Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES SUR POLYTECHNIC COLLEGES

Nabua, Camarines Sur

PRECIPITATION

ERLY OCCIANO-CELIZ, RCE

 PRECIPITATION
PRECIPITATION is any form of liquid or solid water particles that
fall from the atmosphere and reach the surface of the earth.
Precipitation is the basic input to the hydrology.

It is caused when the mass of warm

and moist air hits a group of cold air,
forming droplets that become rain or
crystals, and as they become heavy to
be suspended in the atmosphere, they
fall to Earth as PRECIPITATION.
FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
 RAIN
 Rain is the most common type of precipitation
in our atmosphere. Rain is when liquid droplets
fall to the surface of the Earth.
 The term rainfall is used to describe
precipitations in the form of water drops of
sizes larger than 0.5 𝑚𝑚. The maximum size of
raindrop is about 6 𝑚𝑚. Any drop larger in size
than this tends to break up into drops of smaller 𝑳𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒏
sizes during its fall from the clouds. 𝑰 < 𝟐. 𝟓𝒎𝒎/𝒉𝒓
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑰 = 𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝟕. 𝟔𝒎𝒎/𝒉𝒓
𝑯𝒆𝒂𝒗𝒚 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑰 > 𝟕. 𝟔 𝒎𝒎/𝒉𝒓
 DRIZZLE
 A fine sprinkle of numerous water droplets of size less than 0.5 𝑚𝑚 and
intensity less than 1 𝑚𝑚/ℎ is known as drizzle. In this, the drops are so
small that they appear to float in air.
HAIL
Hail is created when moisture and wind are together. Inside the cumulonimbus
clouds ice crystals form, and begin to fall towards the surface of Earth. When this
starts to happen wind gusts start to pick up the ice crystals pushing them up high
into the clouds. As they start to fall down again they continue to grow in size. A
wind gust might catch the hail stone again which will push it back up into the
cloud. This whole process gets repeated several times before the hail stone
becomes so big that it is too heavy for the wind to carry so it must fall towards
Earth.
𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒑𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒍 𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔
1. 𝑺𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
2. 𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍
3. 𝑰𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓

𝑫𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝟓 𝒕𝒐 𝟏𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒎

𝐠 𝐠
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟓 𝐭𝐨 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐
𝒄𝒎𝟑 𝒄𝒎𝟑
 SNOW
▪ Snow is the second most common precipitation.
▪ Snow forms when water vapor turns directly into ice without ever
passing through a liquid state. This happens as water condenses
around an ice crystal.

𝑫𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒉𝒍𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒆𝒏 𝒔𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒔

𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝟏𝟐𝟓 − 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅
𝒕𝒐 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒍𝒊𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒅 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓

𝑺𝒏𝒐𝒘 𝒉𝒂𝒔 𝒂𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒚𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎

𝒈
𝟎. 𝟎𝟔 𝒕𝒐 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒕 𝒖𝒔𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒏
𝒄𝒎𝟑
𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑
SLEET
 Sleet consists of transparent, globular, solid grains of ice formed by
the freezing of raindrops or freezing of largely melted ice crystals
falling through a layer of sub freezing air near the earth’s surface.
GLAZE
▪ Glaze is the ice coating, generally clear and smooth, formed on
exposed surfaces by the freezing of super cooled water deposited
by rain or drizzle.

Specific gravity may be as high as 0.8-0.9

NECESSARY MECHANISM TO FORM PRECIPITATION

1. Lifting of Moist Air Mass

2. Formation of cloud elements

(Droplets/Ice crystals)

3. Growth of cloud elements

4. Sufficient accumulation of cloud elements

1.) Lifting of Moist Air Masses

Lifting mechanism gives the three main types of Precipitation.

