EMBEDDED SYSTEMS-EC3202

Dr. Shrishail M Hiremath

ECE-223, Electrical Science building
Tel:06612462459
e-mail: [email protected]
Subject {L-T-P / C} : EC3202 : Embedded Systems {3-0-0 / 3}
Time slot: TJ : Monday 1:15|2:10PM, Thursday 3:15|4:10 PM, Friday 2:15|3:10 PM
 Course Objective
■ Course is intended for Undergraduate
■ Goal and Objective of study :
I. To understand Embedded Systems and its
constituents
II. To comprehend the design of hardware for
Embedded Systems
III. To understand the software development for the
Embedded Hardware and bus protocols
IV.To develop understanding on real time operating
systems
 Course Outcome
CO1: explain the Embedded Systems and its constituents.

CO2: apply the knowledge of design process of hardware for

Embedded Systems

CO3: apply the knowledge of software development for the Embedded

Hardware and bus protocols

CO4: Use and design real time operating system for various
applications
 Tentative Course Outline
■ Introduction to Embedded systems, Sensors and Actuators, Embedded
Processors (8 hours)
■ Introduction to 8-bit and 16-bit microcontroller: 8051 family of microcontroller,
architecture, memory organization, special function registers, timer counter,
serial interface, interrupt organization, instruction sets and programming,
instruction timing and interfacing, practical applications, introduction to 16-bit
microcontrollers. (12 hours)
■ Embedded Memory, Devices and Buses for device networks, I2C Bus, SPI Bus,
PCI bus, (8 hours)
■ Device drivers and Interrupt servicing mechanism, Programming concepts and
Embedded programming in C and C++, Program modeling concepts in single and
multiprocessor- development Process, Real time operating system. (8 hours)
 Reference Textbooks:
■ M.A. Mazdi & J.G. Mazdi, The 8051 Microcontroller and Embedded System, Pearson
Education India , 2013
■ S.Heath, Embedded Systems Design, Elsevier , 2009
■ Frank Vahid and Tony Givargis, Embedded System Design: A Unified
Hardware/Software Approach, Wiley

■ J.K.Peckol, Embedded Systems A contemporary Design Tool, Wiley Student Edition ,

2008
■ K J Ayala, The 8051 Microcontroller Architecture, Programming and Application,
Penram International Publishing (India)
■ MacKenzie, I. Scott. The 8051 microcontroller. Pearson Education India, 2007.
■ Datasheets of Microcontollers
INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
■ Computing systems are everywhere
■ Most of us think of “desktop” computers
– PC’s
– Laptops
– Mainframes
– Servers
■ But there’s another type of computing system
– Far more common...
Embedded systems overview
■ Embedded computing systems
– Computing systems embedded within Computers are in here...
electronic devices
and here...
– Hard to define. Nearly any computing
system other than a desktop computer and even here...
– Billions of units produced yearly, versus
millions of desktop units
– Perhaps 1000 per household and per
automobile

Lots more of these,

though they cost a lot
less each.

7
 GENERAL-PURPOSE COMPUTERS

• Able to run a variety of

software.
• Contain relatively high-
performance hardware
components (fast processors,
data & program storage).

• Require an operating system

(OS).
 GENERAL-PURPOSE COMPUTERS

• Designed for heavy user • Several implement data

interaction. memory and program
storage.
• Uses a variety of peripherals
(displays, keyboards, mice, • Possesses a distributed
internet connections, wireless architecture (full functionality of
communication capability). the computer is spread across
multiple IC chips).
• Expensive ($100s - $1000s).

• Use a group of integrated

circuits or chips (ICs).
• One implements the
central processing unit
(CPU). Image Courtesy of
Recording Connection of Canada

1.1 WHAT IS AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

 EMBEDDED COMPUTERS

• Resources can be
implemented on a single
IC.

• Include a variety of
peripherals (timers,
analog-to-digital
converters, digital-to-
analog converters, serial
interfaces).

• Small size makes them Image Courtesy of

very versatile. Recording Connection of Canada

1.1 WHAT IS AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

EMBEDDED COMPUTERS

• Contains firmware (only

the needed software
which is not intended to
be changed frequently).

