Wind energy

POWER IN WIND
Wind has kinetic energy due to its motion. This kinetic energy can be given
by,
Where, m= mass of air passing through an area
A per unit time

If uo is the speed of free wind in unperturbed ρ =m/v

state,

the volume of air column passing through an ρv=m

area A per unit time is given by v=Auo .

If ρ is the density of air, the air mass flow rate, ρAuo=m

through area A, is given as, ρAuo .
Power (Po) available in wind, is equal to kinetic energy rate
associated with the mass of moving air,
 WIND DATA

Wind speed is measured by an anemometer and wind

direction is measured by a wind vane attached to a direction
indicator. Anemometers work on one of the following
principles.

1. The oldest and simplest anemometer is a swinging plate

hung vertically and hinged along its top edge. Wind speed is
indicated by the angle of deflection of the plate with respect
to the vertical.
2. A cup anemometer consists of three or four cups mounted symmetrically
about a vertical axis. The speed of rotation indicates wind speed.

3.Wind speed can also be recorded by measuring the wind pressure on a flat
plate.

4. A hot-wire anemometer measures the wind speed by recording cooling

effect of the wind on a hot wire. The heat is produced by passing be electric
current through the wire.

5.An anemometer can also be based on sonic effect. Sound travels through still
air at a known speed. However, if the air is moving, the speed decreases or
increases accordingly.
Fig 7.3 shows a typical anemograph of wind speed recorded at three
heights-10 m, 50 m and 150 m during strong winds.
• Wind speed increases with height.
• Wind speed is fluctuating with time, ie, turbulences are present at the site.
• The turbulence is spread over a broad range of frequencies.
• An elegant method of describing average wind speed, duration and
direction on a single graph is shown in Fig. 7.4. It is known as
wind rose.

• It depicts the compass bearing from which the wind comes (all 16
directions) along with average wind speed and duration in a year.

• The lengths of bars represent the percentage of duration. It is also

possible to present the same information by another wind rose
shown in Fig. 7.5. Here, the concentric circles represent duration in
a 100-h interval and the solid lines the wind speed contours.
• At the earth's surface, wind speed is always zero. It increases with height above the
ground.
• The wind near the earth's surface is retarded by surface roughness.
• The rate of change of wind speed with height is called wind shear.
• The lower layers of the air retard those above them, resulting in change in mean
wind speed with height, until the shear forces are reduced to zero.
• This height is called the gradient height and is typically of about 2000 m.
• Above the gradient height, known as free atmosphere, changes in wind speed are not
affected by ground conditions.
• The layer of air from ground to gradient height is known as planetary boundary layer.
The planetary boundary layer mainly consists of
(i) surface layer, which extends from the height of local obstructions
to a height of approximately 100 m, and
(ii) Ekman layer, which starts from 100 m and extends up to gradient
height as shown in Fig. 7.6.
 WIND SPEED FLUCTUATES WITH TIME
• As wind speed fluctuates with time, it is more important to know
about the Continuity of supply than the total amount of energy
available in a year.
• For electric power generation, the minimum average wind speed
required is 5 m/s.
• A site is not considered favorable for wind-power generation if
average wind speed remains less than this for prolonged periods, as
there will be no generation during these periods.
• Also no generation is possible if wind speed is very high, i.e., 25
m/s and above. The best sites are those where favourable winds
(with speeds 5-25 m/s) are available for most of the time (typically
70 to 80 per cent of the time).
• Surface wind data on a national or regional
basis is usually presented in the forms of:

(i) Isovents or contours of constant average

wind velocity (m/sec or km/hr.).
(ii) The averaging period seen in the literature
varies widely, but monthly, quarterly, and
yearly averages are commonly seen.
(iii) It is important to know what the data
averaging period is when examining a given
isovent contour map, for the winds change
seasonally.
(iv) Fig. (6.6) shows the wind map of India, in
which the mean annual wind velocity zones
are marked. It is seen that only some parts
of the country
(ii) Isodynes are contours of constant wind power (watts/m² of area perpen dicular
to the wind flow). Again it is important to know the averaging period. An example
of this map is shown in Fig. (6.7).
WIND SURVEYS. Typical wind measurements at potential sites
for wind machines usually require the following.
Instrumentation:
3 cup anemometer and wind direction sensors.
Height of instruments; 10 m (30 feet) for preliminary
data; 15 m to 45 m (50 to 150 feet) for long time data.
(2) Data recording systems:
Strip chart
Magnetic tap
(3) Type of data:

Wind speed and directional-hourly averages

SITE SELECTION CONSIDERATION FOR WECS
The power available in the wind increases rapidly with the speed,
hence wind energy conversion machines should be located preferable
in areas where the winds are strong and persistent.

