Mathematics

Computing

www.testprepkart.com
Table of Content

1. Introduction.
2. Memory.
3. Algorithms.
4. Pseudo language.
5. Pseudo language constructs.
6. Flow chart's (Representation of algorithm).
7. Number system.

1
1. Introduction.

The modern digital computer or simply a computer is a general purpose electronic machine which can
process a large amount of information at a very high speed. A computer can perform millions of
computations in a few minutes. It can also perform arithmetical and logical operations.

MAGNE
PRINTER TIC
TAPE

MEMORY

DISPLAY OUTPUT

DEVICE UNIT
ALU

MAGNETIC
CONTROL UNIT
INPUT MEMORY
DISK
UNIT
MEMORY

CONSOLES MAGNETIC
PUNCHED
PUNCHED DRUM
CARDS PAPER OR
TERMINALS MEMORY
TAPE

Block Diagram of a General Purpose

Computer

2
A computer has five major components:

(1) Input unit

(2) Memory unit

(3) Control unit

(4) Arithmetic logical unit

(5) Output unit

(1) Input unit: The input unit is the means where the user communicates data or information to the
computer.

(2) Memory unit: The memory unit stores instructions, data and intermediate results. It supplies, when
required, the stored information to the other units of the computer.
(3) Control unit: The control unit controls all the activities in the computer by sending electronic
command signals to other components of the computer.
(4) Arithmetic Logical Units (ALU): ALU is the unit where the arithmetic and logical (e.g., less than,
greater than) computations are carried out. Control unit and ALU taken together is called Central
Processing Unit (CPU).
(5) Output unit: The output unit receives the stored result from the memory unit converts it into a form.
The user can understand and produces it in the desired format.
A computer may have more than one input and output units. For example, printer and display screen are
two different output units attached to the same computer.

3
2. Memory.
Our aim is to see how we can use the computer to solve some problems. For that purpose, it is useful to
know a little more about main memory. From the user’s point of view, main memory can be thought of
as a collection of compartments (or locations) as shown in fig. (i) Each compartment is assigned a
number called its address (starting with zero as shown in the fig. (ii). The total number of compartments
gives us the size of the memory.

0 1 2
3 4

fig. (i) Main memory as a collection of compartments (locations)

0 1 2

fig. (ii) Bits in a memory location

Each compartment of memory (as well as a register in ALU) consists of sub-compartments fig. (ii). Each
sub-compartment can store either a zero or a 1. Any information to be stored inside a computer is put
using zeros and 1’s. The digits 0 and 1 are called binary digits (bits in short). The acronym bit is formed
by taking the letter b from the word ‘binary’ and the letters i, t from the word ‘digit’. Similarly, we have
the acronym dit for decimal digit, hit for hexadecimal digit etc. The number system that uses only two
digits is called binary number system. Computers use binary number system for computation.

4
3. Algorithms.

An algorithm is defined as a finite set of rules, which gives a sequence of operations for solving a specific
type of problem.
In other words, algorithm is a step-by-step procedure for solving problems.

An algorithm has following five important features:

(1) Finiteness
(2) Definiteness
(3) Completeness
(4) Input
(5) Output

(1) Finiteness: An algorithm should always terminate after a finite number of steps.

(2) Definiteness: Each step of algorithm should be precisely defined. This means that the rules should be
consistent and unambiguous.

(3) Completeness: The rules must be complete so that the algorithm can solve all problems of a
particular type for which the algorithm is designed.

(4) Input: An algorithm has certain inputs.

(5) Output: An algorithm has certain outputs which are in specific relation to the inputs.
An important consideration for an algorithm concerns its efficiency. Some algorithms are far more
efficient than others in that, when programmed, one may require fewer steps or perhaps less memory
than another and will therefore, be more satisfactory or economical in actually solving problems on a
computer. We shall often deal with considerations of this type in the subsequent work.
In the development of an algorithm, sequence, selection and repetition (or interaction) play an important
role.

5
(1) Sequence: Suppose that we want to find the value of the expression a3  4 ab  b 2 for given values of
a and b. Algorithm (i.e., step by step procedure) for achieving this will consist of steps given in fig. to be
carried out one after the other.

1. Get the value of a

2. Get the value of b
3. Calculate , call it S
4. Calculate , call it T
5. Calculate , call it V
6. Find the sum , call it M
7. Write the value of M as answer.

Steps of an algorithm to evaluate , given the values of a, b

This algorithm, you will agree, is very straightforward, consisting of simple steps which are to be carried
out one after the other. We say that such an algorithm is a sequence of steps, meaning that
(i) At a time only one step of the algorithm is to be carried out.
(ii) Every step of the algorithm is to be carried out once and only once; none is repeated and none is
omitted.
(iii) The order of carrying out the steps of the algorithm is the same as that in which they are written.
(iv) Termination of the last step of the algorithm indicates the end of the algorithm.
Here afterwards we shall follow the convention that (i) the successive steps in a sequence will be written
on successive lines and hence (ii) steps will not be necessarily numbered as they are in fig.

