Internal Flows

Patricio F. Mendez
University of Alberta
ChE 314

Contents
1 Hydrodynamic considerations 2
1.1 The mean velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Hydrodynamic entry length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Entry length for turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Thermal Considerations 4
2.1 Thermal entry length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Thermal entry length for turbulent flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.3 Heat from the tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Energy balance in tubes 7

00
3.1 Constant surface heat flux: qconv = qs00 =constant . . . . . . . . 8
3.2 Constant surface temperature: Ts =constant . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2.1 Log mean temperature difference . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2.2 Calculation example: average convection coefficient . . 12

4 Correlations for laminar flow in circular tubes 13

4.1 The fully developed region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Correlations for turbulent flow in circular tubes 14

6 Noncircular tubes 16
6.1 Calculation example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1
Introduction
The objective of this chapter is to predict the convection coefficient h inside
tubes and other channels. In addition to the concepts of laminar and tur-
bulent, and high and low Prandtl number, this section will consider the fact
that boundary layers cannot grow indefinitely inside a channel, giving origin
to the concept of entry length.

1 Hydrodynamic considerations
Consider internal flow in a circular tube and the fluid enters the tube with
a uniform velocity. Laminar, hydrodynamic boundary layers develop with
the increase of the spatial variable x and merge at the centerline. After
this merger, the velocity profile does not change with increasing x any more
and the flow is then termed as fully developed and the distance between
its location to the entrance is the hydrodynamic entry length xfd,h . In fully
developed region, the velocity profile has a parabolic dependence on the radial
variable r.

Figure 1: Laminar, hydrodynamic boundary layer development in a circular

tube

1.1 The mean velocity

Mean velocity of the internal flow over the cross section is defined such that:
ṁ = ρum Ac Eq. (8.5)

2
where ṁ is the rate of mass flow through the tube and Ac is the the cross-
sectional area of the tube.
For a parabolic velocity profile, such as in laminar flow, it can be proven that
the maximum velocity located at the centerline is twice the average velocity:
umax = 2um

1.2 Turbulent flow

The Reynolds number for internal flow in a circular tube is used to deter-
mined whether the flow is laminar or turbulent and is defined as:
ρum D um D
ReD ≡ = Eq. (8.1)
µ ν
where um is the mean velocity of the fluid over the tube cross section and D
is the tube diameter. The critical Reynolds number used as the condition of
the onset of turbulence is:

ReD,c ≈ 2300 Eq. (8.2)

and typically occurs in the entry region. The condition to achieve fully
turbulent flow is ReD ≈ 10000 which is what is used for most correlations.

1.3 Hydrodynamic entry length

In the chapter of external flows, we have already known that the thickness
of viscous boundary layer is:
r
x
yc,v ≈ 3 ν
V
Let’s consider fully developed region when yc,v = D/2 and the characteristic
velocity: V ≈ umax = 2um :
r
D xfd,h
≈3 ν
2 2um
2
D 2um
xfd,h ≈
36 ν 
 xfd,h
⇒ ≈ 0.055ReD
D lam

3
Exact expression of the hydrodynamic entry length for laminar flow (ReD .
2300):
x 
fd,h
= 0.05ReD Eq. (8.3)
D lam

1.4 Entry length for turbulent flow

Estimation of the entry length in turbulent flow is approximately independent
of the Reynolds number:
x 
fd,h
10 . . 60 Eq. (8.4)
D turb
In this class, we assume fully developed turbulent flow when x/D > 10.

