Chapter Two

General Theory of Analogue

Measuring Instruments

Parikhan M. Ali
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(i) Absolute Instruments:
Absolute instruments are those which measure the quantity in
terms of certain dimensions; in term of deflection of the
instrument and its constants.
Or
These instruments give output in terms of physical constant of
the instruments.
Tangent galvanometer is an example of absolute instruments.

𝜇𝑜 𝑛 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝑟

𝐵
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ⟹ 𝐵 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝐵𝐻
𝐵𝐻

𝐵𝐻 = 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ = 0.38 x 10−4 2

• These instruments do not require calibration with respect to
some other instrument.

• These instruments cannot be used for every day measurements.

• They are only used for calibrating other instruments i.e. they are
used as means of standard measurements and are generally kept
by national laboratories and similar institutions.

(ii) Secondary Instruments:

They are direct reading instruments calibrated by comparison with
absolute instruments they are used in general for all laboratory
purposes.

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Secondary instruments may be grouped on the basis of various
effects of electric current or potential and are generally classified
according to which of these effect is utilized in their operation as
follows:

1- Magnetic effect – for ammeter and voltmeter.

2- Heating effect or Thermal effect – for ammeter and voltmeter.
3- Electromagnetic effect – for ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter and
watt-hour meter.
4- Electrostatic effect – for voltmeters only.
5- Chemical effect – for d.c. ampere hour meters.

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Secondary instruments can be classified due to the method of
taking reading from the instruments as follow:

1- Indicating Instruments:
These instruments indicate the instantaneous value of the quantity
being measured, as ordinary ammeter and voltmeter.

2- Recording Instruments:
These instruments record continuously the variations of an
electrical quantity or physical quantities such as flow, pressure ,
temperature as a function of time.

3- Integrating Instruments:
These instruments measure the total amount of quantity of
electricity (in Ah) or the total energy (in KWh) supplied to a circuit 5
over a specified period.
 Essentials of Indicting Instruments:
Indicating instruments consists essentially of a pointer which moves
over a calibrated scale and which is attached to a moving system
pivoted in jeweled bearings. The moving system is subjected to the
following three torques:

1- Deflecting torque.
2- Controlling torque.
3- Damping torque.

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1- Deflecting torque (Td):
The deflecting or operating torque which causes the moving system
of the instrument to move from its zero position by utilizing any
one of the effects already mentioned.

The deflecting torque has to supply the:

1- the torque required to overcome inertia of the moving system.
2- the torque required to overcome the damping torque.
3- the torque required to overcome the controlling torque.

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2- Controlling Torque (Tc):

This torque dose two functions:

1- It balance the deflecting torque , and insures that the
magnitude of the deflection is always same for a particular
value of the quantity to be measured.

2- It brings back the moving system to its zero position.

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The deflection of the moving system would be indefinite if there
were no controlling or restoring torque.

This torque opposes the deflecting torque (Td) and increases with
the deflection of the moving system.

The pointer is brought to rest position where the two opposing

torques are equal.

Under the influence of the controlling torque (Tc) the pointer will
return to its zero position on removing the source producing the
deflecting torque.

The controlling torque is created by a spring or by gravity. 9

(i) Controlling torque by spring (spring control):
A hair – spring, usually of phosphor – bronze, is attached to the
moving system of the instrument as shown in figure below.

The controlling torque developed in a spring is

𝐸 𝑏 𝑡3
𝑇𝐶 = θ
12 𝐿
where

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11
12
Where

If
At equilibrium

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With the deflection of the pointer, the spring is twisted in the opposite
direction.

This twist in the spring produces restoring torque which is directly

proportional to the angle of deflection of the moving system.

The pointer comes to a position of rest (or equiilibrum) when the deflecting
torque (Td) and controlling torque (Tc) are equal.

For example, in permanent – magnet, moving – coil type of instrument, the

deflecting torque is proportional to the current passing through them,
And for spring control

As

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Since deflection θ is directly proportional to current I, the spring controlled
instrument have equally – spaced scales over the whole of their range.
*** springs are made of such material which:
1- are non – magnetic.
2- are not subject to much fatigue.
3- have low specific resistance – especially in cases where they are
used for loading current in or out of the instrument.
4- have low temperature – resistance coefficient.