Some of the main site selection consideration are given below:

1. High annual average wind speed:
2. Availability of anemometry data:
3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site:
4. Wind structure at the proposed site:
5. Altitude of the proposed site:
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic:
7. Local Ecology
8. Distance to road or railways:
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users:
10. Nature of ground:
11. Favourable land cost:

1.High annual average wind speed:

The speed generated by the wind mill depends on cubic values of

velocity of wind, the small increases in velocity markedly affect the
power in the wind.

Thus a high average wind velocity is the principle fundamental

parameter of concern in initially appraising WESCS site.
2. Availability of anemometry data:
It is another improvement sitting factor. The aenometry data should be
available over some time period at the precise spot where any proposed WECS
is to be built and that this should be accomplished before a sitting decision is
made.

3. Availability of wind V(t) Curve at the proposed site:

This important curve determines the maximum energy in the wind and hence is
the principal initially controlling factor in predicting the electrical output and
hence revenue return of the WECS machines.
It is desirable to have average wind speed ‘V’ such that V>=12-16 km/hr (3.5 –
4.5 m/sec) which is about the lower limit at which present large scale WECS
generators ‘cut in’ i.e., start turning. The V(t) Curve also determines the
reliability of the delivered WECS generator power, for if the V(t) curve goes to
zero there be no generated power during that time.
4.Wind structure at the proposed site:
The ideal case for the WECS would be a site such that the V(t) Curve was
flat, i.e., a smooth steady wind that blows all the time; but a typical site is always
less than ideal. Wind specially near the ground is turbulent and gusty, and changes
rapidly in direction and in velocity. This departure from homogeneous flow is
collectively referred to as “the structure of the wind”.

5. Altitude of the proposed site:

It affects the air density and thus the power in the wind and hence the useful
WECS electric power output. Also, as is well known, the wind tend to have higher
velocities at higher altitudes. One must be carefully to distinguish altitude from
height above ground. They are not the same except for a sea level WECS site.
6. Terrain and its aerodynamic:
It may be possible to make use of hills or mountains which channel the prevailing
wind into a pass region, thereby obtaining higher wind power.
7. Local Ecology
If the surface is base rock it may mean lower hub height hence lower structure cost. If
trees or grass or vegetation are present, all of which tend to destructure the wind, the higher hub
heights will be needed resulting in larges system costs that the bare ground case.
8. Distance to road or railways:
This is another factor the system engineer must consider for heavy machinery, structure,
materials, blades and other apparatus will have to be moved into any choosen WECS site.
9. Nearness of site to local centre/users:
This obvious criterion minimizes transmission line length and hence losses and cost.
After applying all the previous string criteria, hopefully as one narrows the proposed WECS
sites to one or two they would be relatively near to the user of the generated electric energy.
10. Nature of ground:
Ground condition should be such that the foundation for a WECS are secured. Ground
surface should be stable. Erosion problem should not be there, as it could possibly later wash
out the foundation of a WECS, destroying the whole system.
11. Favourable land cost:
Land cost should be favourable as this along with other siting costs, enters into the total
WECS system cost.
Basic Components of a WECS (Wind Energy Conversion System)
The main components of a WEGS are shown in Fig. (6.12), in block
diagram form. Summary of the system operation is as follows:

Aeroturbines convert energy in moving air to rotary mechanical energy. In

general, they require pitch control and yaw control (only in the case of horizontal
or wind axis machines) for proper operation.

A mechanical interface consisting of a step up gear and a suitable coupling

transmits the rotary mechanical energy to an electrical generator.

The output of this generator is connected to the load or power grid as the
application warrants.
Yaw control
For localities with the prevailing wind in one direction, the design of a
turbine can be greatly simplified. The rotor can be in a fixed orientation
• In the small turbines, yaw action is controlled by a tail vane,
similar to that in a typical pumping windmill.

• In larger machines, a servomechanism operated by a wind-

direction sensor controls the yaw motor that keeps the turbine
properly oriented.

