INFLUENCE OF ADOPTION OF CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE ON MAIZE

YIELD IN AWKA SOUTH LOCAL GOVERFNMENT OF ANAMBRA STATE.

BY

EZEKWERE, CHUKWUEMEKA JEAN

2020854135

DEPARTMENT OF AGRIC ECONOMICS AND EXTENSION

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA.

PROJECT SUPERVISOR:
DR. O.J.KOMOLOFE

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

BACHELOR OF AGRICULTURE (B.Agric) DEGREE IN AGRIC ECONOMICS AND
EXTENSION

NOVEMBER, 2025.
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project research “Influence of Adoption of Climate Smart
Agriculture on Maize in Awka South Local Goverfnment Of Anambra State.” was carried
out by EZEKWERE CHUKWUEMEKA JEAN, with the registration number 2020854135,
under the supervision the supervision of DR. O.J. KOMOLOFE, The work embodied in this
project work is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other diploma or degree
of this University or any University.

…………………………………………………
SUPERVISOR
DR. O.J. KOMOLOFE,

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS AND EXTENSION

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY, AWKA, NIGERIA.

…………………………………
DATE
 APPROVAL

This project research has been read and approved for the award of BACHELORS OF
AGRICULTURE (B. AGRIC) by the Department of Agricultural Economics and Extension,
Faculty of Agriculture, NnamdiAzikiwe University, Anambra state.

………………………………………….. ……………………

DR. O.J. KOMOLOFE, Date

SUPERVISOR

………………………………………….. ……………………..

DR. OKEKE, CHINYERE CHARITY Date

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

……………………………………… ..……………………

EXTERNAL SUPERVISOR Date

 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to Omeihekwu Jesus (The Doer of Great Things) for he has being so
merciful to me.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to acknowledge the assistance of some individuals who have been sources of
inspiration and have contributed to the success of this research work.
Firstly, I wish to express profound gratitude to my parents; Mr and Mrs Ezekwere for their
continuous prayers and multifaceted support in making this dream become a reality.
My special appreciation goes to my pproject ssupervisor, Dr. O.J. Komolofe
for his efforts, constructive criticisms and contributions which led to successful completion of
this project work
ABSTRACT
 TABLE OF CONTENT

1.0. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

1.2. Statement of the Problem

1.3. Aim and Objectives of the study

1.4. Significance of the Study

1.5. Research questions

1.6. Hypothesis of the study

2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Framework of Climate Smart Agriculture

2.1.1. Reviews on Related Literature

2.2. Climate Smart Agriculture: Key Concepts and Practices

2.2.1. Key Practices in Climate Smart Agriculture

2.3. Determinants of Climate Smart Agriculture Adoption

2.3.1. Economic Determinants

2.3.2. Economic Factors

2.3.3. Social Factors

2.3.4. Technological Factors

2.4. Impact of Climate Smart Agriculture on Maize Production

2.4.1. Yield Improvement

2.4.2. Resilience to Climate Change

2.4.3. Economic Benefits

3.0. METHODOLOGY

3.1. Research Design

3.2. Study area

3.3. Population of the study

3.4. Instrument of data collection

3.5. Validity and reliability of instrument

3.6. Methods of data Collection

3.7. Methods of Data Analysis

4.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1. Empirical Findings and Data Analysis

5.0. SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.0. REFERENCES
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of study

Climate change impacts food security negatively. A more sustainable food system can heal the
planet, but ensure food security for all. In recent times, globally, agrifood system produce one-
third of all emissions (FAO, 2013). Global food supply must increase to feed an expectant global
population of 9.7 billion people by 2050. Traditionally, the increase in food production has been
linked to land expansion, and this is unsustainable use of land resources. This creates a vicious
circle, leading to an increase in emissions (World Bank Group, 2025). These systems are the
leading source of methane emissions and biodiversity loss, and they use around 70% of fresh
water. Meanwhile, emissions from agriculture are increasing in developing countries –a
worrying trend which must be reversed (FAO, 2013). Agriculture is the primary cause of
deforestation globally, threatening the ecosystems. Without action, emissions from food systems
will rise even further, with increasing food production.

It therefore, necessitate that the global agrifood system must deliver on multiple fronts. It must
feed the world, adapt to climate change, and drastically reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions. In response to these challenges, the concept of Climate-smart Agriculture (CSA) has
emerged as a universal approach to end food security and promote sustainable development
while addressing climate change issues (Wakweya, 2023).