2 Thermal Considerations
Consider colder fluid enters the tube at a uniform temperature of T (r, 0) and
is heated by the surface of higher temperature at Ts , a thermal boundary layer
begins to develop, accompanied the convection heat transfer. A thermally
fully developed condition can be reached if the tube surface condition is fixed
in either of the two cases:
• a uniform surface temperature: Ts =constant
• a uniform surface heat flux: qs00 =constant

4
Figure 2: Thermal boundary layer development in a heated circular tube
Ts > T (r, 0)

2.1 Thermal entry length

For Pr > 1, the viscous boundary layer yc,v is larger than the thermal bound-
ary layer yc,t , which means flow is fully developed before temperature is fully
developed.
Consider that the characteristic velocity for temperature boundary layer is
that of the fully developed flow:
r r
x D xfd,t
yc,t = 3 α ⇒ ≈3 α
uc 2 umax
2
D 2um ν
xfd,t ≈
 x 36 α ν
fd,t
≈ 0.055ReD Pr
D lam

The thermal entry length can be expressed as follows for laminar flow:
x 
fd,t
≈ 0.05ReD Pr Eq. (8.23)
D lam

5
2.2 Thermal entry length for turbulent flow
For turbulent flow, similar to the hydrodynamic entry length, thermal entry
length is nearly independent of ReD and Pr:
x 
fd,t
10 . . 60 Eq. (8.4)
D turb
To a first approximation, we will assume (xfd,t /D) = 10.

2.3 Heat from the tube

The mean temperature Tm is used as a convenient reference temperature for
internal flows and the resulting heat flux via convection is:

qs00 = h(Ts − Tm ) Eq. (8.27)

where h is the local convection heat transfer coefficient.

In the entry length, h = k/yc,t , and the value of h is extremely large at x = 0
because the thermal boundary layer thickness is zero at the entrance of the
tube. The local convection coefficient decreases with increasing thickness of
thermal boundary layer until fully developed conditions is reached and after
that, h remains constant and is independent of x.

6
Figure 3: Axial variation of the local convection coefficient for internal flow
in a tube

3 Energy balance in tubes

Assuming the whole system is in steady state: qst = 0 and neglect the heat
generated qgen = 0, apply the energy rate balance in the control volume of
internal flows in a tube, as shown in Figure 4:

qin − qout + 
qgen
=q
st

where

qin = qadvin + qconv + 

qcond
 advection dominates
qout = qadvout
⇒qadvin + qconv − qadvout = 0

7
Figure 4: Control volume for internal flows in a tube where As is the cross-
sectional area and P is the surface perimeter.

In the defined control volume:

qadvin − qadvout = ṁ [im (x) − im (x + dx)]
where im (x + dx) = im (x) + didxm dx and didxm = dT dim dTm
m dx
. Assuming there is no
phase change and thus the specific heat c can be treated as constant:
 
dTm
qadvin − qadvout = ṁ  im(x) − 

(x) − c
im 
dx
dx
dTm
= −ṁc dx
dx
00 00
heat transfer rate via convection is given by: qconv = qconv As = qconv P dx,
where P is the perimeter of the tube. Thus,
dTm  00
− ṁc dx + qconv
 Pdx
= 0
dx
00
dTm P qconv
⇒ =
dx ṁc
00
3.1 Constant surface heat flux: qconv = qs00 =constant
qs00 P
Tm (x) = Tm,i + x for qs00 = constant Eq. (8.40)
ṁcp

8
where Tm,i is the inlet mean temperature.

Figure 5: Variations in the mean temperature for heat transfer in a tube

with constant surface heat flux

The surface temperature with constant surface heat flux can be calculated
as:

qs00 = h(Ts − Tm )
q 00
Ts = s + Tm
h

As shown in Figure 6, the local convection coefficient decreases as x increases

until the temperature is fully developed, surface temperature is always larger
00
than the mean temperature and the temperature difference between qhs in-
creases until it reaches fully developed region.