• May contain Real Time

Operating Systems
(RTOS) which are used
as a task scheduler.

• Low cost (10s of cents to

a few dollars). Image Courtesy of
Recording Connection of Canada

1.1 WHAT IS AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

INTRODUCTION TO EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
■ What is an embedded system?
– Application-specific computer system
– Interacting with its environment
– Build into a larger system Embedded
System
– Often with real-time computing constraints

■ What is the motivation for building an embedded system? Macroscopic view on a device level
– Better performance
– More functions and features
– Lower cost e.g. through automation Embedded
Input from Computer
Software Output to
– More dependable Environment Environment
Hardware
– Lower power

User Interface Link to

Other Systems
Microscopic view on a functionality level
 From a Processor to an Embedded System
• Microprocessor (central processing unit, CPU)
– Typically defined as a single processor core that supports at least instruction fetching, decoding, and
executing
– Normally can be used for general-purpose computing, but needs to be supported with memory and
Input/Outputs (IOs)

Instruction fetcher Memory Interface To memory

blocks
Instruction decoder

Register banks

ALU
Microprocessor
 From a Processor to an Embedded System
• Microcontroller (microcontroller unit, MCU)
– Typically has a single processor core
– Has memory blocks, digital IOs, analog IOs, and other basic peripherals
– Typically used for basic control purpose, such as embedded applications

Microprocessor (CPU) Program Memory Data Memory

System Bus

Digital IO Analog IO Timer Other Peripheral

Microcontroller
 From a Processor to an Embedded System
• Embedded system
– Typically implemented using MCUs
– Often integrated into a larger mechanical or electrical system
– May have real-time constraints

Embedded
System
 Attributes of Embedded Systems
• Interfacing with larger systems and environments
– Analog signals for reading sensors
• Typically use a voltage to represent a physical value
– Power electronics for driving motors, solenoids
– Digital interfaces for communicating with other digital devices
• Simple – switches
• Complex – displays

• Concurrent and reactive behaviours

– Must respond to sequences and combinations of events
– Real-time systems have deadlines on responses
– Typically must perform multiple separate activities concurrently
 Attributes of Embedded Systems
• Fault handling
– Many systems must operate independently for long periods of time
• Requires them to handle faults without crashing
– Often, fault-handling code is larger and more complex than the normal-case code

• Diagnostics
– Help service personnel determine problems quickly
 Field Applications of Embedded Systems
• Closed-loop control system
– Monitor and (pre)process a system state, adjust an output to maintain a desired set point (temperature, speed,
direction, etc.)
– Remove noise, select desired signal features

• Sequencing
– Step through different stages based on environment and system

• Communications and networking

– Exchange information reliably and quickly

• Part of a larger system

– Taking over very specialized functions as part of a larger system, e.g. fault handling, handling networking
 Example Embedded System: Bike Computer

Input:
Inputs: Wheel rotation
Functions:
- Wheel rotation indicator Mode key
- Speed measurement
- Mode key
- Distance measurement

Output:
Constraints: - Liquid crystal display
- Size
- Cost Use low-performance
- Power and energy microcontroller: Output:
- 9-bit, 10 MIPS Display speed and
- Weight distance
 Example: Gasoline Automobile Engine Control Unit
Functions:
- Fuel injection Many inputs and outputs:
- Air intake setting - Discrete sensors and
- Spark timing actuators
- Exhaust gas circulation - Network interface to
- Electronic throttle control rest of car
- Knock control

Constraints:
Use high-performance
- Reliability in harsh microcontroller:
environment
- E.g. 32-bit, 3 MB flash
- Cost memory, 50-300 MHz
- Size
 Introduction to the Internet of Things (IoT)
• IoT generally refers to a world in which a large range of objects are
addressable via a network

Objects can include:

Why IoT? • Smart buildings and home
appliances
• Items can have more • Fridges, TVs, cookers
functionality and become
more intelligent • Civil engineering structures
IoT
• Bridges, railways
• Items can be managed more
easily • Wearable devices
• Smart watches, glasses
• More information becomes
available • Medical devices
• Smart inhaler, embedded
pills
 Internet of Things: Why Now?