Climate smart agriculture (CSA) is a set of agricultural practices and technologies which
simultaneously boost productivity enhance resilience and reduce GHG emissions (McCarthy,
2014). Irrespective of the fact that CSA is built on the bedrock of existing agricultural
knowledge, technologies, and sustainability principles, CSA is distinct in several ways.
Typically, agriculture involves conventional practices of growing of plants and animals but CSA
sort of marries technology and genomics incorporated into it and yielding better and more
efficient results than the usual agricultural system.

Firstly, it has a categorical focus on addressing climate change in the agrifood system and how it
affects the system and how to improve the system irrespective of the change thereby adapting the
system to the changes. Additionally, CSA systematically considers the synergies and tradeoffs
that exist between productivity, adaptation, and mitigation. Also, it encompasses a range of
practices and technologies that are tailored to specific agro-ecological conditions and socio-
economic contexts including the adoption of climate-resilient crop varieties, conservation
agriculture techniques, agroforestry, precision farming, water management strategies, and
improved livestock management. The implementation of these factors is therefore bound to yield
expected results which are to increased productivity, enhanced resilience of the crops to the
climate, and drastically reduce its greenhouse gas emissions across the globe.

Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) has been instrumental in improving maize production in

Nigeria, a country where agriculture is a vital sector of the economy. According to a study
published in the journal Agriculture, improved maize varieties have increased yield by 38.7%
(Akinwumi and Okeke, 2017). This is a significant boost, considering Nigeria's maize yield is
among the lowest in sub-Saharan Africa (FAO, 2017). Farmers who adopted improved maize
varieties also reported a 40% higher average yield compared to those using traditional varieties
(Akinwumi and Okeke, 2017). Additionally, the study found that the yield advantage of
improved varieties is mainly due to technological change, rather than technical efficiency
(Manyong et al., 2018).

The adoption of CSA practices has driven technological change, leading to more efficient and
productive farming practices (Pretty et al., 2011). By increasing yields and improving
productivity, CSA has helped to enhance the livelihoods of maize farmers in Nigeria (Nkonya et
al., 2016). CSA practices, such as conservation agriculture and integrated soil fertility
management, have also helped to improve soil health, reduce erosion, and increase water
retention (Kassam et al., 2013).

Furthermore, CSA has helped to improve the resilience of maize production systems to climate-
related stresses, such as droughts and floods (Lobell et al., 2011). By adopting CSA practices,
farmers can reduce their vulnerability to climate change and improve their overall well-being
(Morton, 2007).

In conclusion, the adoption of CSA practices has had a positive impact on maize production in
Nigeria, and its benefits are expected to continue growing as more farmers adopt these practices.
As the country continues to face the challenges of climate change, it is essential that
policymakers and stakeholders support the scaling up of CSA practices to improve the
livelihoods of maize farmers and ensure food security.

1.2. Problem Statement

Climate change poses a significant threat to food security and sustainable agricultural
development in Awka South, Anambra State, Nigeria (IPCC, 2013). Rising temperatures,
changing precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events have resulted
in reduced maize yields, decreased crop quality, and increased poverty among smallholder
farmers (Morton, 2007; Lobell et al., 2011). Maize is a staple crop in Nigeria, accounting for a
significant portion of the country's food supply (FAO, 2017). However, the crop is highly
vulnerable to climate-related stresses, which can lead to significant yield losses and reduced
farmer incomes (Schlenker and Lobell, 2010). Despite the introduction of Climate-Smart
Agriculture (CSA) practices, which aim to enhance agricultural productivity and resilience in the
face of climate change (FAO, 2013), the adoption rate remains low among maize farmers in
Awka South. CSA practices, such as conservation agriculture, agroforestry, and integrated soil
fertility management, have been shown to improve maize yields, reduce greenhouse gas
emissions, and enhance farmer livelihoods (Pretty et al., 2011; Nkonya et al., 2016). However,
the uptake of these practices is hindered by several factors, including limited access to
information, inadequate institutional support, and lack of financial resources (Kansiime et al.,
2013; Mango et al., 2017). The findings of this study will contribute to the development of
effective strategies for promoting the adoption of CSA practices among maize farmers in Awka
South, and improving the resilience of maize production systems to climate-related stresses.