 Cyclonic Precipitation (Frontal /non Frontal)

 Convective Precipitation

 Orographic Precipitation
Cyclonic Precipitation
(Frontal/Non frontal)
Frontal precipitation results when the leading edge( front) of a warm air mass
meets a cool air mass. The warmer air mass is forced up over the cool air. As it
rises the warm air cools, moisture in the air condenses, clouds and
precipitation result.
Convective Precipitation
Convectional precipitation results from the heating of the
earth's surface that causes air to rise rapidly. As the air rises, it
cools and moisture condenses into clouds and precipitation
Orographic Precipitation
It results when warm moist air of the ocean is forced to rise by large
mountains. As the air rises it cools, moisture in the air condenses and clouds
and precipitation result on the windward side of the mountain while the
leeward side receives very little.
2.) Formation of cloud elements
(Droplets/Ice crystals)

▪ For droplets, hygroscopic nuclei, small particles (0.1 −

10µ𝑚) having affinity for water must be available in upper
troposphere.
▪ For ice crystals, Freezing Nuclei are required

▪ Source of condensation nuclei are particles of sea salts,

products of sulphurous and nitric acid
▪ Source of freezing nuclei are clay minerals, usually kaolin,
silver iodide etc
3.) Growth of cloud elements
For occurrence of precipitation over an area it is necessary that cloud
elements must be grown in size to over come
Coalescence of cloud droplets
Cloud droplets are usually smaller than 50µm in diameter, due to different
diameters of droplets they fall with varying fall velocities. As the bigger cloud elements
are heavier , having more fall velocity, hence they collide with smaller droplets. Smaller
droplets join the bigger droplets and in this way the size of cloud droplets increases.

Co-existence of cloud droplets & ice crystals

If in a layer of clouds there is mixture of water droplets and ice crystals. As the
saturation vapour pressure over ice is lesser than over water. As a result of this
difference , there results evaporation of water drops and condensation of much of this
water on ice crystals. Causing their growth and ultimate fall through clouds. The ice
crystals will further grow as they fall and collide with water drops.
4.) Sufficient accumulation of cloud elements

For the occurrence of precipitation over an area

necessary conditions are :

▪ Cloud elements must increase in size until their falling speeds exceed
the ascending rate of air

▪ Cloud elements should be large enough in size not to get evaporated

completely before reaching the ground
 MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION

1. Amount of precipitation

2. Intensity of precipitation

3. Duration of precipitation

4. Arial extent of precipitation

 MEASUREMENT METHODS

Measurement of precipitation (Rain and Snow) can be done by various

devices. These measuring devices and techniques are;

 Rain Gauges
 Snow Gauges
Scratching of snow packs
Water equivalent in snow packs
 Radars
Satellites
 RAIN GAUGES
A rain gauge (also known as a udometer or a pluviometer [Pluviograph ] or a cup) is a type of
instrument used by meteorologists and hydrologists to gather and measure the amount of
liquid precipitation (as opposed to solid precipitation that is measured by a snow gauge) over a
set period of time.

Most rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimeters. The level of rainfall is
sometimes reported as inches or centimeters.

Rain gauge amounts are read either manually or by AWS (Automatic Weather Station). The
frequency of readings will depend on the requirements of the collection agency. Some countries
will supplement the paid weather observer with a network of volunteers to obtain precipitation
data (and other types of weather) for sparsely populated areas.

Rain gauges, like most meteorological instruments, should be placed far enough away from
structures and trees to ensure that any effects caused are minimised.
Types of rain gauges

There are two main types of rain gages which are used to
measure the precipitation. These are;

 Non recording rain gauges

 Recording rain gauges

Non recording rain gauges
The nonrecording gauge extensively used
in Iraq, Egypt and India is the Symons’
gauge. It essential consists of a circular
collecting area of 12.5 cm (5.0 inch)
diameter connected to a funnel. The rim
of the collector is set in a horizontal plane
at a height of 30 cm above the ground
level. The funnel discharges the rainfall
catch into a receiving vessel. The funnel
and receiving vessel are housed in a
metallic container. Water contained in the
receiving vessel is measured by a suitably
graduated measuring glass, with an
accuracy up to 0.1 mm.
Recording rain gauges
These rain gauges are also called integrating rain gauges since
they record cumulative rainfall. In addition to the total
amount of rainfall at a station, it gives the times of onset and
cessation of rains (thereby gives the duration of rainfall
events)