Price
• Embedded chips are becoming:
– Cheaper
– Smaller
– Lower power

• Energy harvesting

• Communication is becoming faster and

more efficient Number of embedded systems
 Challenges to the Internet of Things

• Large number of chips required

– Chips have become even cheaper and smaller • Power consumption
– Low power chips, longer battery life
• Big data demand
– Large volume of data will be generated, data • Security
centre storage needs to be increased
– Large amount of private data needs to be
protected
• Computation requirement
– High performance e.g. for cloud computing • Standards
– Official standards are required, such as
network protocols
 Definitions and Characteristics of ESs
• An Embedded System is a system that has software embedded into computer-hardware,
which makes a system dedicated for a variety of application or specific part of an application
or product or part of a larger system.
• An embedded system can be a small independent system or a large combinational system. It
is a microcontroller-based control system used to perform a specific task of operation.
Characteristics of an Embedded System
• Single-functioned − An embedded system usually performs a specialized operation and does
the same repeatedly. For example: A pager always functions as a pager.
• Tightly constrained − All computing systems have constraints on design metrics, but those
on an embedded system can be especially tight.
– Design metrics is a measure of an implementation's features such as its cost, size, power, and performance.
– It must be of a size to fit on a single chip, must perform fast enough to process data in real time and
consume minimum power to extend battery life.
 Characteristics of an Embedded System
• Reactive and Real time −
– Many embedded systems must continually react to changes in the system's environment and must
compute certain results in real time without any delay.
– Consider an example of a car cruise controller; it continually monitors and reacts to speed and brake
sensors.
– It must compute acceleration or de-accelerations repeatedly within a limited time; a delayed
computation can result in failure to control of the car.
• Microprocessors based − It must be microprocessor or microcontroller based.
• Memory − It must have a memory, as its so ware usually embeds in ROM. It does not
need any secondary memories in the computer.
• Connected − It must have connected peripherals to connect input and output devices.
• HW-SW systems − So ware is used for more features and flexibility. Hardware is used
for performance and security
 Benefits of Microcontroller-based Embedded Systems

• Greater performance and efficiency • More features

– Software makes it possible to provide – May not be possible or practical with other
sophisticated control approaches

• Lower costs for mixed signal-processing • Better dependability

systems – Adaptive system which can compensate for
– Less expensive components can be used failures
– Manufacturing costs reduced – Better diagnostics to improve repair time
– Operating costs reduced
– Maintenance costs reduced
 Impact of Constraints
• Microcontrollers used (rather than microprocessors)
– Include peripherals to interface with other devices, respond efficiently
– On-chip RAM, ROM reduce circuit board complexity and cost

• Programming language
– Programmed in the C language rather than Java (resulting in smaller and faster code – less expensive
MCU)
– Some performance-critical code may be in assembly language

• Operating system
– Typically no OS, but instead a simple scheduler
– If OS is used, it is likely to be a lean RTOS
EMBEDDED COMPUTERS
 Summary: Building Embedded Systems using MCUs
• In most embedded systems, MCUs are the best solution as they offer:
– Low development and manufacturing cost
– Easy porting and updating
– Light footprint
– Relatively low power consumption
– Satisfactory performance for low-end products

In the upcoming labs, we will learn some fundamentals of developing for embedded
systems. This will be achieved using an easy-to-start MCU design suite – the Mbed
platform.
 SOME BASICS OF COMPUTERS
• Multipurpose programmable machine that reads binary
instructions from its memory, accepts binary data as input,
processes data according to those instructions and provides
result as output
• It is a programmable device, made up of hardware and
software.
• The various components of the computer are called hardware
• A set of instructions written for the computer to solve a
specific task is called a program and a collection of
programs is called software.
 THE COMPUTER HARDWARE
• Central Processing Unit (CPU), which
acts as the computer’s brain.
• Input unit, through which program
and data can be entered into the
computer.
• Output unit, from which the results
of computation can be displayed or
viewed
• Memory, in which the programs and
data are stored. Figure shows a
simple block diagram of a computer
The processor communicates with the memory and input/output devices using three sets of
lines called buses—address bus, data bus, and control bus. The bus is a communication path
between the processor and the peripherals.
 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
The Central Processing Unit (CPU), which is also called the processor, can be further divided
into three major parts:
– Register File:consists of one or more registers. A register is a storage location in the CPU.
• It is used to hold data and/or a memory address during execution of an instruction.