• The purpose of the controller is to sense wind speed, wind

direction, shafts speeds and torques at one or more points, output
power and generator temperature as necessary and appropriate
control signals for matching the electrical output to the wind energy
input and protect the system from extreme conditions brought upon
by strong winds electrical faults, and the like.
Rotors: Rotors are mainly of two
types:
• Horizontal axis rotor and
• Vertical axis rotor.
• One advantage of vertical axis
machines is that they operate
in all wind directions and thus
need no yaw adjustment.
• The rotor is only one of the
important components.
• For an effective utilization, all
the components need to he
properly designed and
matched with the rest of the
components.
• The windmill Head supports
the rotor, housing the rotor
bearings.
• It also houses any control
mechanism incorporated like
changing the pitch of the
blades for safety devices and
tail vane to orient the rotor to
face the wind.
• The latter is facilitated by
mounting it on the top of the
supporting structure on
suitable bearings
Transmissions:
The rate of rotation of large
wind turbine generatory operating
at rated capacity or below, is
conveniently controlled by varying
the pitch of the roter blades, but it
is low, about 40 to 50 revolutions
per minute rpm) Because optimum
generator output requires much
greater rates of relation, such as
1800 rpm, it is necessary to
increase greatly the low rotor rate
of turning
Generator:
Either constant or variable speed generators are a possibility, but
variable speed units are expensive and/or unproved.

• Among the constant speed generator candidates for use are

synchronous induction and permanent magnet types.

• The generator of choice is the synchronous unit for large

aerogenerator systems because it is very versatile and has an
extensive data base.

• Other electrical components and systems are, however, under

development.
Controls:
The modern large wind turbine generator requires a versatile and
reliable control system to perform the following functions:
(1) the orientation of the rotor into the wind (azimuth of yaw);

(2) start up and cut-in of the equipment.

(3) power control of the rotor by varying the pitch of the blades.

(4) generator output monitoring-status, data computation, and storage.

(5) shutdown and cut out owing to malfunction or very high winds.

(6) protection for the generator, the utility accepting the power and the prime
mover.
(1)sensor-mechanical, electrical, or pneumatic

(2)decision elements-relays, logic modules, analog circuits, a

microprocessor, a fluidics, units, or a mechanical unit; and

(3)actuators-hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic.

A recommended combination of electronic transducers

feeding into a micro-processor which, in turn, signals electrical
actuators and provides protection through electronic circuits,
although a pneumatic slip clutch may be required.
Towers:
Four types of supporting towers deserve
consideration, these are
(1) the reinforced concrete tower,
(2) the pole tower,
(3) the built up shell-tube tower, and
(4) the truss tower.
CLASSIFICATION OF WECS
(1) Based on axis
(a) Horizontal axis machines
(b) Vertical axis machines
(2) According to size
(a) Small size machines (upto 2k W)
(b) Medium size machines (2 to 100k W)
(c) Large size machines (100k W and above)
(a) Single generator at single site
(b) Multiple generators
(3) Types of output
(a) DC output
i. DC generator
ii. Alternator rectifier
(b) AC output
i. Variable frequency, variable or constant voltage AC.
ii. Constant frequency, variable or constant voltage AC
(4) According to the rotational speed of the area turbines
(1) Constant speed and variable pitch blades
(2) Nearly constant speed with fixed pitch blades
(3) Variable speed with fixed pitch blades
(a) Field modulated system
(b) Double output indication generator
(c) AC-DC-AC link
(d) AC commentator generator
Variable speed constant frequency generating system.

(5) As per utilization of output

(a) Battery storage
(b) Direct conversion to an electro magnetic energy converter
(c) Thermal potential
(d) Inter convention with conventional electric utility guides
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
(HAWT) :
HAWTs have emerged as
the most successful type of
turbines.
• These are being used for
commercial energy generation
in many parts of the world.
• Their theoretical basis is well
researched and sufficient field
experience is available with
them.
Main Components The constructional details of most
common, three-blade rotor, horizontal axis wind turbine
are shown in Fig. Main parts are as follows:
Turbine Blades :
• Turbine blades are made of high-density wood
or glass fiber and epoxy composites. They have
airfoil type cross-section. The blades are slightly
twisted from the outer tip to the root to reduce the
tendency to stall.
• In addition to centrifugal force and fatigue due
to continuous vibrations there are many
extraneous forces arising from wind turbulence,
gust, gravitational forces and directional changes
in the wind, etc. All these factors are to be taken
care off at the designing stage. Diameter of a
typical, MW range, modern rotor may be of the
order of 100 m.
• Modern wind turbines have two or three blades.
Two/three blade rotor HAWT are also known as
propeller type wind turbines owing to their
similarity with propellers of old aero planes.
However, the rotor rpm in case of wind turbine is
very low as compared to that for propellers.

(b) Hub :
The central solid portion of the rotor wheel
is known as hub. All blades ate attached to the hub.
Mechanism for pitch angle control is also provided
inside the hub.
(c) Nacelle :
• The term nacelle is derived from the name for
housing containing the engines of an aircraft.

• The rotor is attached to nacelle, mounted at the

top of a tower. It contains rotor brakes, gearbox,
generator and electrical switchgear and control.