The control torque is provided by two hair spring, coiled in opposite

directions acting one against the other. However because the
springs are oppositely wound, as one expands because of an
increase in temperature, it tries to move the pointer in one
direction, and as the other expands it tries to move the pointer in
the opposite direction.

Therefore, the two actions cancel, and the pointer remains at zero.

When temperature decreases, the opposite would springs contract

an equal amount, and the pointer remains at zero. 15
(ii) Controlling torque by gravity
(gravity control):

Gravity control is obtained by

attaching a small adjustable weight to
some part of the moving system such
that the two exert torques in the
opposite directions. (the deflecting
torque has to act against the action of
gravity) as shown.

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From the figures it is seen that:

The degree of control is adjusted by screwing the weight up or down

the carrying system.
If

Then at equilibrium

The AB increases by a relatively small amount for a given change in

the angle when 𝜃 is just increasing from its zero value.
Hence, gravity – controlled instrument have scales which are not
uniform but are cramped or crowded at their lower ends.
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 As compared to spring control, the disadvantage of gravity control
are:
1- it gives cramped scale.
2- the instrument has to be kept in vertical position.

However, gravity control has the following advantages:

1- it is cheap.
2- it is unaffected by temperature.
3- it is not subject to fatigue or deterioration with time.

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 Example (3-1):
The torque of an ammeter varies as the square of the current through it. If a current of
5 A produces a deflection of 900, what deflection will occur for a current of 3 A when
the instrument is
a) Spring – controlled.
b) Gravity – controlled.

Solution: 𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝐼2
For spring control 𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝜃
For gravity control 𝑇𝑑 ∝ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

a) For spring control At 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝐶

𝐼2 ∝ 𝜃
90𝑜 ∝ 52 , 𝜃 ∝ 32
3 2
𝜃= 90𝑜 2
5

b) For gravity control At 𝑇𝑑 = 𝑇𝐶

𝐼2 ∝ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
52∝ 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 , 32 ∝ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
32
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 2 = 0.36 20
5
𝜃 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−10.36 = 21.1𝑜
3- Damping torque
Due to inertia of the moving system, the pointer would oscillate
about its final position for a long time before it comes to rest
position, (steady state position). To overcome these difficulties,
damping torque is essential.

A damping force is one which acts on the moving system of the

instrument only when it is moving and always opposes its motion 21
1. Under damped condition: The response is oscillatory
2. Over damped condition: The response is sluggish and it rises very
slowly from its zero position to final position.
3. Critically damped condition: The system is said to be critically
damped, when the response settles quickly without any oscillation.

There are three system of producing damping torque:

1- Air friction damping system.

2- Fluid friction damping system.
3- Eddy current damping system.

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 1- Air friction damping system
The arrangement of providing damping torque is shown in the
figure (a), an aluminum piston which moves in an air chamber is
attached to the pointer.

* A damping force is provided by the movement of an aluminum

piston in the air chamber.

* When the pointer deflects in the clockwise direction, the piston

moves out of the chamber, and the pressure inside the chamber
falls below the external value. The difference between the two
pressures acts on the piston and tries to arrest its movement.

* again when the piston moves into the chamber, the air inside it
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will be compressed, and this compression opposes the movement
of the piston and damping occurs.
* An alternate method of air friction damping utilizes a vane
mounted on a spindle of the moving system, the vane is usually
made of thin aluminum sheet and moves inside a closed sector
shaped box. as shown in figure (b & c). The principle of operation
is the same as the movement of aluminum piston inside a
chamber.

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 2- Fluid friction damping system
Two methods are shown in figure (a & b) below.
1. in first system a disc is immersed in the oil. The frictional drag developed during
the motion of the disc attached to moving system always opposes the motion.
2. in second system vanes stem are used

oil damping is not much used because of the instrument must be always in the
vertical position.

The oil used must fulfill the following requirements:

1- It should not evaporate quickly.
2-It should not have any corrosive action upon
metals.
3- Its viscosity should not change with temperature.
4- It should be good insulator.
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3- Eddy current damping system
Eddy current damping is the most efficient form of damping.
The essential component in this method are a permanent magnet and a
light disc of conducting materials, mostly of aluminum.

When a sheet of a conducting material moves in a magnetic field, so as to

cut lines of magnetic field, eddy currents are induced in it and a force is
produced opposing the motion. This principle has been applied to provide
damping torque in many instruments having a disc on a drum as the
moving system between the poles of a magnet. Damping torque is directly
proportional to the movement of the moving system.

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