– Arithmetic Logic Unit: is the computer’s numerical calculator and logical operation evaluator.
• Under command from the control unit, it receives information from the memory.
• It analyses and rearranges the data and carries out the sequence of arithmetic and logical
operations to accomplish the desired job.

– Control Unit: It controls and coordinates all the activities in the computer.
• It decodes the instructions and generates the necessary control signals for the execution of
instructions.
• The system clock synchronizes the activities of the control unit.
All CPU activities are measured by clock cycles. The control unit also contains a register called the
Program Counter (PC), which contains the memory address of the next instruction to be executed.
 MEMORY
• The memory is a place where programs
and data are stored.
• It is a storage device that stores
instructions, data and intermediate
results and provides that information to
the other units of the computer.
• A computer contains Semiconductor,
Magnetic or Optical memory.
• The classification of semiconductor
memory into two major types— Random
Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only
Memory (ROM)
 RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM)
• RAM, popularly known as user memory, is used to store user program and
data.
• It is also known as read/write (R/W) memory because it is equivalent to a
group of addressable registers—you can either read the stored contents of
memory location or write new contents into the memory location.
• The R/W memory is volatile, which means that when the power is turned off,
the contents are lost.
• To communicate with the memory, the CPU should be able to
 Select the memory chip
 Select the register in the memory chip
 Read from or write into the register
 MODEL OF A TYPICAL READ/WRITE MEMORY
• Chip select as CS, write signal as WR and read signal as
RD — these are active low signals indicated by the bar.
• They help to select RAM and perform write and read
operations.
• A flip-flop that can store one binary bit is called a
memory cell.
• If more than one flip flop are grouped together, it is
called a register
• In Fig. (b), the random access memory contains eight
registers; each register contains eight memory cells and
are arranged in a sequence
• Here, the size of the memory is 8 x 8 bits or 8 bytes
• To write into or read from any one of the registers, a
specific register has to be selected.
• This is achieved by using a 3 to 8 decoder. Three address
lines A2, A1 and A0 are required for the decoder
• These input lines can have eight different bits
combination (000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111),
and each combination can select one of the registers.
 RAM TYPES
• Dynamic memory uses one MOS transistor and one capacitor to
store one bit of information in the form of electrical charge.
• Static memories are designed to store binary information
without needing periodic refreshes and require one flip-flop to
store one bit of information (four to six transistors are needed to
store one bit of information).
• Hence, it requires the use of more complicated circuitry for each
bit.
• The advantage of dynamic memory is that a large number of
transistor gates can be placed on the memory chip; thus it has
high density and is faster than static memory.
• The disadvantage is that the charge (bit information) leaks and
hence, it requires periodic refreshing, i.e. information needs to
be read and written again after every few milliseconds.
 RAM TYPES
• NVRAM: Non-volatile RAM is a random access memory with battery backup. It contains static RAM based
memory and a minute battery for providing supply to the memory in the absence of external power supply.
• The memory and battery are packed together in a single package.
• NVRAM is used for the nonvolatile storage of results of operations or for setting up of flags, etc. The life span
of NVRAM is expected to be around 10 years. DS1744 from Maxim/Dallas is an example for 32KB NVRAM
 Read Only Memory(ROM)
• The read only memory is the simplest kind of memory.
• It is equivalent to a group of registers and each store a word
permanently.
• It is a nonvolatile memory which means that it retains the
stored information even if the power is turned off.
• By applying control signal, we can read the contents of any
memory location and if the processor attempts to write data to
a ROM location, ROM will not accept the data.
 THE MODEL OF A TYPICAL READ ONLY MEMORY