9
Figure 6: Variations in the surface temperature for heat transfer in a tube
with constant surface heat flux

3.2 Constant surface temperature: Ts =constant

Coming Newton’s law of cooling qs00 = h(Ts −Tm ) and the expression for mean
00
temperature gradient: dTdxm = P qṁc
conv
to yield:

dTm Ph
= (Ts − Tm ) Eq. (8.37)
dx ṁc
Solution to Eq. (8.37) is:
 
Ts − Tm (x) −P h̄
= exp x for Ts = constant Eq. (8.42)
Ts − Tm,i ṁcp

10
where Tm,i and Tm (x) are the mean temperature at the inlet and some axial
position x within the tube, respectively. h̄ is the average value of h from the
tube inlet to the distance x. Eq. (8.42) tells us that the temperature differ-
ence between the constant surface temperature and the mean temperature
Ts − Tm decreases exponentially with distance along the tube.

Figure 7: Variations in the mean temperature for heat transfer in a tube

with constant surface temperature. Characteristic distance is defined as xc =
ṁc/(P h̄).

3.2.1 Log mean temperature difference

Due to the exponential nature of the temperature difference under constant
surface temperature condition, a log mean temperature difference ∆Tlm is
defined as the average temperature difference over the tube length:
∆To − ∆Ti
∆Tlm = Eq. (8.44)
ln(∆To /∆Ti )

where ∆To = Ts − Tm,o is the temperature difference at the outlet and ∆Ti =
Ts − Tm,i is that at the inlet. In this way, convection heat transfer rate qconv

11
is obtained:

qconv = h̄As ∆Tlm Eq. (8.43)

3.2.2 Calculation example: average convection coefficient

Steam condensing on the outer surface of a circular tube of inner diameter
D=50 mm and length of L=6 m maintains a uniform surface temperature of
100◦ C . Water flows inside the tube at a rate of ṁ = 0.25kg/s and its inlet and
outlet temperatures are Tm,i = 15 ◦ C and Tm,o = 60 ◦ C, respectively. Specific
heat of water at T¯m = (15 ◦ C + 60 ◦ C)/2 = 37.5 ◦ C is 4178 kg.K
J
. Calculate the
average convection coefficient h̄ associated with the water flow?
Solution:
Assume no heat generation and neglect heat conduction along the axial direc-
tion, energy rate balance equation in steady state has the following expression
after defining the entire fluid inside the tube as the control volume:
Step 1: obtain expression for h̄

qin − qout + 
qgen
=q
st

for a heating case where Ts > Tm , qin = qadv,in + qconv and qout = qadv,out , the
simplified energy rate balance equation is:

qadv,in − qadv,out + qconv = 0

Water flows in at 15◦ C and flows out at 60◦ C and there is no phase change
occurring at this temperature range, resulting in a constant value of specific
heat:

qadv,in − qadv,out = ṁ(im,i − im,o ) = ṁcp (Tm,i − Tm,o )

00
Heat exchange via convection is given by qconv = qconv As = h̄∆Tlm As . Sub-
stituting each term into the energy rate balance equation to obtain:

h̄∆Tlm As = ṁcp (Tm,o − Tm,i )

ṁcp (Tm,o − Tm,i )
=⇒ h̄ =
∆Tlm πDL

12
Step 2: calculate the log mean temperature difference ∆Tlm

∆To − ∆Ti (Ts − Tm,o ) − (Ts − Tm,i )

∆Tlm = =
ln(∆To /∆Ti ) ln [(Ts − Tm,o )/(Ts − Tm,i )]
(100 C − 60 C) − (100 ◦ C − 15 ◦ C)
◦ ◦
=
ln [(100 ◦ C − 60 ◦ C)/(100 ◦ C − 15 ◦ C)]
= 59.70 ◦ C

Substituting the calculated ∆Tlm into expression of h̄ to obtain:

0.25 kg
s
J
× 4178 kgK (60 ◦ C − 15 ◦ C) W
h̄ = = 835.4
59.70 ◦ C × π × 50 × 10−3 m × 6m m2 K

4 Correlations for laminar flow in circular tubes

4.1 The fully developed region
Convection transfer rate is calculated using Newton’s law of cooling:

00 dT (Ts − Tmin ) 2 (Ts − Tm )

qconv = h(Ts − Tm ) = k ≈k ≈k
dr r0 r0
2k k
h≈ =4
r0 D
Thus, the Nusselt number for the fully developed region of laminar flow in
circular tubes:
hD
NuD = ≈ 4 independent of Re & Pr
k
• for constant surface flux qs00 = constant: NuD = 4.36 Eq. (8.53)
• for constant surface temperature Ts = constant: NuD = 3.66 Eq. (8.55)
Thermal conductivity k is evaluated at the mean temperature Tm .

