to possess a minimum size. This is determined by the visual acuity of the human eye,

which is approximately one minute of arc. This implies that lines with a width of 0.05 mm may
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be distinguished from a distance of 30 cm. The pixel size of a computer screen determines its

resolution. As an illustration, the size of each pixel on a 56-cm screen with a resolution of 1680 ×

1050 pixels is 0.28 mm. This equates to a pixel density of 35 pixels per centimeter or 90 dots per

inch (dpi). The minimum width of a line that can be displayed on this screen is 0.28 mm. Man-

made artifacts typically exhibit straight lines that are perpendicular to each other. The lines in the

graphical representation should be straight and perpendicular. Additionally, it is necessary for the

lines to be contiguous and for the polygons of area objects to have closed boundaries.

UAS Topographic Mapping with Velodyne Lidar Sensor

Currently, Unmanned Aerial System (UAS) technology is widely utilized for small area

topographic mapping since it offers cost-effective solutions and produces high-quality results

(Józków et al., 2016). Due to certain limitations of cameras commonly employed with

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS), such as their inability to penetrate foliage, LiDAR sensors are

gaining more attention in the field of UAS mapping. The advancements in sensor technology

have now made it possible for sensors to be cost-effective and compact enough to be used on

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS). However, it is important to note that LiDAR UAS is still

considered a developing technology. A challenge that arises when using LiDAR sensors on

Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) is the restricted performance of the navigation sensors

employed on UAS platforms. Consequently, different hardware and software solutions are being

examined to enhance the quality of UAS LiDAR point clouds.

A study conducted by Józków et al. (2016) examines many elements of the performance

of UAS LiDAR point cloud generation. The analysis is based on UAS flights that utilized the

Velodyne laser scanner and cameras. The focus was particularly on the performance of trajectory

reconstruction, which is crucial for precise georeferencing of point clouds. Given that the
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navigation sensors, particularly the Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs), may not meet the

required performance standards, utilizing the estimated camera poses could enhance the

reliability of the estimated trajectory and, consequently, improve the accuracy of the point cloud.

The precision of the ultimate UAS LiDAR point cloud was assessed by comparing it to the point

clouds derived using dense image matching, using the generated DSM as a reference. The

findings indicated the necessity for further examination of MEMS IMU sensors employed in

UAS trajectory reconstruction. The precision of the UAS LiDAR point cloud, albeit inferior to

that of point clouds obtained from pictures, may nonetheless be adequate for some mapping

applications when optical imaging is not applicable.

A machine learning approach based on generative topographic mapping for disruption

prevention and avoidance at JET

Pau et al. (2019) have constructed a generative topographic mapping (GTM) of the

operational space of JET by following the standard machine learning approach. This mapping

was created utilizing a collection of disturbed and regularly terminated discharges. To construct

the prediction model, a collection of appropriate dimensionless features, based on physics and

independent of the machine, have been created. These features utilize information from 1D

plasma profiles instead of basic zero-D time series. By utilizing predictive characteristics and

leveraging the capabilities of the GTM to accurately fit the model to the data, an unsupervised

approach yields a two-dimensional map of the multi-dimensional parameter space of JET.

According to Pau et al. (2019), this map allows for the identification of a boundary that

distinguishes the disruption-free region from the disruption region. The GTM map has the

capability to assist in operational boundary investigations and may also be utilized for disruption

prediction by leveraging the capabilities of the built GTM toolbox to monitor discharge patterns.
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An alarm is activated based on the level of disruption risk in different places as the discharge's

path is traced on the map. The suggested method for predicting disruptions has been assessed

using a training set and a separate test set. It demonstrates excellent performance, with only one

late detection and a small number of erroneous detections. The warning times are appropriate for

the objective of avoiding disruptions, and, more significantly, the detections are in line with the

physical reasons and mechanisms that destabilize the plasma, ultimately resulting to disruptions.

Methodologies and Techniques

Topographic mapping involves a wide range of methods and procedures designed to

accurately represent the intricate details of Earth's surface characteristics and changes in

elevation. Conventional techniques utilized ground surveys, utilizing devices such as theodolites,

levels, and chains to accurately measure height and distances. Surveyors carefully surveyed

challenging terrain, methodically mapping down the precise contours and significant features to

produce highly detailed maps. Advancements in technology have significantly transformed the

process of topographic mapping, introducing a new era characterized by the use of aerial and

satellite photography. LiDAR, also known as Light Detection and Ranging, has revolutionized

the field by utilizing laser pulses to create detailed elevation information. When used in

conjunction with Geographic Information Systems (GIS), these techniques allow cartographers

to create three-dimensional models of terrain, which enhances their comprehension of landscape

dynamics.

Applications across Disciplines

Topographic mapping is useful in various domains, including geology, urban planning,

disaster management, and environmental conservation. Geologists utilize topographic maps to

decipher Earth's geological history by analyzing evidence found in rock formations and
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landforms. Urban planners also depend on these maps to maximize infrastructure development,

while ensuring a harmonious balance between expansion and environmental sustainability.

Topographic mapping is crucial in disaster-prone areas for assessing and reducing risks. It

involves identifying floodplains, fault lines, and other hazardous zones to develop effective plans

for protecting communities. Furthermore, topographic maps are indispensable instruments for

orienteering and discovery, enabling explorers to confidently navigate across isolated and

untamed landscapes.