• The concept of ROM can be explained with

the diodes arranged in a matrix format, as
shown in Fig.(b).
• The horizontal lines are connected to the
vertical lines using diodes to store ‘1’.
• The presence of diode stores ‘1’ and the
absence of diode stores ‘0’.
• When a register is selected, the voltage of
that line goes high, and the output lines,
where the diodes are connected also go
high.
• When the memory register 010 is selected,
the data byte 00000110 (06H) can be read at
the data lines.
 TYPES OF ROM
• Two types of ROM are presently available, permanent ROM and erasable ROM.
Permanent ROM includes two types of memory, Masked read only memory and
Programmed read only memory.
• Masked Read Only Memory (MROM) MROM is a type of ROM where binary
instruction/data are stored during its fabrication.

• The semiconductor manufacturer places binary instruction/data in the memory

according to the request of the customer. MROM is used to hold microcontroller
application program and constant data

• Programmed Read Only Memory (PROM) PROM is a type of read only memory that
can be programmed in the field using a device called PROM programmer and here
the programming is permanent. In other words, the stored contents cannot be
erased.
• Erasable memory includes three types of memory—EPROM, EEPROM, and Flash
memory.
 PROM
• Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) The information stored in this
memory is semi-permanent.
• Data is stored with PROM programmer. Subsequently, all the information can be
erased by exposing the memory to ultraviolet light through a quartz window
installed on top of the EPROM chip. It can then be reprogrammed.
• Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM) EEPROM is a
type of nonvolatile memory that can be erased by electrical signals and
reprogrammed.
• EEPROM allows the user to selectively erase a single location, a row, or the whole
chip. This feature requires a complicated programming circuitry. Because of this,
EEPROM cannot achieve the density of EPROM technology.
• Flash Memory Flash memory was invented to incorporate the advantages and avoid
the drawback of EPROM and EEPROM technologies. It achieves the density of
EPROM, and can be programmed and erased electrically like EEPROM.
• However, it does not allow individual location to be erased, but the user can erase
the whole chip
 Input Devices & Output Devices
• Input Devices
– The input device transfers data and instructions in binary form, from the
outside world to the CPU.
– The input device, also known as a peripheral is the means through which the
user communicates data to the computer.
– The user can enter instructions and data through an input device like a
keyboard.
– Analog to digital converters, and switches can also be used as input devices.
• Output Devices
– It receives the stored result from the memory or from the CPU, converts it into
a form that the user can understand and transfers this data to the outside
world.
– Monitor, Liquid Crystal Display (LCD), seven segment display, printer, etc. are
used as output devices.
 WHAT IS A MICROPROCESSOR?
• In the late 1960s, the CPU was designed with discrete logic gates.
• As semiconductor technology advanced, it was possible to fabricate more than thousand gates on a
single silicon chip—this came to be known as Large-scale integration.
• As technology moved from Small-scale Integration to Large-scale Integration, it became possible to
build a whole CPU with its related timing functions on a single chip. This came to be known as
Microprocessor.
• A computer that is designed using a microprocessor as its CPU, is known as a Microcomputer.
• Intel Corporation announced the first 4 bit microprocessor 4004 in 1971.
• The number of bits refer to the number of binary digits that the microprocessor can manipulate in one
operation.
• Intel developed an 8 bit microprocessor 8080 in 1974. The 8085 microprocessor that followed 8080,
had few more additional features compared to 8080 architecture.
• The instruction sets of 8080 and 8085 are practically the same. The 8085 microprocessor has an 8 bit
data bus, so it can read data from or write data to memory or I/O ports only 8 bit at a time.
• It has a 16 bit address bus, so it can address any one of 2^16 or 65,536 memory locations. It operates
with 3MHz clock signal
 MICROPROCESSOR
• The limitations of 8085 microprocessor are
– It operates with low speed
– Less powerful addressing mode and instruction set
– Limited number of 8 bit general purpose registers
– Low memory (64 Kbytes) addressing capability
• Because of these limitations, Intel Corporation announced the first 16 bit
microprocessor 8086 in 1978.
• The 8086 microprocessor has 16 bit data bus and 20 bit address bus. It can read or
write data to memory or I/O ports either 16 bit or 8 bit at a time and it can address
any one of 1,048,576 (2^20) memory locations.
• Subsequently, Intel developed 16 bit processors such as 8088, 80186, 80188 and
80286
• 80186 and 80188 are an improved version of 8086 and 8088 respectively.
 MICROPROCESSORS
• Both the processors have a few additional instruction sets compared to 8086 instruction set.