13
Figure 8: Temperature variations in the fully developed region in circular
tubes with a parabolic dependence on the radial variable

5 Correlations for turbulent flow in circular

tubes
For fully developed (hydro-dynamically and thermally) turbulent flow in a
circular tube, the local Nusselt number can be calculated by:
4/5
NuD = 0.023ReD Prn Eq. (8.60)
L
Eq. (8.60) is valid for 0.6 . Pr . 160, ReD & 10000, D & 10 and can be used
for small to moderate temperature differences Ts − Tm with all properties
evaluated at Tm . The exponent n varies:
• for heating (Ts > Tm ), n = 0.4
• for cooling (Ts < Tm ), n = 0.3

14
The following equation is used to capture large properties variations:
 0.14
4/5 1/3 µ
NuD = 0.027ReD Pr Eq. (8.61)
µs
L
Eq. (8.61) is valid for 0.7 . Pr . 16700, ReD & 10000, D & 10 with all
properties evaluated at Tm except µs , which is evaluated at Ts .
x

Turbulent flows typically have short entry lengths, 10 . fd,h
D turb
. 60 Eq. (8.4),
it is reasonable to assure the average Nusselt number for the entire tube is
the value associated with the fully developed region: NuD ≈ NuD,fd .
• for short tubes
NuD C
=1+ Eq. (8.63)
NuD,fd (x/D)m

where C and m depend on the nature of the inlet, entry region, Prandtl
and Reynolds number.
• for long tubes (L/D) > 60, NuD ≈ NuD,fd
All fluid properties associated in calculation of NuD should be evaluated at
the mean temperature T̄m = (Tm,i + Tm,o )/2.
All the above correlations do not apply for liquid metals with small Pr num-
bers (the case of welding). Correlation for fully developed turbulent flow in
circular tubes with constant surface heat flux is:
0.827
NuD = 4.82 + 0.0185PeD Eq. (8.64)

where the Peclet number of internal flows is defined as the product of the
Reynolds number and Prandtl number: PeD = ReD Pr.
Eq. (8.64) is valid for 3 × 10−3 . Pr . 5 × 10−2 , 3.6 × 103 . ReD &
9.05 × 105 , 102 . PeD . 104 .
For turbulent molten metals with constant surface temperature:
0.8
NuD = 5.0 + 0.025PeD Eq. (8.65) and valid for PeD & 100

15
6 Noncircular tubes
An effective diameter, hydraulic diameter, Dh is used as the characteristic
length in the noncircular tubes:
4Ac
Dh = Eq. (8.66)
P
where Ac and P are the flow cross-sectional area and the perimeter, respec-
tively. Dh should be used in the calculation of ReD and NuD .

Figure 9: Nu for fully developed laminar flow in tubes of differing cross

section

16
6.1 Calculation example
Calculate the convection coefficient in fully developed flow of a tube of 1” in
3
inner diameter transporting 25 cms of water at room temperature and what
is the hydrodynamic and thermal entry length of this tube? Assume constant
tube surface temperature. Thermophysical properties of water: conductivity
2
W
k = 0.6 mK , diffusivity α = 0.15 × 10−6 ms and Pr = 7.
Solution:
Step 1: Check the Reynolds number:

um D V̇
ReD = and um =
ν Ac

where V̇ = ṁ/ρ is the flow rate of the fluid.

