NAV.

RADAR /ARPA

2/M EDWIN R. PANIQUE,Ph.D

 Course Description
Course Code: Navigation 5

Course Title: Operational Use of Radar/

ARPA
Credit Units : 4
Lecture Units : 2 Laboratory Units: 4

Prerequisite : D-Watch 1
 Course Description
The course intends to provide the
knowledge, skill and attitudes on the
fundamentals and operations of radar
and principal types of Automatic Radar
Plotting Aids (ARPA). The course
objectives are based on the STCW Code
Table A-II/1 Specification of minimum
Standard of Competence for Officers In
Charge of a Navigational Watch at the
Operational Level.
 STCW Code

Table A-II/1

Specification of minimum standard

of competence for officers in charge
of a navigational watch on ships of
500 gross tonnage or more
 STCW Function
Navigation
at
the operational level
 STCW Competence
A-II/1 F1.C3
Use of radar and ARPA to
maintain safety of
navigation
 STCW KUP’s
A-II/1 F1.C3.KUP 1
Knowledge, Understanding and Proficiency
Radar Navigation
• Knowledge of the fundamentals of
radar and automatic radar plotting
aids (ARPA);
• Ability to operate and interpret and
analyze information obtained from
radar, including the following:
 STCW KUP’s
A-II/1 F1.C3.KUP 1
Performance, including:
1. factors affecting
performance and accuracy;
2. setting up and maintaining displays;
3. detection of
misrepresentation, false
echoes, sea returns, etc. racons
and SARTs
 STCW KUP’s
A-II/1 F1.C3.KUP 1
Use, including:
1. range and bearing; course and
speed o other ships; time and
distance , meeting, overtaking
ships;
2. identification of critical echoes,
detecting course and speed changes
of other ships; effect of changes in
own ship’s course or speed or both
 STCW KUP’s
A-II/1 F1.C3.KUP 1
3. application of the International
Regulations for Preventing
Collisions at Sea, 1972, as
amended
4. plotting techniques and relative-
and true motion concepts;
5. parallel indexing
 STCW KUP’s
A-II/1 F1.C3.KUP 2

Principal types of ARPA, their display

characteristics, performance standards
and the dangers of over-reliance on
ARPA
 STCW KUP’s
A-II/1 F1.C3.KUP 3
Ability to operate and to interpret and
analyse information obtained from
ARPA, including:
1. system performance and
accuracy, tracking capabilities and
limitations, and processing delays
2. use of operational warnings and
system Tests
 STCW KUP’s
A-II/1 F1.C3.KUP 3
3. methods of target acquisition
and their limitations
4. true and relative vectors, graphic
representation of target
information and danger areas
5. deriving and analysing information,
critical
echoes, exclusion areas and trial
manoeuvres
 Reference/s
1. Table A-II/1 Function 1: Navigation at
the oerational level
2. CMO No. 67 series of 2017: Revised
PSG for BS Marine Transportation and
BS Marine Engineering Programs
 Course Outcomes

At the end of the course, the

cadets/cadettes will be able to:
CO1: Perform manual radar plotting
techniques using information
obtained from RADAR observations
in a crossing situation.
 Course Outcomes

At the end of the course, the

cadets/cadettes will be able to:
CO2: Use RADAR/ARPA in collision
avoidance during restricted
visibility
 Course Content

Lesson 1: Basic Theory and Operation of

a Marine Radar System
Lesson 2: Set Up and Operate Radar in
Accordance with Manufacturer’s
Instructions
Lesson 3: Perform Manual Radar Plotting
Lesson 4: Use Radar to Ensure Safe
Navigation
 Course Content

Lesson 5: Use Radar to Avoid Collision or

Close Encounters
Lesson 6: ARPA System
Lesson 7: Operate an ARPA System
 Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson the students must be able
to:
1.1 Explain basic theory and operation of a
Marine Radar System
What is RADAR?