• Brakes are used to stop the rotor when power

generation is not desired. Gearbox steps up the
shaft rpm to suit the generator. Protection and
control functions are provided by switchgear
and control block. The generated electrical
power is conducted to ground terminals through
a cable.
(d) Yaw Control Mechanism The mechanism to adjust
the nacelle around vertical axis to keep it facing the wind
is provided at the base of nacelle.

(e) Tower:
• Tower supports nacelle and rotor. For medium and
large sized turbines, the tower is slightly taller than
the rotor diameter. In case of small sized turbine, the
tower is much larger than the rotor diameter as the air
is erratic at lower heights.
• Both steel and concrete towers are being used. The
construction can be either tubular or lattice type.

• The tower vibrations and resulting fatigue cycles

under wind speed fluctuations are avoided by careful
design. This requires avoidance of all resonance
frequencies of tower, the rotor and the nacelle from
the wind fluctuation frequencies.
Types of Rotors:

Depending on the number of blades, wind speed and nature of

applications, rotors have been developed in various types of shapes and sizes.
These are shown in Fig.2.2.

The types of rotors shown in (a) to (e) are relatively high-speed ones, suitable for
applications such as electrical power generation.

Large HAWTs have been manufactured with two and three blades.

A single-blade rotor, with a balancing counterweight is economical, has simple

controls but it is noisier and produces unbalanced forces. It is used for low-power
applications.
 Teetering of Rotor
As wind speed rises with height, the axial force on blade when it
attains the upper position is significantly higher as compared to
that when it is at lower position. For one and two blade rotors
this causes cyclic (sinusoidal) load on a rigid hub leading to
fatigue.
This is greatly relieved by providing a teeter hinge (a
pivot within the hub) that allows a see-saw motion to take
place out of the plane of rotation (i.e. vertical plane).
The rotor leans backwards to accommodate the extra
force as shown in Fig.

This also reduces blade loads near the root by approximately 40 per
cent. The use of third blade has approximately same effect as a
teeter hinge on the hub moments since the polar symmetry of the
rotor averages out the applied sinusoidal loads. Therefore, teetering
is not required when the number of blades is three or more. Figure 2.3. A teetered hub
Upwind and Downwind Machines

In upwind machine, rotor is located upwind (in front) of the tower whereas in downwind
machine, the rotor is located downwind of (behind) the tower as shown in Fig.2.4 Both
types have certain benefits. Downwind machine allows the use of free yaw system (in low
rating machines). It also allows the blades to deflect away from the tower when loaded.
However, it suffers from wind shadow effects of the tower on the blades as they pass through
tower‘s wake, in a region of separated flow.
 For a high solidity tower with limited rotor overhang, the wind speed might be effectively
reduced to zero causing severe impulsive load of periodic nature.

This may be very dangerous as it may excite any natural mode of the systems if that lies
near a rotor Upwind machine on the other hand produces higher power as it eliminates the
tower shadow on the blades. This also results in lower noise, low blade fatigue and
smoother power output.
Yaw Control System:
Adjusting the nacelle about vertical axis to bring the rotor facing the
wind is known as yaw control.

• The yaw control system continuously orients the rotor in the direction of
wind. For localities with prevailing wind in one direction only, the rotor can
be in a fixed orientation.

• Such a machine is said to be yaw fixed. Most wind turbines however, are
yaw active.

• In small wind turbines, a tail vane is used for passive yaw control.

• In large turbines however, an active yaw control with power steering and
wind direction sensor is used to maintain the orientation.
Pitch Control System
• Pitch of a blade is controlled by rotating it from its root, where it is
connected to the hub as shown in Fig. 2.5 Pitch control mechanism is
provided through the hub using hydraulic jack in the nacelle.
• The control system continuously adjusts the pitch to obtain optimal
performance.
• In modern machines, pitch control is incorporated by controlling only
outer 20 per cent length of the blade (i.e. tip), keeping remaining part of
the blade as fixed.
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)
Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

VAWTs are in the development stage and many models are

undergoing field trial. Main attractions of a VAWT are:
(i) it can accept wind from any direction, eliminating the need
of yaw control.
(ii) gearbox, generator etc. are located at the ground, thus
eliminating the heavy nacelle at the top of the tower. This
simplifies the design and installation of the whole structure,
including tower
(iii) the inspection and maintenance also gets easier and
(iv) it also reduces the overall cost
Main Components
The constructional details of a vertical axis wind turbine (Darrieus
type rotor) are shown in fig. The details of main components are as
follows,

(a) Tower (or Rotor Shaft)

The tower is a hollow vertical rotor shaft, which rotates freely about
vertical axis between top and bottom bearings. It is installed above a
support structure. In the absence of any load at the top, a very strong
tower is not required, which greatly simplifies its design. The upper
part of the tower is supported by guy ropes. The height of the tower
of a large turbine is around 100 m.
(b) Blades
It has two or three thin, curved blades shaped like an eggbeater in
profile, with blades curved in a form that minimizes the bending stress
caused by centrifugal forces-the so-called ‘Troposkien’ profile.