There are three main types of recording rain gauges

1. Tipping bucket type rain gauges

2. Weighing type rain gauges
3. Float type rain gauges
1. Tipping bucket gauges

A tipping bucket rain gauge is used for measurement of

rainfall. It measures the rainfall with a least count of 1 mm and
gives out one electrical pulse for every millimeter of rainfall
2. Weighing type gauges
It consists of a storage bin, which is weighed to record the mass. It weighs
rain or snow which falls into a bucket, set on a platform with a spring or
lever balance. The increasing weight of the bucket and its contents are
recorded on a chart. The record shows accumulation of precipitation.
 3. Float recording gauges
This type of recording raingauge is also known as
Natural-Syphon type gauge. Here the rainfall
collected by a funnel-shaped collector is led into a
float chamber causing a float to rise. As the float
rises, a pen attached to the float through a lever
system records the elevation of the float on a
rotating drum driven by a clockwork mechanism. A
syphon arrangement empties the float chamber
when the float has reached a pre-set maximum level.
 ERRORS IN PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT BY
RAIN GAUGES
 Instrumental errors
 Errors in scale reading
 Dent in receivers
 Dent in measuring cylinders
 About 0.25mm of water is initially required to wet the surface of gauge
 Rain gauges splash from collector
 Frictional effects
 Non verticality of measuring cylinders (10° inclination gives 1.5% less
precipitation)
 Loss of water by evaporation
 Leakage in measuring cylinder
 Wind speed reduces measured amount of rain in the rain gauges.
 MEASUREMENT OF SNOW
In case of snow fall following two properties of more interest
are measured.

1. Depth of Snowfall

2. Water Equivalent of Snow

1. Depth of Snowfall
 On a paved surface with snow over it, scratching that
snow layer with some scrapper helps to measure the
depth of snow fall with a tape. Visual observation and
with help of measuring tape helps to measure the
depth of snow

 𝑆𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑠 are permanent graduated posts used to

measure the total depth of accumulated snow at a
place.

 𝑆𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 are 40 𝑐𝑚 square boards used to collect

snow samples. These boards are placed horizontally on
a previous accumulation of snow and after a snowfall
event, the snow samples are cut off from the board and
depth of snow is recorded.
2. Water Equivalent of Snow
Snow Water Equivalent (SWE) is a common snow pack measurement. It is
the amount of water contained within the snow pack. It can be thought of
as the depth of water that would theoretically result if you melted the
entire snow pack instantaneously.

The density of snow, however, varies quite considerably. Freshly fallen

snow may have a density in a range of 0.07 𝑡𝑜 0.15 with an average value
of about 0.10. the accumulated snow, however, causes compaction and in
regions of high accumulation, densities as high as 0.4 𝑡𝑜 0.6 is uncommon.
Where specific data is not available, it is usual to assume the density of the
fresh snow as 0.10.
Water equivalent of snow is obtained in two ways:
a) Snow Gauge
Like rain gauges, snow gauges are
receptacles to catch precipitation as it falls
in a specified sampling area. Here, a large
cylindrical receiver, 203 𝑚𝑚 in diameter, is
used to collect the snow as it falls. The
height of the cylinder depends upon the
snow storage needed at the spot as a
consequence of accessibility, and may
range from 60 𝑐𝑚 to several meters.
b) Snow Tubes
Water equivalent of accumulated snow is measured by
means of snow tubes which are essentially a set of telescopic
metal tubes. While a tube size of 40 𝑚𝑚 diameter is in normal
use, higher size up to 90 𝑚𝑚 diameter are also is use. The
main tube is provided with a cutter edge for easy penetration
as well as to enable extracting of core sample. Additional
lengths of tube can be attached to the main tube depending
upon the depth of snow.
Measurement of Water Equivalent of Snow

The equivalent amount of water in a snow pack can be measured by

1. By Heating
The equivalent amount in mm of water can be obtained by heating
the cylinder. it will melt the snow and the depth of the liquid water can be
measured with a measuring stick but this approach is adjustable because
some water may get evaporated during the heating.
2. By Weighing
Weight is measured either by weighing type rain gauges or by using
a snow gauge
𝑾 = 𝑾𝟏 − 𝑾𝟐
Where:
𝑊1 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑤 + 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑊2 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
𝑊 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑤

By using weight volume relationship

𝚪 = 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕/ 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝚪 = 𝑾/ 𝑨. 𝒉
𝒉 = 𝑾/𝑨 𝚪
Where:
ℎ = 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑤.
c.) By scratching snow packs

A measured amount of hot water is added into the

cylinder which will melt the snow. Now measure the total
depth of water in the cylinder “h1”

𝒉 = 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒:
ℎ2 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
ℎ = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
 RADAR MEASUREMENTS
A weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its
motion, estimate its type (rain, snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position
and intensity. Weather radars are mostly Doppler radars, capable of detecting
the motion of rain droplets in addition to intensity of the precipitation. Both
types of data can be analyzed to determine the structure of storms and their
potential to cause severe weather.
Satellite Measurements
A weather satellite is a type of
satellite that is primarily used to
monitor the weather and climate
of the Earth. These meteorological
satellites, however, see more than
clouds and cloud systems, like
other types of environmental
information collected using
weather satellites.
 43
Satellite Measurements
Radiative Transfer

Radiation changes through the atmosphere by the effect of absorption (emission) and
scattering
 RAINGAUGE NETWORK DENSITY
Since the catching area of a raingauge is very small compared to the areal extent of a
storm, it is obvious that to get a representative picture of a storm over a catchment,
the number of raingauges should be as large as possible.

World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) recommends the following densities:

• In flat region of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones
Ideal – 1 station for 600 − 900 𝑘𝑚2
Acceptable – 1 station for 900 − 3000 𝑘𝑚2
• In mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones
Ideal – 1 station for 100 − 250 𝑘𝑚2
Acceptable – 1 station for 25 − 1000 𝑘𝑚2
• In arid and polar zones: 1 station for 1500 − 10,000 𝑘𝑚2 depending on the
feasibility

Ten percent of raingauge station should be equipped with self-recording gauges to

know the intensities of rainfall.
 Adequacy of Raingauge Stations
If there are already some raingauge stations in a catchment, the 𝒐𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
that should exist to have an assigned percentage of error in the estimation of mean rainfall is
obtained by statistical analysis as:
𝑁 = 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
∈= 𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐶𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 (𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡)

If there are m stations in the catchment, each recording rainfall 𝑃1 , 𝑃2 … . 𝑃𝑚 , in a known time, the
𝒄𝒐𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑪𝒗 is calculated as:

𝐼𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝜎𝑚−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒅𝒆𝒗𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏:

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃 = 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

In calculating N, it is usual to take ∈= 10% . It is seen that if the value of ∈ is small, the number of
raingauge stations will be more. According to WMO recommendations, at least 10% of the total
raingauges should be of self-recording type.
Sample Problem
Example 1:
A catchment has six raingauge stations. In a year, the annual rainfall recorded by the gauges are as follows:

For a 10% error in the estimation of the mean rainfall, calculate the optimum number of stations in the
catchment.

Given:
𝑚 = 6 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
∈= 10%

Required:
𝑁 = 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Solution:
Solve for mean precipitation:
𝑚
𝑖 𝑃𝑖 82.6+102.9+180.3+110.3+98.8+136.7
𝑃= = = 𝟏𝟏𝟖. 𝟔 𝒄𝒎
𝑚 6
Sample Problem Solve for mean precipitation:
𝑚
Solution: − 𝑃)2
𝑖 (𝑃𝑖
𝜎𝑚−1 =
Determine the standard deviation: 𝑚−1
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃)2
6181.48
A 82.6 1339.6 𝜎𝑚−1 =
6−1
B 102.9 246.49 𝝈𝒎−𝟏 = 𝟑𝟓. 𝟏𝟔𝟏 𝒄𝒎

C 180.3 3806.89 Solve for coefficient of variation and optimal number of stations:
𝜎𝑚−1
D 110.3 68.89 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑥 100
𝑃
35.161
E 98.8 392.04 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑥 100
118.6
𝐶𝑣 = 29.647
F 136.7 327.61
2
Sum 6181.48 𝐶𝑣
𝑁=
∈
2
29.647
𝑁=
10
𝑁 = 8.79 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝟗 𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
 PREPARATION OF DATA
Estimation of Missing Data
Given the annual precipitation values P1, P2, P3, ... Pm at neighbouring M stations 1,2, 3, …. m
respectively, it is required to find the missing annual precipitation Px at a station X not included
in the above m stations. Further, the normal annual precipitations N1, N2, ……N at each of the
above (m + 1) stations even station X are known.