The cross-sectional area of the circular tube is:
πD2 π0.02542 m2
Ac = = = 5.067 × 10−4 m2
4 4
3
V̇ 25 × 10−6 ms m
um = = −4 2
= 4.934 × 10−2
Ac 5.067 × 10 m s

The calculated ReD is:

m2 m2
ν = α × Pr = α = 0.15 × 10−6 × 7 = 1.05 × 10−6
s s
um D 4.939 × 10−2 ms × 0.0254m
ReD = = 2 = 1194 < 2300 ⇒ Laminar Flow
ν 1.05 × 10−6 ms

Step 2: Get the Nusselt number:

For a circular tube, constant surface temperature Ts and fully developed
laminar flow ⇒ NuD = 3.66
W
k 0.6 mK W
h = NuD = 3.66 × = 86.46 2 fairly low
D 0.0254m mK

Step 3: calculation of thermal entry length

17
By Eq. (8.23):
xfd,t
≈ 0.05ReD Pr = 0.05 × 1194 × 7 = 417.7
D
xfd,t = 417.7 × 0.0254m = 10.61m It takes very long to reach fully developed state.

Step 4: calculation of hydrodynamic entry length:

By Eq. (8.3):
xfd,h
≈ 0.05ReD = 0.05 × 1194 = 59.68
D
xfd,h = 59.7 × 0.0254m = 1.516m

Figure 10: Schematic of calculated hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths.

The combined entry length is the distance that contains both boundary lay-
ers.

Question 2: If heating starts from the inlet, calculate the average convection
coefficient h̄ for the first meter of the tube.

18
Solution:
According to calculated thermal entry length xfd,t = 10.61m > 1m, Eq (8.57)
should be utilized to calculate the average NuD in thermal entry:
0.0668 GzD
NuD = 3.66 + 2/3
1 + 0.04 GzD

where

GzD = (D/x)ReD Pr = (0.0254m/1m) × 1194 × 7 = 212.3

Thus, the average Nusselt number is calculated as:

0.0668 × 212.3
NuD = 3.66 + = 3.66 + 5.852 = 9.512
1 + 0.04 × 212.32/3

Average convection coefficient h̄ is:

W
NuD × k 9.512 × 0.6 mK W
h̄ = = = 224.7 2
D 0.0254m mK

Question 3: What would be the convection coefficient in fully developed

3
flow for heating if the flow rate was 250 cms ?
Solution:
Step 1: Check the Reynolds number:

3
V̇ 250 × 10−6 ms m
um = = −4 2
= 49.34 × 10−2
Ac 5.067 × 10 m s

The calculated ReD is:

um D 49.34 × 10−2 ms × 0.0254m

ReD = = 2 = 11940 > 2300 ⇒ Turbulent Flow
ν 1.05 × 10−6 ms

Step 2: Get the Nusselt number:

19
For fully developed turbulent flow constant surface temperature Ts in a heat-
ing tube:
4/5
NuD = 0.023ReD Prn Eq. (8.60) n = 0.4
NuD = 0.023 × 119404/5 70.4 = 91.49
W
k 91.49 × 0.6 mK W
h = NuD = = 2161 2
D 0.0254m mK

Step 3: calculation of hydrodynamic and thermal entry length

xfd,t
≈ 10
D turb
xfd,t ≈ xfd,h = 0.254m very short

Question 4: What if the tube has the same cross sectional area but it is
square? Calculate fully developed convection coefficient h for the flow rate
3 3
of 25 cms and 250 cms ? Consider constant surface temperature Ts > Tm .
Solution:
cm3
Step 1: Check the Reynolds number for 25 s

um Dh V̇ m
ReD = and um = = 4.934 × 10−2
ν Ac s
√
For a square section, P = 4l, Ac = l2 ⇒ l = Ac
4Ac 4l2 p √
Dh = = = l = Ac = 5.067 × 10−4 m2 = 2.251 × 10−2 m
P 4l
thus,
um Dh 4.934 × 10−2 ms × 2.251 × 10−2 m
ReD = = 2 = 1058 < 2300 ⇒ Laminar Flow
ν 1.05 × 10−6 ms