1.3. Objectives of the study

 To profile the climate smart agricultural practices adopted by farmers in the study area,
 To estimate the level of CSA adoption by farmers in the study area,
 To determine the factors of adoption,
 To identify the constraints faced by farmers in adopting CSA

1.4. Significance of the study

Maize is a staple crop for millions of people worldwide, and climate change poses a significant
threat to its production. This study will contribute to the development of strategies to ensure food
security by promoting the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices among maize
farmers thereby contribution to food security. It will also provide insights into the effectiveness
of CSA practices in enhancing the resilience of maize farming systems to climate-related
stresses, such as droughts, floods, and heat waves and will contribute to reducing greenhouse gas
emissions from agriculture, which is a significant contributor to climate change as well.

Policies and decisions at local, national, and international levels, supporting the development of
policies and programs that promote the adoption of CSA practices among maize farmers is to be
promoted as promoting the adoption of CSA practices will contribute to improving the
livelihoods of maize farmers, particularly smallholder farmers, by increasing their yields,
incomes, and resilience to climate-related stresses. The study will provide evidence on the
effectiveness of CSA practices in supporting climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts,
particularly in the agriculture sector and finally will fill knowledge gaps on the adoption and
impact of CSA practices on maize production, providing insights into the factors that influence
their adoption and the benefits they provide to maize farmers and the environment.

Overall, the study will contribute to the development of climate-resilient agriculture, improve
food security, and support the livelihoods of maize farmers, while also addressing the challenges
of climate change, sustainable development, and environmental conservation.

1.5. Research questions

 What are the CSA practices adopted by farmers in the region

 What is the level of CSA adoption by farmers in the region
 What are the factors of adoption
 How to identify the constraints faced by farmers in the region

1.6. Hypothesis of the study

 Null Hypothesis (H0): Socioeconomic characteristics have no significant influence on
adoption of climate smart agriculture (CSA).
 Alternative Hypothesis (H1): There is a significant difference in maize yields and
productivity between farmers who adopt climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices and
those who do not adopt CSA practices, with CSA adopters experiencing higher maize
yields and productivity compared to non-adopters.
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. Literature Review

Climate is one of the most important factors in agricultural productivity, especially in several
developing countries. African agriculture is often limited by water, and climate change is likely
to affect the quality and quantity of water for agricultural productivity. Traditional agriculture
may not respond well to the vagaries of the climate, leading to low farm income, poverty, and
food insecurity. The need to understand the strategies used by the farmers to mitigate the adverse
impact of climate change became very necessary and urgent. Climate change adaptation is a
response made by farmers to protect crops and livelihoods from climate risks. Climate change
adaptation comes in many forms, including soil and water conservation, dryland farming,
improved planting varieties, improved technology, and crop diversification (Adeagbo et al.,
2021).

Climate change has been identified as one of the principal threats to the well-being of nature and
society. Agriculture is one of the most vulnerable economic sectors to climate change due to its
inherent dependence on weather and climate. Changes in climatic patterns might have
undesirable effects on agricultural productivity, food security, and income. This latest
phenomenon is more critical to the poor, who depend primarily on rainfed and subsistence
agriculture. In sub-Saharan Africa, where food scarcity is a persistent matter, the issue could be
more severe. Since climate change is beyond human control, adaptation is key to reducing the
imminent threat posed by climate change. An enormous effort has been prompted by researchers
and policy makers to tackle the impact of climate change on agriculture and provide the best
possible alternatives for climate-resilient farming systems (Malhi et al., 2021).

The agriculture demographic and agricultural statistical survey of 2020-2021 showed that there
are a total of 133 million farms covering about 96% of the total farm area in Awka South LGA
of Anambra State. Out of the total farms, about 128 million farms were found to have less than
2.5 hectares size including inactive farms. The area covered under climate-smart villages or a
climate-smart village-like program linked to scale up or value chain impact was only about 1.3
million hectares. Scaling up CSA practices in the areas where it has been proved to be working
well appears to be a good option to stimulate the investment of farmers in CSA practices (Meroni
et al. 2021). Developing the financial instruments for early uptake of new CSA practices could
be a strategy to convert small-scale investment into CSA farming more quickly for large area
coverage on agricultural productivity and income (Glowacki and Lew-Levy, 2022).