If the normal annual precipitations at various stations are within about 10% of the normal annual
precipitation at station X , then the 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 is used to estimate Px , if each
𝑁𝑖 −𝑁𝑥
magnitude is less than 0.1 for 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3, … 𝑚
𝑁𝑥

If the normal precipitations vary considerably, then Px is estimated by weighing the precipitation
at the various stations by the ratios of normal annual precipitations. This method , known as the
𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 𝒐𝒓 𝑲𝒐𝒉𝒍𝒆𝒓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅, and gives Px as;
Sample Problem
Example 2:
The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C, and D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28 and 92.01 cm
respectively. In the year 2000, the station D was inoperative, and the stations A, B and C recorded annual
precipitations of 91.11, 72.23 and 79.89 cm respectively. Estimate the rainfall at station D in that year.
Given:
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑐𝑚) 2000 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑐𝑚)
Required:
A 80.97 91.11 𝑃𝐷 = 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐷

B 67.59 72.23

C 76.28 79.89

D 92.01
Solution:
As the normal rainfall values vary more than 10%, the normal ratio method is:
𝑁𝐷 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐶
𝑃𝐷 = + +
𝑀 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐶
92.01 91.11 72.23 79.89
𝑃𝐷 = + + = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟒𝟏 𝒄𝒎
3 80.97 67.59 76.28
 TEST OF CONSISTENCY OF RECORDS
Some of the common causes for inconsistency of record are :
(i) shifting of a raingauge station to a new location,
(ii) the neighbourhood of the station undergoing a marked change,
(iii) change in the ecosystem due to calamities, such as forest fires, landslides,
(iv) occurrence of observational error from a certain date.

The checking for inconsistency of a record is done by the 𝒅𝒐𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒆 −

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 technique.
The precipitation values at station X beyond the period of change of regime is
corrected by using the relation:

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃𝑐𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑡1 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥

𝑃𝑥 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑡1 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥
𝑀𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒
𝑀𝑎 = 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 − 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒.
TEST OF CONSISTENCY OF RECORDS

𝑫𝒐𝒖𝒃𝒍𝒆 − 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆

Sample Problem
Example 3:
Annual rainfall data for station M as well as the average annual rainfall values for a
group of eight neighbouring stations located in a meteorologically homogeneous
region are given below.

1) In what year is the change in records of station M pointed out?

2) Adjust the records and calculate the new mean annual precipitation of station M.
Solution:
 PRESENTATION OF RAINFALL DATA
A few commonly used methods of presentation of rainfall data which have been found
to be useful in interpretation and analysis of such data are given as follows:
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑹𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒇𝒂𝒍𝒍
The mass curve of rainfall is a plot of
the accumulated precipitation
against time, plotted in
chronological order (i.e., sorted by
time). Records of float type and
weighing bucket type gauges are of
this form.
Mass curve is very useful to know
the information on the duration ,
magnitude of a storm, and
intensities at various time intervals
in a storm that can be obtained by
the slope of the curve.
𝑯𝒚𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒑𝒉
A hyetograph is a plot of the intensity of rainfall against the time interval. The hyetograph is
derived from the mass curve and is usually represented as a bar chart. It is a very important in
the development of design storms to predict extreme floods. Area under the hyetograph
represents the total precipitation received in the period.

The time interval used

depends on the purpose, in
urban-drainage problems
small durations are used,
while in flood-flow
computations in larger
catchments, the intervals are
about 6h.
 MEAN PRECIPITATION OVER AN AREA
The raingauges represent only point sampling of the areal distribution of a
storm. In practice, however, hydrological analysis requires knowledge of
the rainfall over a catchment. To convert the point rainfall values at
various stations into an average value over a catchment the following
three methods are in use:

(i) Arithmetical-mean method,

(ii) Thiessen-polygon method, and
(iii) Isohyetal method
Arithmetic Mean Method
This is the simplest method of computing the average rainfall over a basin. This
assigns actual weight to all stations and the result is obtained by dividing the sum
of the rain depths recorded at different stations of the basin by the no. of stations.