• 80286 is an improved version of 80186. It is designed to be used as CPU in multitasking computers.
• It operates in real and virtual addressing mode.
• Later, in 1985, Intel developed 32 bit microprocessor 80386.
• The 80386 can address directly up to 4 gigabytes of memory. Intel’s second generation of 32 bit
microprocessor 80486 was available in the year 1989.
• Intel introduced a third generation 80586 (Pentium processor) in 1998. Motorola, Zilog, etc. also
developed 8 bit, 16 bit and 32 bit Microprocessors. Microprocessors have been widely used after their
invention.
• Intel, AMD, Freescale, GLOBALFOUNDRIES, TI, Cyrix, NVIDIA, Qualcomm, MediaTek, etc. are the key
players in the processor market.
– However, the following limitations of the microprocessor led to the invention of the microcontroller.
• A microprocessor requires external memory to execute a program.
• A microprocessor cannot be directly interfaced with I/O devices.
• Peripheral chips are needed to interface I/O devices
 Intel® Atom™ Processor
Intel® Core™2 Processor || Intel® Core™ Processor
Intel® Pentium® D Processor || Intel® Pentium® M
Processor
Intel® Itanium® Processor Family || Intel® Xeon™
Processor
Intel ® Pentium® 4 Processor || Intel® Pentium® III
Processor
Intel® Celeron® Processor || Intel® Pentium® III Xeon™
Processor
Intel® Pentium® II Xeon™ Processor || Intel®
Pentium® II Processor
Intel® Pentium® Pro Processor || Intel® Pentium
Processor
Intel486™ Processors and Earlier
 WHAT IS A MICROCONTROLLER?
• As technology moved from LSI to VLSI, it became possible to build the
microprocessor, memory and I/O devices on a single chip. This came to be
known as the ‘Microcontroller.’
• A microcontroller contains a microprocessor and also one or more of the
following components.
– Memory
– Analog to Digital (A/D) converter
– Digital to Analog (D/A) converter
– Parallel I/O interface
– Serial I/O interface
– Timers and Counters
Microcontroller vs. General-purpose Microprocessor
Microcontroller vs. General-Purpose Microprocessor
Microcontrollers for Embedded Systems
 HISTORICAL NOTE
• Texas Instrument’s TMS 1000 is considered as the world’s first microcontroller.
• We cannot say it as a fully functional microcontroller when we compare it with modern
microcontrollers.
• TI followed Intel’s 4004/4040, 4 bit processor design and added some amount of RAM, program
storage memory (ROM) and I/O support on a single chip, there by eliminated the requirement of
multiple hardware chips for self-functioning.
• Provision to add custom instructions to the CPU was another innovative feature of TMS 1000. TMS
1000 was released in 1974.
• In 1977 Intel entered the microcontroller market with a family of controllers coming under one
umbrella named MCS- 48 family.
• The processors came under this family were 8038HL, 8039HL, 8040AHL, 8048H, 8049H, and 8050AH.
Intel 8048 is recognized as Intel’s first microcontroller and it was the most prominent member in the
MCS- 48 family.
• It was used in the original IBM PC keyboard.
• The inspiration behind 8048 was Fairchild’s F8 microprocessor and Intel’s goal of developing a low
cost and small size processor.
• The design of 8048 adopted a true Harvard architecture where program and data memory shared the
same address bus and is differentiated by the related control signals
 HISTORICAL NOTE
• Intel came out with its most fruitful design in the 8bit microcontroller
domain–the 8051 family and its derivatives.
• It is the most popular and powerful 8bit microcontroller ever built.
• It was developed in the 1980s and was put under the family MCS-51.
Almost 75% of the microcontrollers used in the embedded domain were
8051 family based controllers during the 1980–90s.
• 8051 processor cores are used in more than 100 devices by more than 20
independent manufacturers like Maxim, NXP, Atmel, etc. under the license
from Intel.
• Due to the low cost, wide availability, memory efficient instruction set,
mature development tools and Boolean processing (bit manipulation
operation) capability, 8051 family derivative microcontrollers are much
used in high-volume consumer electronic devices, entertainment industry
and other gadgets where cost-cutting is essential.
 Historical Note
• Another important family of microcontrollers used in industrial control and
embedded applications is the PIC family micro controllers from Microchip
Technologies.
• It is a high performance RISC microcontroller complementing the CISC (Complex
Instruction Set Computing) features of 8051.
• Some embedded system applications require only 8bit controllers whereas some
embedded applications requiring superior performance and computational needs
demand 16/32bit microcontrollers.
• Infineon, Freescale, Philips, Atmel, Maxim, Microchip etc. are the key suppliers of
16bit microcontrollers.
• Philips tried to extend the 8051 family microcontrollers to use for 16bit applications
by developing the Philips XA (eXtended Architecture) microcontroller series
 Historical Note
• 8bit microcontrollers are commonly used in embedded systems where the processing
power is not a big constraint.