The word radar is an abbreviation for Radio

Detection And Ranging
Radar is an electromagnetic systems used for
detection and location of objects such as aircraft,
ship, vehicles, people, natural environment etc.
Fundamental Principles of Radar
 Fundamental Principles of Radar
Transmitter generates and transmits
electromagnetic wave (sine or pulse).
A portion of it is reflected back by the target
(object you want to identify).
The radiated portion is collected by the radar antenna
and processed.
One antenna can be used for both transmission and
reception
Fundamental Principles of Radar
 Fundamental Principles of Radar
A short burst of electro magnetic energy transmitted and
hit to an object and then return, since the velocity of
the propagation is known it would be easy to
calculate because the distance to the object as long
as it can measure time from which the transmission
started until the
Transmission of Pulsesecho return.
 Fundamental Principles of Radar

Transmission of Pulses
 Fundamental Principles of Radar
On board Ship the RADAR has two main tasks:
 To function as an aid to prevent collision, as with the
help of RADAR one can “SEE” in fog and darkness.
 To assist in navigation, particularly at landfalls and when
navigating in coastal waters.
 Characteristics of Radar Sets
and
Factors Affecting Performance and
accuracy with reference to detection of
targets
 Wavelengths and Frequencies used in
Marine Radar’s
RADIO WAVES are electro magnetic waves motion consist
of crests and troughs.
 Wavelengths and Frequencies used in
Marine Radar’s
Wavelength is the distance between a successive crest of
waves, electromagnetic waves of a length between
0.1- 30,000 mm are known as radio waves.
 Wavelengths and Frequencies used in
Marine Radar’s
Frequency are other way of measure of waves
motion, which indicates the number of crest will pass a
fixed point per unit time.

Frequency and Wavelength are two terms closely

associated.
LOW FREQUENCY VS HIGH FREQUENCY
 Marine Radar
Most marine radar transits in the:

X Band (3 cm) - 9000 C Band (5 cm)- 5000 MHz

MHz S Band (10 cm) - 3000
MHz
 Marine Radar

X-band Radar (3 cm radar)

 with a frequency of 5,200 to 11,900 MHz and

wavelength of
2.5 cm to 5.8 cm.
 The radar features are:
 The “coast navigation radar”;
 Good accuracy in bearing;
 Smaller antenna;
 Reduced signal effect in bad weather condition;
 Sea echoes can be a problem.
 Marine Radar
S-band Radar (10 cm radar)
 with a frequency of 1,650 to 5,200
MHz and wavelength of 5.8 cm
to 18.2 cm.
 The radar features are:
 The “bad weather radar”;
 Good detection of target even in conditions
like rain, snow, sandstorms, etc.,
 Rather little disturbance by sea echoes;
 To get an acceptable accuracy in
bearing it is necessary to use “big”
 antenna;
 Due to weak reflection, it is necessary to
increase the transmission effect.
 Marine Radar
 Each type has their advantages and disadvantages.
 For example a short wave length is preferred in
shipboard radar system because there is a
relationship between the size of the antenna and the
horizontal beam width, the larger width of the scanner
the smaller is the angular beam width for the same
wavelength.
 Marine Radar Components
Five main parts:
• Antenna system (scanner/aerial);
• Transmitter with Magnetron, Modulator and Trigger;
• Receiver with Mixer, Amplifier, Equalizer and Video
Amplifier;
• Display unit (indicator);
• Power supply with power transformer
 it is not necessary for the operator to know all the
details about each radar component;
 a basic understanding of how a radar works, its
capabilities and limitations is minimum requirement.
Radar Block Diagram
 1.0 Radar Antenna
• the radar antenna transmits the radio waves outside in a
concentrated beam;
• a motor turns the antenna in rotations;
• the signals, which returns via the antenna are
converted to lower frequency signals, which are amplified;
• Finally, the signals become visible to the operator in the
form of a radar picture.
 Two types of Radar Antenna
• Slotted wave-guide type – section of rotatable
waveguide contains a series of slot which electro-
magnetic energy is emitted.
 Two types of Radar Antenna
• Tilted parabolic antenna – makes use of a feed horn
and a reflector to direct/receive electro-magnetic
energy;
 2.0 Transmitter

 Basically the trigger transfer pulses to the modulator.