In practice, this method is used very rarely.

Where:
Theissen Mean Method

• This is the weighted mean, and the rainfall recorded

by each rain gauge station should be weighted
according to the area it represents.

• The rainfall is never uniform over the entire area of

the basin, but varies in intensity and duration.
Theissen Mean Method

For the construction of the Polygon of the area, the

following procedure is to be followed:

1.) Draw the area concerned to a suitable scale,

showing its boundary, locations of the rain gauges in
the area and outside but closed to the boundary.

2.) Join location of the rain gauges to form a network

of triangles.
3.) Draw perpendicular bisector to the triangle sides.
These bisectors form polygons around the station

4.) Delineate the formed polygons and measure their

areas by converting them into smaller regular
geometric shapes
5.) Compute the Average rainfall using the following
formula:
Thiessen polygons method is superior to the arithmetic-mean
method. The raingauge stations outside the catchment are also used
effectively, and its weightage factors are considered, whereas the
arithmetic-mean method does not involve the stations outside the
catchment area.
Isohyetal Method
▪ A graphical technique that involves drawing estimated lines
of equal rainfall over an area based on point measurements.

▪ An Isohyetal Map shows contours of equal rainfall is a more

accurate picture of the rainfall over the basin
 Isohyetal Method
• In this method, the rainfall amounts are
equal on a rainfall map basin
• Isohyets are drawn on the map by the
method of interpolation after the
rainfall at its station is marked.
• The area between the isohyets is
measured using a planimeter.
• Let A1, A2, A3... An, be the area
between each pair of isohyets.
• P1, P2, P3...Pn, are the avg.
precipitation for each pair of adjacent
isohyets
 Isohyetal Method
• The mean precipitation/rainfall over the catchment of area A is given by;

• The isohyet method is superior to the other

two methods especially when the stations are
large in number.
Sample Problem
Example 4:
For the catchment area shown, the detail of Thiessen
polygons surrounding each rain gauge and the
recordings of the raingauges in the month of August
2011 are given below.
Raingauge Station 1 2 3 4 5 6
Thiessen polygon area (𝑘𝑚2 ) 720 380 440 1040 800 220
Recorded rainfall in mm during 121 134 145 126 99 115
August 2011 (𝑚𝑚)

Determine the average depth of rainfall on the basin in

August 2011 by
a) Arithmetic Mean Method
b) Thiessen Mean Method
Sample Problem
Solution:
a) 𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛. Only raingauge stations 1, 2 and 4 are within the basin. Hence,
the arithmetic mean is obtained by considering the readings of these three stations
only.
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑢𝑔𝑢𝑠𝑡 2011
1 𝑃1 +𝑃2 +⋯+𝑃𝑖 +⋯𝑃𝑁
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝑁 𝑁 𝑃
𝑖=1 𝑖 = 𝑁
𝑃1 +𝑃2 +𝑃4 121+134+126
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 = = = 𝟏𝟐𝟕 𝒎𝒎
3 3
Sample Problem
Solution:
b) 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑. The calculations are performed in tabular form.
1 2 3 4 5
Raingauge Station Thiessen Thiessen Station Weighted Station
polygon area weightage reading rainfall
(𝑘𝑚2 ) Factor (𝑚𝑚) (𝑚𝑚)
1 720 0.200 121 24.2
2 380 0.106 134 14.1
3 440 0.122 145 17.7
4 1040 0.289 126 36.4
5 800 0.222 99 22.0
6 220 0.061 115 7.0
Total catchment area 3600 1.000 121.5