• As mentioned earlier, more than 20 companies are producing different flavors of the 8051
family microcontroller.
• They try to add more and more functionalities like built in SPI, I2C serial buses, USB
controller, ADC, Networking capability, etc.
• So the competitive market is driving towards a one-stop solution chip in microcontroller
domain.
• High processing speed microcontroller families like ARM Cortex M Series are also available
in the market, which provides solution to applications requiring hardware acceleration and
high processing capability.
• Currently the ARM is the most widely used microcontroller in the world and is targeted for
the high end of the embedded market as well as the PC and tablet market.
 Key Players in The Microcontroller Market
• Freescale, Renesas, Zilog, Cypress (Spansion), Infi neon, ST Micro Electronics,
EPSON, Texas Instruments, Toshiba, NXP, Microchip, Analog Devices, Daewoo, Intel,
Maxim, Sharp, Silicon Laboratories, HOLTEK, LAPIS, CYROD, Atmel, etc.
• Atmel has got special significance. They are the manufacturers of a variety of Flash
memory based microcontrollers.
• They also provide In-System Programmability for the controller. The Flash memory
technique helps in fast reprogramming of the chip and there by reduces the product
development time.
• Atmel also provides another special family of microcontroller called AVR, an 8bit RISC
Flash microcontroller, fast enough to execute powerful instructions in a single clock
cycle and provide the latitude you need to optimize power consumption
 VON NEUMANN (PRINCETON) AND HARVARD ARCHITECTURE
• Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture
shares a single common bus for fetching both instructions and data.
• Program instructions and data are stored in a common main memory.
• Von-Neumann architecture based processors/controllers first fetch an
instruction and then fetch the data to support the instruction from code
memory.
• The two separate fetches slows down the controller’s operation.
• The Von Neumann Architecture is named after the mathematician and
computer scientist John Von Neumann.
• Von-Neumann architecture is also referred as Princeton architecture,
since it was developed by the Princeton University.
• The advantage of Von Neumann architecture is simple design of
microcontroller chip because only one memory is to be implemented
which in turn reduces required hardware.
• The disadvantage is slower execution of a program
• Example: Motorola 68HC11 microcontroller
 HARVARD ARCHITECTURE
• Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will
have separate data bus and instruction bus.
• This allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur
simultaneously on both buses.
• With Harvard architecture, the data memory can be read and
written while the program memory is being accessed.
• These separated data memory and code memory buses allow one
instruction to execute while the next instruction is fetched
(“prefetching”).
• The advantage of a Harvard architecture microcontroller is that it is
faster for a given circuit complexity because it offers greater amount
of parallelism.
• The disadvantage is that it requires more hardware, because two
sets of buses and memory blocks are required.
• MCS 51 (8051 family) and PIC microcontrollers are based on
Harvard architecture
 RISC AND CISC MACHINES
• The term RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computing. As the name implies, all
RISC processors/controllers possess lesser number of instructions, typically in the range
of 30 to 40.
• CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computing-the instruction set is complex and
instructions are high in number
• From a programmers point of view RISC processors are comfortable since s/he needs to
learn only a few instructions,
• whereas for a CISC processor s/he needs to learn more number of instructions and
should understand the context of usage of each instruction (This scenario is explained
on the basis of a programmer following Assembly Language coding)
• For a programmer following C coding it doesn’t matter since the cross-compiler is
responsible for the conversion of the high level language instructions to machine
dependent code).
• Microchip PIC16F87X , Atmel AVR microcontroller are
• an example for a RISC processor and its instruction set contains only 32 instructions.
• The original version of 8051 microcontroller (e.g. AT89C51) is a CISC controller and its
instruction set contains 255 instructions
RISC AND CISC MACHINES
 Word Length: 4, 8, 16, 32, 64-bit Microcontrollers
• The number of bits in a binary pattern that a microcontroller
understands and processes at a time is called word length, i.e.
number of bits on which ALU can perform operations at a time
• Microcontrollers are classified according to their word length, it
ranges from 4 or 8 bits for small systems, 16 bits for medium
systems and 32 or 64 bits for high-speed large systems.
• Bus width, internal bus width, register width and bits are the
different terms used interchangeably for the term word length
 Currently Available Microcontrollers