 The magnetron converts the input into high frequency
oscillations;
 High frequency oscillations are fed via a wave-guide or
coaxial cable to the transmitter/receiver switch.
 2.0 Transmitter

 The duration of the transmitted radar pulse may

vary from less than 0.1 microsecond to as much as
1.5 – 2 microseconds;
 Intervals between the pulses are typically between
500 to 4000 microseconds.
 3.0 Receiver
 In the radar receiver the incoming signal is fed to
a series of amplifiers and further to a
detector or demodulator which smoothes out
the signal;
 The greatest problem is to keep the noise level low;
 3.0 Receiver
 On the radar the noise appears as speckled
background on the screen and must be kept as low as
possible for the navigator to see the weak echoes;
 The main task of the receiver is to amplify the
reflected (incoming echoes) weak echoes and make
them suitable for transmission to the indicator
(screen).
 4.0 Radar Display Unit
 The prime function of the display is to indicate the
presence of detectable objects by generating on
the screen a radar picture.
 4.0 Radar Display
 Radar echoes are displayed on a Cathode-Ray Tube (a
picture tube within which streams of electrons are
directed against a fluorescent screen (PPI – Plan
Position Indicator).

Several types of CRT are utilized:

• A-Scan or short Persistence Tube;
• Plan Position Indicator or PPI;
• Raster Scan Display
 A- SCAN (Short Persistence Tube)
 A-SCAN or short persistent tube, the strength
of an echo derived from its amplitude.
 PPI (Plan Position Indicator)
 PPI is a long persistent tube, the trace is rotated
around in unison with the rotation of the scanner and
echoes previously recorded are retained during a period
of at least one scanner revolution.
 Raster Scan Display
Normally a rectangular screen with dimension in
the ratio 4:3 consisting of; example 1024 horizontal
lines and 1280 vertical line or picture elements (pixel)

The radar provides all echoes information in

Cartesian form (i.e. range, bearing). Before the
information can be displayed the information
must be recalculated into X-Y coordinated by a
processor.
 Raster Scan Display
The advantage of raster scan is that, it can be
viewed in daylight without a visor, and the
capacity for the additional graphic information is
almost unlimited compared with the PPI.
 Raster Scan Display
The disadvantage of the raster scan is that even the
best raster scan display available today, cannot
match the resolution of the old PPI.
Raster Scan Display: Monochrome
Raster Scan Display: Color (Day)
Raster Scan Display: Color (Night)
 5.0 Power Supply
• It is unlikely that any one supply source could meet
all the power requirements of a radar set.
• The distribution of the physical components of a
system may such as to make it impractical to
group the power supply circuits into a single
physical unit.
• Different supplies are needed to meet the
varying requirements of a system and must
be designed accordingly.
• The power-supply function is performed by various
types of supplies distributed among the circuit
components of a radar set
 5.0 Power Transformer
Furnished all AC and DC voltages necessary for the
operation of the system components.
 If ship main is DC, power to the radar must be supplied
via a converter;
 If ship main is AC, power to the radar must be supplied
via transformer.
 Radar scan and Radar sweep
Two radar terms are often mixed or used incorrectly,
namely:
 Radar Scan
 Radar Sweep
 A radar sweep is transmission of one radar pulse only.
 A radar scan is one complete 360° rotation of the
antenna (during one scan normally several thousand
sweeps are generated and transmitted).
 Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
 defined as the number of pulses transmitted
per second;
- Long pulse is equals to low PRF;
- Short pulse equals to high PRF;
 LONG PULSE- means more power and longer range but
less resolution in range;
 SHORT PULSE- means a weaker pulse, less radar range
but better resolution in range.
 Radar Range
Radar range depends mainly on different parameters:
 Antenna Vertical beam width
 Selected pulse length
 Height of antenna
 Installation of antenna
 Ships trim….
Antenna vertical beam width
Selected Pulse Length
Height of antenna
Installation of antenna
Ship’s trim….
 Radar Range
The radar horizon can be calculated by the following
formula:
RMAX = 2.2 X ( √h1 + √h2) NM
RMAX: Radar horizon in nautical
miles h1: Antenna height in
meters
h2: Target height in meters
 Radar Range
In practice during “normal” weather conditions,
navigators can expect the radar horizon to be
approximately 10 % further away than the optical
horizon.
 Parameters Affecting Radar Range
Most important parameters affecting radar range:
 Antenna height
 Height of the target
 Size of the target
 Target reflecting area
 Material of target
 Shape of the target
 Weather condition…..
 Technical Parameters
Parameters must be taken into account:
 Transmitted peak power
 Wavelength
 Pulse length
 Antenna gain
 Noise figure
 Number of pulses per scan
 Wave-guide loss
 Display parameters….
 Range Discrimination
 The ability of the radar to discriminate between two
small objects close together in the same bearing which
will allow both to appear as separate and distinct
echoes on the PPI.
Parameters affecting range discrimination:
• Selected pulse length;
• The size of the spot.
If possible short pulse and short range
should be selected and focus and
brightness carefully adjusted.
 Bearing Discrimination
 The ability of the radar to discriminate between two
small objects close together at the same range but
with different bearings i.e. the ability to produce two
separate echoes on the radar screen.
Bearing discrimination depends on:
The horizontal beam width of the
antenna;
The spot size.
Correct focusing and brightness
settings will improve the bearing
discrimination.
 Bearing and Range Distortion

