IS 450 – Summer 2021 Exam 2 Study Guide

Chapter 4
Network Layer: The Data Plane
• Key terms: encapsulation, segment, datagram, interface, subnet, subnet mask, CIDR notation
• Forwarding: moving packets from router input to router output
• Routing: determine path from source to destination using routing algorithm
• Data plane: local, per router, forwarding function
• Control pane: network-wide logic for routing
o Traditional – algorithm implemented in router
o Software-defined (SDN) – implemented in remote servers
• Router architecture
o Route processor
o High-speed switching fabric
o Input ports
 Line termination, link layer protocol, lookup, forwarding, queuing
 Forwarding based on longest prefix matching, table stored in TCAM
 Queuing: fabric closer than input ports combined. Buffer overflow causes queuing
delay and loss
• Head-of-the-line (HOL) blocking
o Output ports
 Buffer/queuing, link layer protocol, line termination
 Scheduling: which packet to send next
• FIFO, priority, round-robin, weighted fair queuing
o Fabric types
 Memory: slower, packet copied to system memory, uses 2 bus crossings per datagram
(shared bus), speed limited by memory bandwidth
 Bus: input and output connected on same bus, speed limited by bus speed
 Crossbar: overcomes bus bandwidth limitations, fixed length cells in fabric
• The Internet Protocol
o Protocols
 IP: addressing conventions, datagram format, packet handling conventions
 Routing: path selection
 ICMP: error reporting, router signaling
o IP fragmentation
 Maximum transmission unit (MTU)
o IP addressing
 32-bit (version 4), 128-bit (version 6)
 Classless InterDomain Routing (CIDR)
 How do hosts get IP addresses?
• Static
• DHCP – discover, offer, request, ACK (NACK)
 Hierarchical addressing
  Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
 Network Address Translation (NAT)
• Why?
• Local network (LAN), external network (WAN), translation table
o IPv6
 Why?
 Tunneling in an IPv4 network
• Subnetting! (Just IPv4, remember the class examples.)

Chapter 5
Network Layer: The Control Plane
• Routing protocols – determine good path based on conditions
o Link state: global, all routers have complete topology
 Dijkstra’s algorithm (know by name and purpose, not specific computation)
 Link state broadcast, forwarding table
 Complexity? Oscillations?
 Node can advertise incorrect link cost, but each node computes its own table
o Distance vector: decentralized, routers know physically-connected neighbors and link cost
 Bellman-Ford equation (know by name and purpose)
 Iterative, asynchronous, distributed, notify only when distance vector changes
 Good news fast, bad news slow
 Poisoned reverse
 Convergence time varies, may have routing loops
 Node can advertise incorrect path cost which could propagate through network
o Static: changes slowly (or not at all)
o Dynamic: periodic updates in response to link cost changes
o Load-sensitive: cost varies based on congestion of link
• Intra-AS routing
o Also known as interior gateway protocol (IGP)
o RIP, OSPF, IGRP
o All routers must run same protocol within an autonomous system (AS)
o Gateway router links other ASes
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
o Link-state algorithm, floods link-state advertisements (LSAs) to all other routers in AS
o Uses IP (not TCP/UDP). IS-IS similar, uses Ethernet (not IP).
o Security, multiple paths, integrated multicast support
o Hierarchical
 Two-level: local area and backbone (area 0)
 Area border routers, backbone routers, boundary routers
• Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)
o eBGP: exterior, subnet reachability from neighboring ASes
o iBGP: interior, share reachability to all internal routers within the AS
o BGP session between peers over semi-permanent TCP connection
 Advertise paths to destination network prefixes with attributes
 AS-PATH, NEXT-HOP
  Messages: OPEN, UPDATE, KEEPALIVE (also acks), NOTIFICATION (also closes)
o Policy-based routing
 Uses import policy to accept/decline path
 Also determines whether to advertise path to other ASes
 Policy done via advertisements
• Provider networks, dual-homed networks
 Why have different protocol? Policy, scale, performance
o Hot potato routing: based on intra-domain cost
• Software defined networking (SDN)
o Purpose? Why? Easier network management, logically centralized programming, non-
proprietary implementation of control plane (white-box routers)
o Data plane switches
 API for table-based switch control (OpenFlow)
 Protocol for communicating with controller (OpenFlow)
o SDN controller
 Maintain state information, interact with network control applications/network
switches, implemented as distributed system
 Interface layer, network-wide state management layer, communication layer
o Network-control apps
o OpenFlow protocol
 Between controller and switch over TCP, optional encryption
 Controller-to-switch
• Features, configure, modify-state, packet-out
 Asynchronous (switch-to-controller)
• Packet-in, flow-removed, port status
 Symmetric (miscellaneous)
• Hello, echo, vendor
o Know these by name:
 OpenDaylight (ODL) controller
 ONOS controller
o Challenges?
• Internet control message protocol (ICMP)
o Used by hosts and routers for error reporting, echo request/reply
o ICMP message has type, code, first 8 bytes of datagram causing error
o Traceroute: source sends UDP segments to destination, ICMP response sent back
• Network Management and SNMP
o Managed devices contain managed objects whose data is gathered into a management
information base (MIB)
o SNMP protocol
 Send a request from managing entity to agent, and get response
 Send a trap message direct from agent to managing entity
o NETCONF
 Manage devices network-wide, RPC paradigm with XML
o YANG
 Data modeling language to specify structure, syntax, semantics