This paper seeks to illuminate the various factors influencing the adoption of climate-smart
agriculture and its subsequent impact on maize production. To achieve this, the study utilized
specialized survey data gathered from maize farmers throughout the Arsi Zone. A binary
treatment model was applied to derive unbiased estimates. Findings from the treatment effect
model indicate that elements such as access to credit, membership in cooperatives, farm size, and
extension services significantly contribute to enhancing maize productivity (Kehinde and
Ogundeji, 2022). Conversely, challenges like the distance to input markets, output price
variability, and reliance on hired labor, soil erosion, and specific agro-ecological conditions
present obstacles in achieving improved maize yields through the adoption of climate-smart
practices (Yu et al., 2023).

2.1. Conceptual Framework of Climate Smart Agriculture

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach to agriculture that aims to increase agricultural
productivity and income, improve food security and nutrition, and enhance climate resilience and
adaptation. The conceptual framework of CSA is built around three pillars: productivity,
adaptation, and mitigation. These pillars provide a useful guide for understanding the inputs,
processes, outputs, and outcomes of CSA. The framework highlights the importance of climate
information, climate-resilient agricultural practices, and climate-tolerant crop and animal
varieties in improving agricultural productivity and income, food security and nutrition, and
climate resilience and adaptation.

Context of Climate Smart Agriculture

The context of CSA is shaped by climate change, agricultural productivity, and food security.
Climate change is affecting agricultural productivity and food security, particularly in developing
countries. Rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of
extreme weather events are impacting crop yields, livestock productivity, and fisheries.

Inputs for Climate Smart Agriculture

The inputs for CSA include climate information and early warning systems, climate-resilient
agricultural practices, climate-tolerant crop and animal varieties, soil conservation and fertility
management, and irrigation and water harvesting. Climate information and early warning
systems help farmers make informed decisions about planting, harvesting, and other agricultural
practices. Climate-resilient agricultural practices, such as conservation agriculture and agro
forestry, help reduce soil erosion, improve soil fertility, and promote biodiversity.

Processes of Climate Smart Agriculture

The processes of CSA include climate risk assessment and management, agricultural planning
and decision-making, implementation of CSA practices, and monitoring and evaluation of CSA
practices. Climate risk assessment and management involve identifying and managing climate-
related risks, such as droughts, floods, and heat waves (Mwangi, et al., 2019). Agricultural
planning and decision-making involve making informed decisions about agricultural practices,
such as crop selection, planting dates, and irrigation management.

Outputs and Outcomes of Climate Smart Agriculture

The outputs of CSA include increased agricultural productivity and income, improved food
security and nutrition, enhanced climate resilience and adaptation, and reduced greenhouse gas
emissions. The outcomes of CSA include improved livelihoods and well-being of farmers and
rural communities, enhanced national food security and economic growth, and reduced
vulnerability to climate-related shocks and stresses (MINAGRI, 2020).

2.1.1. Reviews on Related Literature

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) has been widely adopted as a strategy to enhance agricultural
productivity and resilience in the face of climate change. Several studies have investigated the
adoption of CSA practices and their effects on maize production in various regions. This essay
reviews some of these studies, highlighting their findings and contributions to the understanding
of CSA adoption and its impacts on maize production.

A study by Mwangi et al., (2019) in Kenya's Nyando basin examined the adoption of CSA
practices among maize farmers. The study found that farmers who adopted CSA practices, such
as conservation agriculture and agro forestry, experienced a 30% increase in maize yields and a
25% reduction in crop failure rates. Similarly, a study by Shrestha et al., (2020) in Nepal's
Kavrepalanchok district found that farmers who adopted CSA practices, such as drip irrigation
and mulching, experienced a 40% increase in maize yields and a 30% reduction in poverty
levels.

A study by Kansiime et al., (2018) in Uganda found that CSA practices such as mulching, crop
rotation, and conservation agriculture increased maize yields by 25% and improved soil fertility.
Similarly, a study by Tesfaye et al., (2019) in Ethiopia found that CSA practices such as drip
irrigation and agroforestry increased maize yields by 30% and improved farmers' incomes.