 The radar‟s possibility to reproduce an area or a

ship correctly and to discriminate between close-
lying target is limited and varies with different
types of radar;
 The discriminating ability laterally is usually 1-2 degrees;
.
 Bearing and Range Distortion

 The discriminating ability in range is usually 25-75

meters, however, the accuracy is lower on long
ranges;
 Radar sets with a wavelength of 3 cm have a
better discriminating ability compared with the
10 cm wavelength.
 Inside Harbour
 This is the situation on a
vessel entering a harbour as
seen on an X-band radar
operating on short pulse.
 Echoes can be
discriminated.
 Inside Harbour
This is the situation on a
vessel entering a harbour,
as seen on an S-band radar
operating on long pulse.
Observe the big difference
in ability to display details
between the two radar
types.
 Echoes cannot be
discriminated.
 Inside Channel
 This is the situation as seen on a ship sailing in a
narrow channel as seen on x-band radar operating on
short pulse.
 The channel is “open” in front of the ship.
 Inside Channel
 This is the same situation as displayed on S-band radar
operating on long pulse.
 Observe that the channel is “closed” in front of the ship.
 Target Characteristics
Depends on:
 Aspect is the angle which the radar rays make
when reflected by an object.
 Target Characteristics
Depends on:
 Surface texture .The extent to which reflection is
dependent upon the surface texture of the target.
 Target Characteristics
Depends on:
 Target material – ability of various substances to
reflect radar pulses depends on the intrinsic electrical
properties of those substances. Metal and water are
good reflectors.
 Target Characteristics
Depends on:
 Target height – the radar contact should rise
somewhat above the radar horizon for echoes to return;
 Target size – contacts with larger reflecting areas will
return stronger echoes;
 Target shape – contacts of identical shape may give
echoes of varying strength depending on the aspect of
each.
 Target Characteristics
Radar pulse reflection is subjected to the same laws
as those for the reflection of light.
Detection range:
• Metal 10.0 n.m.;
• Water 9.0 n.m.;
• Stone 6.0 n.m.;
• Wood 5.0 n.m;
• Ice 5.0 n.m
 Compass Safe Distance

Many administration require that all radar units

(especially Magnetrons), because of their potential
magnetic influence be tested to establish the safe
distance by which they should be separated from
the steering magnetic compass.
 Magnetic Compass
 The magnetic compass must have a safe distance
from the radar because strong magnetic fields are
generated in several parts of radar.
 Magnetic Compass
 Nowadays, although most ships are
equipped with gyro compass, the magnetic
compass is still the master compass on all
ships and thus should be taken good care of.