(2) Selection: An algorithm which consists of only a sequence, is not sufficient for solving any type of
problem. Let us consider the problem of solving an equation of the type m  nx  r (where m, n, r are
given integers) for integral values of x. We immediately use laws of algebra to find x  (r  m)  n, n  0 .
Let us call an algorithm that works for only some (not necessarily all) possible sets of input values, a
semi-algorithm.
Semi-algorithm (for the above problem) :
Step 1: Get the values of m, r and n.
Step 2: Subtract m from r, call this difference b.
Step 3: Divide b by n; print this result as the value of x.

6
The above steps are certainly efficient, As an example, let m  9, n  5 and r  24 , in which case we have
b 15
9  5 x  24 . Then in step 2, we have 24  9  b i.e., b  15 and in step 3, we have   3 , and so we
n 5
print x = 3.
The above steps have two fatal flaws, however. First, if n equals 0, then either m  r and x can have any
integral value, or m  r and no solution is possible i.e., there is no integer x which may satisfy the given
equation. Second, if there is a non-zero remainder when b is divided by n then again there is no integer
x which may satisfy the given equation. So we must modify our algorithm to deal with all such situations
as may arise. Given below is the modified algorithm which suits all the possible situations that may arise.

Step 1 : Get the value of m, n and r

Step 2 : If and r
then go to step 7
else go to step 3
Step 3 : If and r
then go to step 6
else go to step 4
Step 4 : Subtract m from r, call this difference (i.e.,
)
Step 5: Divide b by n;
If there is a remainder
then go to step 6

else print the value of , which is the required

value of x.
Step 6: Print ‘No integer satisfies this equation’. Stop
Step 7 : Print ‘Any integer satisfies this equation’. Stop

Algorithm to solve an equation of the form

m + nx = r, where m, n, r, x are integers

The above algorithm provides the person or computer that will execute the algorithm with an ability to
choose the step to be carried out depending upon the values of m, n and r (and subsequently, the value
of b). This ability is called selection. The power of selection is that it permits that different paths could be
followed, depending upon the requirement of the problem, by the one who executes the algorithm.
In the above algorithm, selection is expressed by using the special words ‘if, ‘then’, ‘else’. Further, it may
be noted that all that is written using these special words (once) constitutes one step. Note the way it is

7
written. Nothing appears below the word ‘if’ till that step is over. This is known as indentation. The words
‘then’ and ‘else’ come with exactly same indentation with respect to the word ‘if’.

(3) Iteration or Repetition: In forming an algorithm certain steps are required to be repeated before
algorithm terminates after giving an answer. This is known as iteration or repetition.
Let us consider the problem of finding the just prime number greater than a given positive integer. The
following list of steps shows the step by step procedure to be followed for solving the problem.

Consider the given integer

Algorithm for finding a prime number

greater then a given positive integer

We see in the above procedure that the steps

“add 1 to it
test new number for primeness
if it is prime
then write it down and stop ”
are repeated again and again till (after a finite number of repetitions) we get a prime number and print
it. If this sequence (which involves a decision also) is denoted by S, then S is repeated again and again
till, we get the result and print the result. This is technically known as iteration or repetition. The way of
writing adopted in fig. poses a problem as we do not know the number of times S is repeated. This
number depends upon the given positive integer. The difficulty presented above is overcome by
introducing a new way of writing iterations in algorithms. The algorithm shown in fig. is (in new ways)
then written as shown below

8
 Consider the given number

repeat

add 1 to it

Or
Consider the given number

add 1 to it
while the new number is not
prime
Two different ways of writing iteration
occuring in fig.

4. Pseudo language.

The languages used by human beings for talking and writing among themselves are called natural
languages. Expression in a natural language can be ambiguous.
Computer, being a machine, requires that there should be no ambiguity at all when we give instructions
to it. Languages used to communicate with a computer are known as programming languages.
We shall use meaningful mnemonic variable names, assignment, symbol  constructions employing If-
then-else, Repeat-until, While-Do and other constructions employing word For for writing an
algorithm. We shall also require instructions to input data in an algorithm as well as instructions to
output computed results from an algorithm. All these will constitute our language to present any
algorithm. This language will not resemble in total with any actual existing programming language but
will have desirable characteristics of a good programming language. We shall call it a pseudo-language.

9
5. Pseudo language Constructs.

(1) If-then-else construct : The general form of this construct which is used to provide selection of
actions is
If condition

then step 1

When an instruction using this type of construct is executed, condition determines which of the step 1
and step 2 is to be executed. If condition is true, step 1 is executed, otherwise (i.e., if condition is not
true) step 2 is executed.
A particular case of this construct does not have the word else. The general form of this construct is

If condition

then step

Clearly when this form is used, no action is taken when condition is false, and step is executed when
condition is true. In other words the following constructs are equivalent as they do the same thing.

If condition If condition

then step and then step

(2) Repeat until construct: The general form of this construct is

Repeat

Part of the algorithm

until condition

This construct is used when repetition of certain action is required. Note that “Part of algorithm” is
always executed at least once as the condition is tested at the end, unlike the 'while-do' construct where
the condition is tested in the beginning.