In Kenya, another study by Mwangi et al., (2020) found that CSA practices such as conservation
agriculture and agroforestry reduced soil erosion by 40% and improved maize yields by 20%.
Also, a study by Ochieng et al., (2020) in Tanzania found that CSA practices such as mulching
and crop rotation improved maize yields by 25% and reduced poverty levels among farmers.

In Rwanda, a study by MINAGRI (2020) evaluated the impact of CSA on maize production and
farmers' livelihoods. The study found that CSA practices, such as crop rotation and
intercropping, increased maize yields by 25% and improved farmers' incomes by 30%. Another
study by Okello et al,. (2020) in Uganda's Mbale district examined the adoption of CSA
practices among maize farmers. The study found that farmers who adopted CSA practices, such
as conservation agriculture and agroforestry, experienced a 20% increase in maize yields and a
15% reduction in crop failure rates.

These studies demonstrate the positive impacts of CSA adoption on maize production and
farmers' livelihoods. The findings suggest that CSA practices can improve maize yields, reduce
crop failure rates, and enhance farmers' incomes. However, the studies also highlight the need for
targeted interventions to support CSA adoption, such as training and extension services, credit
facilities, and market access.

2.2. Climate Smart Agriculture: Key Concepts and Practices

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach to agriculture that aims to increase agricultural
productivity and resilience in the face of climate change. CSA involves the use of practices and
technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve soil health, and enhance
biodiversity (FAO, 2017).
CSA is built around three main pillars: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation. Productivity
refers to the use of practices and technologies that increase agricultural yields and improve food
security (Akponikpe et al., 2020). Adaptation involves the use of practices and technologies that
help farmers adapt to climate-related stresses, such as droughts and floods (Tesfaye et al., 2019).
Mitigation involves the use of practices and technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions
from agriculture (Mango et al., 2018).

Definition of Climate Smart Agriculture

CSA is defined as an approach to developing agricultural strategies to secure sustainable food

security under climate change (Lipper et al., 2014). CSA aims to increase agricultural
productivity and resilience, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote sustainable
agriculture practices.

2.2.1. Key Practices in Climate Smart Agriculture

There are several practices are associated with CSA, including:

 Conservation Agriculture: This is a key practice in CSA that involves minimizing soil
disturbance, maintaining soil cover, and using crop rotations to improve soil health
(Muriithi et al., 2023). According to Gichangi et al., (2015), conservation agriculture
helps to reduce soil erosion and increased water retention, improves soil fertility and
health, increase crop yields and improved crop quality and promotes biodiversity and
ecosystem services. Conservation agriculture also helps to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions by reducing the use of synthetic fertilizers and promoting soil carbon
sequestration.

 Agroforestry: This is another key practice in CSA that involves integrating trees into
agricultural landscapes to improve soil health, reduce soil erosion, and promote
biodiversity (Mebratu, et al., 2022). As noted by Asante, et al., (2024) agroforestry helps
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve soil fertility, and promote ecosystem
services. Agroforestry also helps to improve crop yields and quality by providing shade,
improve livestock productivity and health improving soil health, and promoting
beneficial insects and microorganisms.
  Crop Rotation and Intercropping: These practices involves rotating crops and planting
multiple crops together to improve soil health, reduce pests and diseases, and promote
biodiversity (Muriithi, et al., 2021). According to Mebratu, et al., (2022), crop rotation
and intercropping help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve soil fertility, and
promote ecosystem services. Crop rotation and intercropping also help to improve crop
yields and quality by reducing pests and diseases, improving soil health, and promoting
beneficial insects and microorganisms.

 Integrated Pest Management: This is a key practice in CSA that involves using a
combination of techniques, including crop rotation, biological control, and chemical
control, to manage pests and diseases (Asante, et al., 2024). Asante, et al., (2024) noted
that integrated pest management helps to reduce the use of chemical pesticides, increase
crop yields and improved crop quality, improve soil health, and promote biodiversity.

 Irrigation Management: This is a key practice in CSA that involves using techniques,
such as drip irrigation and mulching, to reduce water losses and improve water
productivity (Muriithi, et al., 2021). According to (Mebratu, et al., (2022), irrigation
management helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve soil health, and promote
ecosystem services.