Magnetic compass Gyro compass

 Magnetic Compass
 Normally the safe distance varies between 1
and 5 meters.
 Radiation Hazards and Precaution
 Marine radar‟s transmit energy of varying
strength in form of short pulses or bursts,
pulsed power can produce biological changes
not obtained with constant wave
transmissions.
 At short distance, transmissions from marine radar‟s
may pose a health hazard.
 Follow the instructions from the radar
manufacturer closely and don‟t take any
chances.
 Radiation Hazards and Precaution

• It is believed that
there is no radiation
hazard to shipboard
personnel provided
that the aerial is
rotating. This is based
on the premises that
the level of radiation
outside the turning
circle of the aerial is
safe.
 Radiation Hazards and Precaution
• However, harmful
effects, particularly to
the eyes can be
experience at a very
short distance from
stationary aerial if
energy is being
radiated.
 Radiation Hazards and Precaution
• The distance will
depend on the
transmitted power but
in civil marine radar
designed for merchant
ships it is usually in
the region of 0.3 to 0.6
meters.
 Radiation Hazards and Precaution

• If it is necessary for a
personnel to approach
within the safe
distance of a
stationary aerial,
ensure that the
equipment is not
transmitting and
ensure that it is not
being switched to
transmit condition.
Radiation Hazards and Precaution

• Some appreciation of
the possible harmful
effects of radiation
can be obtained by
recognizing that a
domestic “microwave
oven” uses radar waves
to cook meals in a very
short period of time.
 Radiation Hazards and Precaution
When working close to a radar antenna make sure that a
warning sign has been placed on the radar console
clearly telling everybody that NO START UP should be
attempted before the work in the antenna is completed or
cancelled.
 Aerial Siting
The scanner is the eye
and ear of the radar
system and its siting is
of crucial importance.

Radar observer should

be aware of the factors
which may affect
optimum results.
 Aerial Siting

• There are benefits

and drawbacks from
siting the aerial as
low and as high as
possible.
 Aerial Siting

High aerials – increases detection range of the target

but reduces the accuracy of targets at short ranges.
 Aerial Siting

Low aerials – increases the detection of targets at

short ranges but reduces detection range.
Susceptibility to Damage
• The site of the aerial
should be well clear of
halyards and similar
rigging which might
be liable to become
entangled with the
rotating scanner.
 Meteorological Condition
 Whenever the air humidity is abnormally high which
it is fog, rain, snow and hail, a reduction in radar
detection range should be expected.
 Normal Transmission of Radar Waves
 Normal transmission of radar waves when condition
are such that the radar range is approximately
10-15% greater than the distance to the optical
horizon.
 Normal Transmission of Radar Waves
 Generally, the normal conditions exist in areas with
cold air masses.
 The longer the wavelength, the greater is
the tendency to bend round objects.
 Hence we can expect the 10 cm radar to
have a greater range than the 3 cm radar.
 Sub-refraction
 When warm, moist air remains over cold water, the air
is cooled from below and fog is often the result.
 Temperature and humidity will increase with altitude and the
radar wave will bend upwards, decreasing the radar
range.
 Sub-refraction decreases radar range.
 Extra-super refraction or Ducting
 With conditions of light wind and low clouds over cold water
we often get a condition called “ducting”.
 That is, radar beam is reflected several times between the
fog and sea surface.
 The radar range can be increased considerably.
 Ducting can be expected to take place when
temperature inversion exists and the atmospheric is
calm.
 Radar Blackout
With conditions of considerable ground fog. We can get a
total
radar blackout. Reasons
for these:
 All radar waves are reflected from the top of the fog;
 Stationary warm air masses located on top of cold sea;
 If the height of the fog is less than the radar antenna, a
total reflection of the radar signal from the top of the fog may
take place.
 Radar Blackout
 Be particularly watchful during conditions when
warm air masses can be expected to move in
over cold sea.
 When this occurs, together with rapid changes
in air moisture content, the situation should be
carefully observed.
 Sea Clutter
 Sea clutter echoes are caused by reflection of the radar
pulse against the sea waves.
 The reflection is spectacular and conditions for the
pulse to return to the scanner are favourable near
the ship.
 At longer ranges the beam will be reflected away
from the ship.
 Sea Clutter
 Marine radar‟s are equipped with rejection
systems to minimize the effect of sea clutter.
 This control is often named “Anti-clutter Sea” or “STC”.
 Rain Clutter
 Raindrops are not good reflectors, but lots of them
together can result in the characteristics pattern of Rain
Clutter which will hide the contact of a more solid
object;
 Rain squalls and showers appear on the screen as a
woolly mass;
 an intense rainstorm can be
detected up to 25 n. miles;
 thunderstorms give excellent echoes;
 echoes inside the rainstorm will be
obscured by rain and clutter.
 Weather condition
 During weather conditions including heavy rain,
thunderstorms, etc. ,the S-band is better choice than X-
band radar.
 Rain Clutter
 The two pictures clearly show the difference
between the S and X band radar during heavy rain as
displayed on a TRANSAS Bridge Master-E Radar.