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑢𝑔𝑢𝑠𝑡 2011 = 𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟓 𝒎𝒎
Sample Problem
Example 5:
In a catchment, whose shape can be approximated by a pentagon, four raingauge stations are
situated inside the catchment. The coordinates of the corners of the catchment that define its
boundaries and the coordinates of the four raingauge stations are given below. Also given are the
annual rainfall recorded by the four stations in the year 2005. Determine the average annual
rainfall over the catchment in that year by the Thiessen-mean method.
Distances are in km Corner a is the origin of the co-ordinates

Corner Corner a Corner b Corner c Corner d Corner e

Catchment Boundary
Coordinates (0,0) (120,0) (120,80) (60,140) (0,80)

Station P Q R S

Rain gauge Station Co-ordinates (40,20) (80,20) (80,60) (40,80)

Annual Rainfall (𝑐𝑚) 120 110 100 125

Sample Problem
Solution:
The catchment area are drawn to scale and the
stations are marked. The stations P, Q, R and S
are joined to form a set of triangles.
Perpendicular bisectors of each side of the
triangles are drawn. The polygons formed
around each station by the bisectors and the
boundaries of the catchment are identified and
their areas determined. Knowing the thiessen
polygon area of each station, the weightage
factor of each station is calculated and the
average rainfall over the catchment area is
determined by using the Thiessen mean
equation. The calculations are done in a tabular
form.
Sample Problem
Solution:

Rain gauge station Boundary Area (𝑘𝑚2 ) Weightage Recorded Weighted

of Factor station station
Thiessen rainfall rainfall
polygon
P 301a 60𝑥40 = 2400 0.1818 120 21.816

Q 102b 60𝑥40 = 2400 0.1818 110 19.998

R 20dc [ 60𝑥40 + (60𝑥60𝑥1/2)]=4200 0.3182 100 31.82

S 30de [ 60𝑥40 + (60𝑥60𝑥1/2)]=4200 0.3182 125 39.775

Total area of catchment 13200 1.000 113.41

𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 2005 = 𝟏𝟏𝟑. 𝟒𝟏 𝒎𝒎

Sample Problem
Example 6:
The isohyets due to the storm in catchment were drawn and the area of the catchment bounded
by the isohyets were tabulated as shown. Estimate the mean precipitation due to storm.

Isohyets (cm) Area (𝑘𝑚2 )

Station-12.0 30

12.0-10.0 140

10.0-8.0 80

8.0-6.0 180

6.0-4.0 20
Sample Problem
Solution:
For the first area consisting of the station surrounded by the closed isohyet, a precipitation value
of 12.0 cm is taken. For all other areas, the mean of two bounding isohyets are taken.

Isohytes Average Area (𝑘𝑚2 ) Fraction of Weighted P

value of P total area (cm)
12.0 12.0 30 0.0667 0.800

12.0-10.0 11.0 140 0.3111 3.422

10.0-8.0 9.0 80 0.1778 1.600

8.0-6.0 7.0 180 0.4000 2.800

6.0-4.0 5.0 20 0.0444 0.222

Total 450 1.000 8.844

𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟒 𝒄𝒎
 DEPTH-AREA-DURATION RELATIONSHIPS
For rainfall of a given duration, the average depth of rain decreases with
an increase in area. Hence, it is said that the depth of rainfall is inversely
proportional to the area of rainfall.
 DEPTH-AREA-DURATION RELATIONSHIPS
Depth-Area Relation
For a rainfall of a given duration, the average depth decreases
with the area in an exponential mode given by:

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑃 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴 𝑘𝑚2

𝑃𝑜 = ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒
𝐾 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐾 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0.0008526 𝑡𝑜 0.001745
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0.6614 𝑡𝑜 0.5961 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 1𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑡𝑜 3 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑻𝒚𝒑𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝑫𝑨𝑫 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆𝒔
Sample Problem
Example 7:
The data from isohyetal map of a 24 hr storm is given. Assuming that the storm centre had an
area of 55 𝑘𝑚2 and the rainfall depth is 57 𝑐𝑚 in the storm centre, obtain the depth-area curve of
this storm. Using the depth-area curve, estimate the average depth of rainfall over an area of
3200 𝑠𝑞. 𝑘𝑚. It can be assumed that the storm centre is located at the centre of the area.