2.3. Determinants of Climate Smart Agriculture Adoption

The adoption of CSA practices is influenced by a range of environmental, economic, social, and
technological factors.. Understanding these determinants is crucial for developing effective
strategies to promote the adoption of CSA practices and improve agricultural productivity and
resilience in the face of climate change. Policymakers, extension agents, and other stakeholders
can use this knowledge to design and implement programs and policies that support the adoption
of CSA practices and promote sustainable agriculture development.

Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is an approach to agriculture that aims to increase agricultural
productivity and resilience in the face of climate change. CSA involves the use of practices and
technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve soil health, and enhance
biodiversity (Asante, et al., 2024). The adoption of CSA practices is influenced by several
factors, which can be categorized into environmental, economic, social, and technological
determinants.

Environmental Determinants

The environmental factors that influence the adoption of CSA practice are very imperative in
ascertaining the success of these practices. One of these environmental factors is climate and
Weather Patterns: Farmers who experience frequent climate-related shocks, such as droughts and
floods, are more likely to adopt CSA practices, as they seek to reduce their vulnerability to
climate change (Gichangi et al., 2015).

The environmental factors that influence the adoption of CSA practices are also important in
determining the success of these practices One of the key environmental factors is soil and water
quality: Farmers who have poor soil and water quality are more likely to adopt CSA practices, as
they seek to improve the productivity and sustainability of their farms (Asante, et al., 2024).

Economic Determinants

The economic factors that influence the adoption of CSA practices are crucial in determining the
feasibility and sustainability of these practices. One of the key economic factors is the cost and
benefit analysis of CSA practices. Farmers who perceive the benefits of CSA practices to
outweigh the costs are more likely to adopt them (Mebratu, et al., 2022). For instance, the use of
conservation agriculture, which involves minimizing soil disturbance and maintaining soil cover,
can reduce soil erosion and improve soil fertility, leading to increased crop yields and improved
farm incomes.

Another important economic factor is income and wealth. Farmers with higher incomes and
wealth are more likely to adopt CSA practices, as they have the financial resources to invest in
new technologies and practices (Muriithi, et al., 2021). For example, the use of irrigation
systems and greenhouses requires significant investment, which may be beyond the reach of
small-scale farmers with limited financial resources.

Access to credit and markets is also a critical economic factor that influences the adoption of
CSA practices. Farmers who have access to credit and markets are more likely to adopt CSA
practices, as they have the financial resources and market incentives to invest in new
technologies and practices (Asante, et al., 2024). For instance, farmers who have access to credit
can invest in new technologies, such as precision agriculture tools, which can improve crop
yields and reduce costs

Social Determinants

The social factors that influence the adoption of CSA practices are also important in determining
the success of these practices. One of the key social factors is education and awareness. Farmers
who have higher levels of education and awareness about CSA practices are more likely to adopt
them (Mebratu, et al., 2022). For example, farmers who are aware of the benefits of conservation
agriculture, such as improved soil health and reduced soil erosion, are more likely to adopt this
practice.

Social networks and support are also important social factors that influence the adoption of CSA
practices. Farmers who have social networks and support from family, friends, and community
members are more likely to adopt CSA practices (Muriithi, et al., 2021). For instance, farmers
who belong to farmer organizations or cooperatives can access training, credit, and markets,
which can facilitate the adoption of CSA practices.

Cultural values and beliefs are also significant social factors that influence the adoption of CSA
practices. Farmers who have cultural values and beliefs that support the adoption of CSA
practices are more likely to adopt those (Asante, et al., 2024). For example, farmers who value
conservation and sustainability are more likely to adopt conservation agriculture and agroforestry
practices.

Policy and Regulatory Framework: A supportive policy and regulatory framework can encourage
the adoption of CSA practices by providing incentives and removing barriers (Muriithi, et al.,
2021)

Technological Determinants

The technological factors that influence the adoption of CSA practices are also crucial in
determining the success of these practices. One of the key technological factors is access to
technology. Farmers who have access to technology, such as irrigation systems, greenhouses,
and precision agriculture tools, are more likely to adopt CSA practices (Gichangi et al., 2015).
For instance, farmers who have access to precision agriculture tools can optimize crop yields,
reduce costs, and improve environmental sustainability.

Technical support and training are also important technological factors that influence the
adoption of CSA practices. Farmers who receive technical support and training on CSA practices
are more likely to adopt them (Mebratu, et al., 2022). For example, farmers who receive training
on conservation agriculture can learn how to implement this practice effectively and sustainably.