X-band S-band radar

Clutters echoes from rain and sea

RAIN Clutters

SEA Clutters
 False Echoes and Disturbances
Radar interference will occur most frequently when:
 own ship’s antenna receives signals from another radar;
 fan-shaped broken lines emanating from the center of
the screen;
 most radar equipment contains “radar
interference rejection circuits” to eliminate this
disturbance.
 False Echoes and Disturbances
 False echoes and disturbances on the radar screen
may have many different appearances and causes.
 Some faults can affect the accuracy, so whenever
disturbances are observed be especially aware
of this possibility
 False Echoes
 If the radar signal is reflected from objects on board
own ship in such a way that the pulse hits a
target, we may receive a false echo at almost the
same distances as to the real target but in a
different bearing.
 This false echo will often be located in own ship
blind sector.
 The navigator should know exactly where own ships blind
sectors are located.
 This is important in order to take actions to minimize
the effect of the blind sectors.
False Echoes
 Multiple Echoes
 Multiple echoes can be created by reflection between own
ship and an object before the scanner finally collects its
energy;
 We will see a line of targets on the same bearing and with
equal distance between then.
 The true echo is the one closest to own ship.
 The shapes of multiple echoes are less defined than that
of the original echo and they are weakening in intensity
outwards.
Multiple Echoes
 Multiple Echoes
 Reduction of gain and clutter will remove the false echo
before the true echo.
 The chances of multiple echoes can be reduced by
ensuring that shorter pulse lengths are selected when using
the lower range scales.
 It may be possible to produce this phenomenon
deliberately in order to observe it, by selecting the
longer pulse when on a lower range scale and with
a close target.
 Side Echoes
 Every antenna leaks a small amount of energy outside
the main radar beam.
 When passing close by a good target, Side lobes contacts
will appear on the screen.
 Side echoes are caused by the side lobes of the
radar beam.
 Nearby targets are picked up by the side lobes as well
as by the main lobe.
 If these are distracting, temporarily decrease the Gain.
 Side Echoes
 It is impossible to design a scanner without side
lobes although the construction of an aerial affects
the magnitude of the side lobes.
 However, today many slotted wave guide
scanners have almost eliminated the visual
effects of side lobes.
 Blind Sectors
 Caused when antenna is not placed at the ship’s
highest point.
 Structures above the antenna will create blind sectors on
radar screen.
 Objects within these sectors will normally be invisible
on the screen.
 It is relatively easy to plot blind sectors if this is done
during a period with a lot of sea clutter.
 The blind sectors can be seen as distinctly dark
sectors in the sea clutter area.
Blind Sectors
 Radar Shadow
 Another important reason for the difference the sea
map and the radar image is the radar and bearing
discrimination parameters, that is, how much the
radar „magnifies‟ the echo in range and bearing;
 The radar waves transmit in a straight line;
 A radar coastline echo (or any other objects)
appearance will be determined by the topography;
 The radar picture can be quite different from the map.
 Radar Shadow
 For example, the radar picture at low tide will be very
different from that at high tide if there is large
difference between high and low.
 Knowledge of the topography affect on the radar
picture can be of great important whenever own
ship‟s position determination must be based only
on information from the
radar display.......
Distortion effects of radar shadow

Bowditch
Distortion effects of radar shadow, beam
width, and pulse length

Bowditch
 Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson the students must be able
to:
1.2 Discuss the Performance Standards for
Radar Equipment according to Resolution
A.477 (XII)
 IMO Res. 477 XII
Performance
Standards for Radar
Equipment
End of the Lesson 1