Types of Topographic Mapping

Topographic Maps (Topo Maps): These topographic mappings are the most conventional

and extensively acknowledged form. Topographic maps illustrate the physical characteristics of

the Earth's surface in a two-dimensional format, employing contour lines to portray variations in

elevation. In addition, these maps incorporate elements such as rivers, lakes, highways, and flora,

offering a thorough depiction of the area.

Digital Elevation Models (DEMs): Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) are digital

representations of data that provide information about the elevation of the landscape. They are

commonly generated using remote sensing methods like LiDAR or photogrammetry and are

saved in raster format. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) offer an accurate and comprehensive

depiction of the height variations in a specific region, serving as the foundation for numerous

applications in topographic mapping.

Contour Maps: Contour maps are a form of topographic mapping that explicitly depict

variations in elevation through the use of contour lines. Contour lines are used to represent points
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of equal elevation, enabling users to visually comprehend the shape and gradient of land

formations such as hills, valleys, and ridges.

Shaded Relief Maps: Shaded relief maps utilize elevation data and simulated lighting to

generate a three-dimensional depiction of the terrain. Through the utilization of shading

techniques, these maps improve the visual understanding of elevation, facilitating the

interpretation of a region's topography.

Terrain Models: Terrain models are precise depictions, either real or digital, of the Earth's

surface that precisely portray variations in elevation. They can be produced using diverse

methods, such as 3D printing, digital rendering, or physical modeling. Terrain models are highly

valuable for visualizing and analyzing specific regions with great precision.

Thematic Maps: Thematic maps combine topographic data with extra thematic

information, such as land use, geology, hydrology, or climate. Thematic maps provide insights

into the correlation between terrain features and different environmental or cultural aspects by

superimposing many layers of data.

Significance of Topographic Mapping

Topographic mapping represents humanity's fundamental desire to understand and

responsibly manage the Earth's surface (McMaster & Shea, 2015). Through the process of

deciphering the intricacies of topography, these maps provide decision-makers with the

knowledge necessary to make well-informed decisions that align human actions with the natural

environment. Topographic mapping is essential for several undertakings that promote

sustainability and resilience in a constantly evolving world, including conservation initiatives

and infrastructure planning. Moreover, topographic mapping enhances one's understanding and
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admiration for the variety and splendor of the Earth, revealing concealed terrains that fascinate

the mind. These maps offer a glimpse into the essence of our world, allowing us to discover,

safeguard, and appreciate its magnificent features, such as the grandeur of the Himalayas or the

winding rivers of the Amazon.

Topographic mapping offers a comprehensive comprehension of the terrain. Topographic

maps include comprehensive data regarding the terrain, encompassing details such as altitude,

contour lines, and notable geographical elements such as rivers, valleys, and mountains. A

thorough comprehension of this subject matter is crucial for efficient strategizing and decision-

making in areas such as urban development, infrastructure design, and environmental

management. Topographic mapping facilitates the analysis of ecosystems, landforms, and natural

processes by environmental scientists (McMaster & Shea, 2015). It allows for the evaluation of

the appropriateness of habitats, the variety of life forms, and the effects of human actions on the

surroundings, so aiding in conservation initiatives and the implementation of sustainable land

management methods. Finally, topographic maps are essential for detecting possible mineral

deposits, hydrocarbon reservoirs, and groundwater supplies. Geological surveys and resource

exploration activities benefit greatly from the important information they supply, which in turn

contributes to the growth and advancement of energy and mineral sectors.

Challenges and Future Directions

In the digital age, topographic mapping encounters numerous problems, despite its

significant revolutionary significance. Challenges including data interoperability, quality

assurance, and access provide substantial obstacles to the general adoption and use of

technology. Furthermore, the emergence of autonomous vehicles and drones brings about fresh

possibilities and intricacies in the gathering and analysis of data. In order to tackle these
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problems, it is necessary to make focused and coordinated attempts to promote cooperation

among all parties involved and simplify the processes inside the mapping system. Open data

efforts and crowdsourced mapping platforms provide potential opportunities for democratizing

the availability of geospatial information, enabling communities to actively engage in mapping

their surroundings. The future of topographic mapping relies on utilizing developing technology,

such as artificial intelligence and machine learning. By using automation for activities such as

feature extraction and categorization, these technologies provide the potential to streamline

mapping operations and improve the precision of terrain models. Furthermore, progress in sensor

technology and data fusion has the capacity to fundamentally transform our comprehension of

Earth's ever-changing environments.

Conclusion

Topographic mapping showcases the remarkable intelligence and inquisitiveness of

humanity, providing exceptional clarity in revealing the shape and features of our world.

Throughout history, a lineage of cartographers spanning from ancient times to contemporary

geospatial scientists have collectively contributed to the diverse collection of maps that decorate

our walls and screens. In the 21st century, topographic mapping is increasingly important for

comprehending, preserving, and valuing the different landscapes of Earth. According to John

Wesley Powell, the Grand Canyon's magnificence cannot be fully conveyed using symbols or

speech. Similarly, the marvels of our globe are depicted in the intricate contours and colors of

topographic maps, enticing us to go on a voyage of exploration that surpasses borders and

endures through generations.

References

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velodyne LiDAR sensor. Isprs annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial

information sciences, 3, 201-208.

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extents from historic topographic maps. Remote Sensing, 12(24), 4145.

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Gulij, M. (2023, January 19). How Topographic Maps are used. https://gulftestinglab.com/how-

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