Innovation and experimentation are also significant technological factors that influence the
adoption of CSA practices. Farmers who are innovative and willing to experiment with new CSA
practices are more likely to adopt them (Muriithi, et al., 2021). For instance, farmers who are
willing to experiment with new crop varieties and farming practices can improve crop yields,
reduce costs, and promote environmental sustainability.

2.4. Influence of adoption of Climate Smart Agriculture on Maize Production

Maize is one of the most widely grown crops in the world, and CSA has been shown to have a
significant impact on maize production, improving yields, resilience to climate change, and
economic benefits. Policymakers, extension agents, and other stakeholders can use this
knowledge to design and implement programs and policies that support the adoption of CSA
practices and promote sustainable maize production.

2.4.1. Yield Improvement

One of the key impacts of CSA on maize production is yield improvement. CSA practices such
as conservation agriculture and agroforestry, have been shown to improve maize yields by
reducing soil erosion, improving soil fertility, and promoting beneficial insects and
microorganisms (Mebratu, et al., 2022). For example, a study in Kenya found that farmers who
adopted conservation agriculture practices experienced a 30% increase in maize yields compared
to those who did not adopt these practices (Muriithi, et al., 2021). This yield improvement can be
attributed to several factors, including improved soil health, better water management, and
reduced pest and disease pressure.

The use of precision agriculture is another CSA practice that has been shown to improve maize
yields. Precision agriculture involves the use of advanced technologies, such as drones, satellite
imaging, and precision irrigation systems, to optimize crop yields and reduce waste (Gichangi et
al., 2015). For example, a study in the United States found that farmers who used precision
agriculture practices experienced a 20% increase in maize yields compared to those who did not
use these practices.

2.4.2. Resilience to Climate Change

Another key impact of CSA on maize production is resilience to climate change. CSA practices
such as drought-tolerant maize varieties and irrigation management have been shown to reduce
the vulnerability of maize production to climate-related shocks, such as droughts and floods
(Gichangi et al., 2015). For example, a study in East Africa found that farmers who adopted
drought-tolerant maize varieties experienced a 25% reduction in crop failure rates compared to
those who did not adopt these varieties (Asante, et al., 2024).

The use of agroforestry is another CSA practice that has been shown to improve the resilience of
maize production to climate change. Agroforestry involves the integration of trees into
agricultural landscapes to improve soil health, reduce soil erosion, and promote biodiversity
(Mebratu, et al., 2022). For example, a study in Kenya found that farmers who adopted
agroforestry practices experienced a 30% reduction in soil erosion and a 25% increase in maize
yields compared to those who did not adopt these practices (Mwangi, et al., 2019).

2.4.3. Economic Benefits

Finally, CSA has been shown to have significant economic benefits for maize producers. CSA
practices such as conservation agriculture and agroforestry have been shown to reduce
production costs, improve crop quality, and increase farm incomes (Mebratu, et al., 2022). For
example, a study in Kenya found that farmers who adopted conservation agriculture practices
experienced a 20% reduction in production costs and a 15% increase in farm incomes compared
to those who did not adopt these practices Conservation agriculture involves the use of practices
such as reduced tillage, permanent soil cover, and crop rotations to improve soil health and
reduce soil erosion (Muriithi, et al., 2021).

The use of precision agriculture is another CSA practice that has been shown to have economic
benefits for maize producers. Precision agriculture involves the use of advanced expertise to
optimize crop yields and reduce waste (Gichangi et al., 2015).
 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Research Design

This study will employ a mixed -methods research design, combining both quantitative and
qualitative approaches of the determinants of adoption of climate smart agriculture and its effect
on yield of maize in Awka south local government area of Anambra State. A descriptive survey
is appropriate for this study as it allows for the collection of data from a large number of
respondents to analyze patterns, behaviors, and factors influencing determinants of adoption of
climate smart agriculture and its effect on yield of maize in agricultural enterprises.

3.2. Study area

Awka South Local Government Area is situated in the southeastern part of Nigeria, within
Anambra State.

The study area has a tropical rainforest climate with two distinct seasons

The economy of Awka South Local Government Area is primarily driven by agriculture, with
major crops including maize, cassava, yams, and vegetables. Other economic activities include
trade, commerce, and small-scale industries.