Step 2: Get the Nusselt number:

In Table 8.1, for a square tube with constant surface temperature Ts ⇒
NuD = 2.98
W
k 0.6 mK W
h = NuD = 2.98 × −2
= 79.43 2
D 2.251 × 10 m mK

20
 cm3
For flow rate of 250 s
3
Step 1: Check the Reynolds number for flow rate of 250 cms

um Dh V̇ m
ReD = and um = = 49.34 × 10−2
ν Ac s
√
For a square section, P = 4l, Ac = l2 ⇒ l = Ac

4Ac 4l2 p √
Dh = = = l = Ac = 5.067 × 10−4 m2 = 2.251 × 10−2 m
P 4l
thus,

um Dh 49.34 × 10−2 ms × 2.251 × 10−2 m

ReD = = 2 = 10580 > 2300 ⇒ Turbulent Flow
ν 1.05 × 10−6 m s

Step 2: Get the Nusselt number:

For fully developed turbulent flow constant surface temperature Ts in a heat-
ing tube:
4/5
NuD = 0.023ReD Prn Eq. (8.60) n = 0.4
NuD = 0.023 × 105804/5 70.4 = 83.04
W
k 83.04 × 0.6 mK W
h = NuD = = 2213 2
D 0.02251m mK

21
 Summary of convection correlations for flow in a circular tube
Correlation Re/Pr Temp. Conditions Entry
f = 64/ReD (8.19) Re<2300 Tf Laminar Fully developed
NuD = 4.36 (8.53) Re<2300 Tm Laminar, Fully developed
Uniform qs00
NuD = 3.66 (8.55) Re<2300 Tm Laminar, Fully developed
Uniform Ts
0.0668 GzD
NuD = 3.66 + 2/3 (8.57) Re<2300 Tm Laminar, Thermal entry or
1 + 0.04 GzD
GzD = (D/x)ReD Pr(8.56) Uniform Ts combined entry
h i with Pr & 5
e/D
√1 = −2.0log + Re2.51
√ (8.20) Re>2300 Tf Turbulent Fully developed
f 3.7 D f
f = (0.790lnReD − 1.64)−2 (8.21) 3000 . Re . 5 × 106 Tf Turbulent, Fully developed
Smooth walls
4/5
NuD = 0.023ReD Prn (8.60) Re & 10000 Tm Turbulent, Fully developed
0.6 . Pr . 160 (L/D) & 10
Ts > Tm : n = 0.4
Ts < Tm : n = 0.3
 0.14
4/5 µ
NuD = 0.027ReD Pr1/3 µs
(8.61) Re & 10000 Tm Turbulent, Fully developed
0.7 . Pr . 16, 700 (L/D) & 10
(f /8) (ReD −1000)Pr
NuD = 1 + 12.7(f /8)1/2 (Pr2/3 −1)
(8.62) 3000 . Re . 5 × 106 Tm Turbulent, Fully developed
0.5 . Pr . 2000 (L/D) & 10
NuD = 4.82 + 0.0185(ReD Pr)0.827 3600 . Re . 9.05 × 105 Tm Liquid metals, Fully developed
(8.64) 0.003 . Pr . 0.05 Turbulent,
Uniform qs00
102 . ReD Pr . 104
NuD = 5.0 + 0.025(ReD Pr)0.8 (8.65) Re>2300 Tm Liquid metals, Fully developed
ReD P r & 100 Turbulent,
Uniform Ts

Temperature for properties: Tf = (Ts + Tm )/2, T m = (Tm,i + Tm,o )/2

Acknowledgement
This set of notes is based on class notes from previous years by Prof. Mendez,
and was first typed and illustrated by PhD student Ying Wang as part of
her Fraser and Shirley Russell Teaching Fellowship.

22