The blades have airfoil cross section with constant chord length.

The pitch of the blades cannot be changed.

The diameter of the rotor is slightly less than the tower height.

The first large (3.8 MW), Darrieus type, Canadian machine has rotor
height as 94 m and diameter as 65 m with a chord of 2.4 m.
Types of Rotors
• The simplest being three or four cups structure attached
symmetrically to a vertical shaft.
• Drag force on concave surface of the cup facing the wind is
more than that on convex surface.
• As a result, the structure starts rotating. Some lift force also
helps rotation. However, it cannot carry a load and is,
therefore, not used as power source.
• Main characteristic of this rotor is that its rotational
frequency is linearly related to wind speed.

• Therefore, it is used as a transducer for measuring the wind

speed and the apparatus is known as cup anemometer.
The Savonius or S-rotor
consists of two half cylinders attached to a vertical axis
and facing in opposite directions to form a two-vaned
rotor. It has high starting torque, low speed and low
efficiency.
It can extract power even from very slow wind, making
it working most of the time.

These are used for low power applications. High

starting torque particularly makes it suitable for
pumping applications, using positive displacement
pumps.
is used for large-scale power generation. Power coefficient is considerably
better than S-rotor. It runs at a large tip-speed ratio.

The aerodynamic force on the blade reverses in every revolution causing

fatigue. This along with centrifugal force complicates the design of the
blade.
One of the drawbacks of this rotor is that it is usually not self-starting.
Movement may be initiated by using electrical generator as motor.

Hence at high wind speed it becomes difficult to control the output.

For better performance and safety of the blades, gearbox and
generator, etc., it is desirable to limit the output to a level much below
its maximum possible value.
Musgrove suggested H shaped rotor
• where blades with fixed pitch are attached vertically to a horizontal cross arm.
• Power control is achieved by controlled folding of blades. Inclining the
blades to the vertical provides an effective means of altering the blades angle
of attack and hence controlling the power output.
• Evans rotor, also known as Gyromill is an improvement over H shaped rotor.

• Here, the rotor geometry remains fixed (blades remain straight), but the
blades are hinged on a vertical axis and the blade pitch is varied cyclically (as
the blade rotates about vertical axis) to regulate the power output.
• But the need to vary the pitch cyclically through every rotor revolution
introduces considerable mechanical complexity. However, this enables it to
self-start.
ANALYSIS OF AERODYNAMIC FORCES
ACTING ON THE BLADE
Aerodynamic forces acting on
a blade element tending to
make it rotate
Consider the aerodynamic
blade shown in fig.,5.12. The
blade can be through of as a
typical cross-sectional element
of a two-bladed aero turbine .
The element shown is at
some radius ‘r’ from the axis
of rotation.
It is moving to the left. Because the blade is moving in the plane of rotation
it sees a tangential wind velocity, VT, in the plane of rotation
This component added vectorially to the impinging wind velocity gives the
resulting wind velocity, VR, seen by the rotating balde element.
At right angles to VR, is the lift force FL, caused by the aerodynamic shape of
the blade.

The drag force, FD is parallel to VR. The vector sum of FL and FD is FR which
has a torque producing component, FT and a thrust producing component.

As is well known from

aircraft wind theory, one of
the critical parameters is ’α’
the angle of attack of the
aerodynamic element, It
determines lift and drag
forces and hence speed and
torque output of the
aeroturbine.
This quantities can be varied by changing the blade pitch angle ‘β’, and this is
the basis torque control method used on large variable pitch wind-electric
generators.

The torque whould determine the AC output power if a synchronous generator

was used.
VT, increases linearly as we go out radically, ‘r’, on an inclined aeroturbine
blade, it is necessary to adjust ‘β’ with ‘r’ so as to always have a positive
angle of attack and to maintain reasonable stress levels within the blade.

This mean that at large ‘r’, ‘β’ is made small while at small ‘r’, ’β’ is large.
Thus the blade ‘bites’ the air more in close than near the tips.
These the considerations result in an aeroturbine blade with an apparent twist
in it. The need for twisting wind mills sails was recognised hundreds of years
ago and widely used on Dutch wind mill.