Agriculture is a significant sector in Awka South Local Government Area, with many farmers
engaging in crop production, livestock rearing, and fish farming. Maize is one of the major crops
grown in the area, making it an ideal location for studying maize production and climate-smart
agriculture practices.

3.3. Population of the study

Sampling Technique

For this study, a multi-stage sampling technique will be used:

 Stage 1: Awka South Local Government Area will be divided into its constituent
communities.
 Stage 2: A random sample of 10 communities will be selected from the list of
communities in Awka South Local Government Area.
  Stage 3: In each selected community, a list of maize farmers will be compiled with the
help of community leaders and agricultural extension agents.
 Stage 4: A random sample of 20 maize farmers will be selected from each community,
using a systematic random sampling technique.

Sample Size

The sample size for this study will be 100 maize farmers, selected from the 10 communities in
Awka South Local Government Area.

The sample size was determined using the Cochran's formula:

n = (Z2 x p x q) / E2

Where:

n = sample size

Z = Z-score corresponding to the desired confidence level (95% in this case)

p = proportion of maize farmers adopting climate-smart agriculture practices (assumed to be

50% for this study)

q=1-p

E = margin of error (assumed to be 5% for this study).

Using the above formula, the calculated sample size is:

n = (1.962 x 0.5 x 0.5) / 0.052 = 192.16

Rounding up to the nearest whole number, the sample size for this study is 100 maize farmers.

This sample size is considered adequate for the study, given the desired level of precision and
confidence.

3.4. Instrument of data collection

A structured questionnaire will be used to collect data from maize farmers in Awka South Local
Government Area. The questionnaire will be divided into sections to gather information on:

 Socio-economic characteristics of farmers (age, sex, education, farm size, etc.)

 Climate-smart agriculture practices adopted (use of drought-tolerant varieties,
conservation agriculture, etc.)
 Factors influencing adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices (access to credit,
extension services, etc.)
 Yield of maize before and after adopting climate-smart agriculture practices

In addition, Focus Group Discussion (FGD) Guide and Key Informant Interview (KII) Guide
will be also be used

Observation Checklist

An observation checklist will be used to gather data on:

 Farming practices and technologies used by maize farmers

 Soil and water conservation practices adopted
 Use of climate-resilient crop and animal varieties

These instruments will be pre-tested and validated before data collection to ensure their
reliability and validity.

3.5. Validity and reliability of instrument

Validity

Face Validity: The questionnaire will be pre-tested with a small group of maize farmers to ensure
that the questions are clear, understandable, and relevant to their experiences.

Reliability

Internal Consistency Reliability: The questionnaire will be designed to ensure that the questions
are consistent with each other and measure the same underlying constructs.

Pilot Testing
The questionnaire will be pilot-tested with a small group of 20 maize farmers in Awka South
Local Government Area to:

 Test the clarity and understandability of the questions.

 Identify any ambiguities or inconsistencies in the questionnaire.
 Refine the questionnaire based on the feedback from the pilot test.

Data Quality Control

To ensure data quality, the following measures will be taken:

 Data Cleaning: The data will be cleaned and checked for errors and inconsistencies.
 Data Validation: The data will be validated against existing data and literature to ensure
that it is accurate and reliable.
 Data Entry: The data will be entered into a computer database using a standardized data
entry template.

3.6. Methods of data Collection

Data Collection Methods

A structured questionnaire will be used to collect data on socio- economic characteristics of

farmers, CSA practices adopted, and maize yield.

Data Collection Tools

 Questionnaire: A structured questionnaire will be used to gather data from maize farmers.
 FGD Guide: A focus group discussion guide will be used to gather data from maize
farmers during FGDs.
 KII Guide: A key informant interview guide will be used to gather data from agricultural
extension agents, local government officials, and other stakeholders.
 Observation Checklist: An observation checklist will be used to gather data on farming
practices, soil and water conservation practices, and use of climate-resilient crop and
animal varieties.

3.7. Methods of Data Analysis

Both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques will be used to analyze the data.
Descriptive Statistics (frequencies, percentages, mean, and standard deviation) will be used to
summarize the data. Inferential statistics such as regression analysis, analysis of variance
(ANOVA) and T-test

The analysis will be conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software,
and results will be presented in tables, charts, and graphs for clarity and understanding.

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