10
(3) While-do-construct: This construct is an alternative to the 'repeat-until' construct. The general form
of this construct, which is also used to provide repetition of instruction is
while condition
do T

Where T is a sequence of instructions. When this construct is executed, condition is evaluated first. If the
condition is true, the sequence T of instructions is executed and the condition is evaluated again and so
on. If the condition is false, execution of T is skipped and the execution of algorithm proceeds with the
portion that appears after T. Thus condition is tested again and again till it is false. Every execution of T
modifies some variables in the algorithm and eventually after some repetitions, the condition becomes
false. This completes the execution of the 'while-do-construct', the execution proceeds to the portion
appearing after T.

(4) For construct: When we know in advance how many times a part of the algorithm is to be executed
we use 'for construct', whose general form is
For identifier = initial value to test value by increment Do S.
The word, For, To, By and Do are reserved words for this construct. Initial value gives the starting value
that the identifier should take, when the S is executed. The value of identifier is increased by the
increment after each execution. The execution of S continues until the value of identifier exceeds the test
value.

6. Flow Charts (Presentation of Algorithm)

A graphic representation of an algorithm is called a ‘flow-chart’. A flow chart constitutes a schematic and
pictorial representation of the sequence of steps, which are to be executed in solving a problem.
A flow-chart consists of some boxes linked by arrows. In each box, some instruction to be carried out is
mentioned. Arrows on the lines connecting the boxes indicate the direction, in which we should proceed.
The boxes are of different shapes. Each particular shape is associated with a specific type of instruction
as shown in fig.

Flow-chart conventions:
While drawing a flow-chart, the following conventions are observed.
(i) The general direction of flow is from left to right and from top to bottom.
(ii) Only one flow-line should leave a process symbol.
(iii) Only one flow line should enter a decision box and atleast two lines must leave it.
11
(iv) A flow line that goes in upward direction, completes and iteration (or repetition) or a loop.

Basic operations and flow-charts:

The three basic operations are:

(1) Sequence
(2) Selection
(3) Iteration

The selection of a flow-chart corresponding to an iteration, or the Repeat-Until construct or the While-
Do construct gives rise to a cycle, usually called a loop. There are two types of loops:

(i) When an operation is repeated, a fixed number of times, whatever the value of the variables involved
may be, then the corresponding section of the flow diagrams gives rise to a fixed loop.

12
(ii) When the number of times an iteration is to be carried out depends upon the values of the variables,
then the corresponding section of the flow diagrams gives rise to variable loop. This loop is also known
as backward jump. Examples of Use

Basic
Symbols Start
Stop

Terminal

Read New Write the

Value for X value of W

Input Out Put

Symbols
This block is
This flow line can entered 15
be omitted times each
pass
if X = Y

Comment
annotation
Symbols If these appear on a flow chart 1A
1A they represent the same point

Connector

XZ+4 X=

Process

Is X
No Yes
Is
X<Y <=> X>Y

X=Y
Decision
FLOW CHART SYMBOLS

13
7. Number system.

(1) Decimal system: Number system which we use in our daily life is the decimal system. In decimal
system we use the digits namely 0, 1, 2,.......8, 9 and with the help of these 10 digits we are able to write
any rational number. The decimal system is a place-value system, meaning thereby that the value
represented by a digit depends upon the place of the digit within the numeral. The value assigned to
consecutive places in the decimal system are 10 4 ,10 3 ,...... 10 0 ,10 1 ,10 2..... (from left to right)
Example: Number 3864. 342 can be written as
3864.342 = 3 × 103 + 8 × 102 + 6 × 101 + 4 × 100 + 3 × 10–1 + 4 × 10–2 + 2 × 10–3
As ten basic symbols are used for representing the numbers, ten is called the base of the system and the
system is called base-ten system or decimal system.

(2) Binary number system: The number system for which the base is two is called the binary system. In
this system numbers are represented with the help of two basic symbols namely 0 and 1. The values
assigned to consecutive places in the system are (when expressed in the decimal system).....
2 4 , 2 3 , 2 2 , 2 1 , 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 2 .... Where 2 0 place is the unit place. The binary numeral can be converted into
the decimal numeral and vice-versa.

(3) Octal number system: As the name implies this is base eight (2 3 ) system. The numerals are written
with the help of eight basic symbols namely 0, 1, 2,......,7. The value (expressed in the decimal system)
assigned to consecutive places are ....... 8 3 , 8 2 , 8 1 , 8 0 , 8 1 , 8 2 ..... , where 8 0 place is the unit's place. The
procedures for converting a decimal numeral into an octal numeral and the other way round are similar
to the procedures discussed in connection with binary system.

(4) Hexadecimal system: As the name implies, this is the base sixteen system. The numerals are written
with the help of sixteen symbols, namely 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F. Note that the symbol A
represents ten (in decimal system). Similarly B, C, D, E, F represent respectively the numbers 11, 12, 13, 14
and 15. The value assigned to consecutive places are ........, 16 2 , 16 1 , 16 0 , 16 1..... (as expressed in decimal
system), where 16 0 place is unit's place.

14