Isohyet (mm) 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10

Enclosed area (𝑘𝑚2 ) 310 1300 2060 2700 2955 3600 4030 4800 6000
Sample Problem
Isohyetal Area Net Average Total Total Average
Solution: (mm) enclosed Incremental isohyetal Incremental volume of depth of
(𝑘𝑚2 ) area value volume rainfall rainfall
(𝑘𝑚2 ) (mm) (𝑘𝑚2 ∙ 𝑚𝑚) (mm)
(𝑘𝑚2 ∙ 𝑚𝑚)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

57 55 55 57 3135 3135 57
50 310 255 53.5 13643 16778 54
45 1300 990 47.5 47025 63803 49
40 2060 760 42.5 32300 96103 47
35 2700 640 37.5 24000 120103 44
30 2955 255 32.5 8288 128390 43
25 3600 645 27.5 17738 146128 41
20 4030 430 22.5 9675 155803 39
15 4800 770 17.5 13475 169278 35
10 6000 1200 12.5 15000 184278 31
Sample Problem
Solution:
The rainfall is taken as constant at 57 𝑐𝑚 in this storm centre area of 55 𝑘𝑚2 . The calculation of
the mean depth of rainfall for various isohyetal areas is performed in a tabular manner.
• Each row represents the properties of one isohyetal of value given in Column 1.
• Column 2 represents the value of the area bounded by the isohyetal of value given in column
1.
• Column 3 represents the difference in areas of two adjacent isohyetals, the upper row and the
current row.
• Column 4 is the average of isohyetal values of upper row and current row.
• Column 5 is the incremental volume of rainfall between the isohyet of the current row and the
isohyet of the row above it.
• Column 6 is the cumulative volume of rainfall from the storm center up to the current isohyet.
• Column 7 represents the average depth of rainfall corresponding to the area of the isohyet of
the current row.

Where 𝑃 = 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 and 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑠𝑜ℎ𝑦𝑒𝑡/𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑚2 . By

use of the correlation equation or from the use Depth-Area Curve, the average depth of rainfall
over an area of 3200 𝑘𝑚2 is found to be 𝟒𝟏. 𝟑𝟗 𝒎𝒎.
Sample Problem
Solution:

Depth-Area Curve
 FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF POINT RAINFALL

Hydrologic information on precipitation, evaporation, groundwater

levels and surface water runoff, as well as head data and geochemical
information, are used in this analysis. It helps us prepare and plan for
extreme events by identifying where the risks are highest.
The probability of occurrence of an event whose magnitude is equal to or
exceeding a specified magnitude X, also known as 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
is 𝒑.

The 𝒏𝒐𝒏 − 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒅𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒂𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 of the same event is 𝒒 = (𝟏 – 𝒑).

𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 (𝑻) is defined as the average length of time for an event of a
given magnitude to be equaled or exceeded in a statistical sense. It can be
related to the probability of exceedance of that hydrologic event in the
following way
𝑻 = 𝟏/𝒑

We assume a binomial distribution for the occurrence/non-occurrence of the

event.
Thus, the probability (𝑃𝑟,𝑛) of occurrence of the event r times in n successive years is:

The probability of an event occurring 2 times in n successive years is

The probability of an event not occurring at all in n successive years is

The probability of an event occurring at least once in n successive years is

Sample Problem
Example 8:
Analysis of data on maximum one-day rainfall depth at Chennai indicated that a depth of 280 mm
had a return period of 100 years. Determine the probability of a one-day rainfall depth equal to
or greater than 280 mm at Chennai occurring (a) once in 20 successive years, (b) two times in 15
successive years, and (c) at least once in 20 successive years

Solution:
1
Here, exceedance probability, 𝑝 = = 0.01
100
(a) 𝑛 = 20, 𝑟 = 1
20!
𝑃1,20 = 𝑥 0.01 𝑥 0.9819 = 0.14
19!1!
(b) 𝑛 = 15, 𝑟 = 2
15!
𝑃2,15 = 𝑥 0.012 𝑥 0.9813 = 0.08
13!2!
(c) 𝑃1 = 1 − 1 − 0.01 20 = 0.18