• 32-bit
ARM, AVR32 (Atmel), ColdFire (Freescale), MIPS32,
PIC32 (Microchip), PowerPC, TriCore (Infineon), SuperH
• 16-bit
MSP430 (TI), HCS12 (Freescale), PIC24 (Microchip), dsPIC
(Microchip)
• 8-bit
8051, AVR (Atmel), HCS08 (Freescale), PIC16, PIC18
 Microprocessor vs Microcontroller
Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a central processing unit (CPU), A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that
which is capable of performing arithmetic as well as logical contains a CPU, scratchpad RAM, special and
operations according to a predefined set of instructions general purpose register arrays, on chip
ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, timer
and interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports
It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of other It is a self-contained unit and it doesn’t require
chips like timers, program and data memory chips, interrupt external interrupt controller, timer, UART, etc. for its
controllers, etc. for functioning functioning
Most of the time general purpose in design and operation Mostly application-oriented or domain-specific
Doesn’t contain a built in I/O port. The I/O port functionality Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O
needs to be implemented with the help of external ports which can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or
programmable peripheral interface chips like 8255 32 bit port or as individual port pins
Targeted for high end market where performance is Targeted for embedded market where performance
important is not so critical (At present this demarcation is
invalid)
Limited power saving options compared to microcontrollers Includes lot of power saving features
 Criteria for Choosing a Microcontroller
• Meeting the computing needs of the task at hand efficiently and cost
effectively
– Speed, What is the highest speed that the microcontroller
supports?
– Packaging , 40-pin DIP (dual inline package) or a QFP (quad flat
package) or other
– Power consumption - critical for battery-powered products.

– The amount of RAM and ROM on chip

– The number of I/O pins and the timer on chip
– How easy to upgrade to higher performance or lower power-
consumption versions
– Cost per unit
 Criteria for Choosing a Microcontroller
• Availability of software development tools, such as compilers, assemblers, and
debuggers
• Wide availability and reliable sources of the microcontroller
 The 8051 family has the largest number of diversified (multiple
source) suppliers
 Intel (original)
 Atmel
 Philips/Signetics
 AMD

 Infineon (formerly Siemens)

 Matra
 Dallas Semiconductor/ Maxim
 WHY 8051 MICROCONTROLLER?
• Though 8051 is invented by Intel, today it is available in the market from more
than 20 vendors
• with more than 100 variants of the original 8051 flavor, supporting CAN, USB, SPI
and TCP/IP interfaces, integrated ADC/DAC, LCD Controller and extended number
of I/O ports.
• Low Cost - flash microcontroller (AT89C51) from Atmel – costs 1US$
• 8051 is a very versatile microcontroller featuring powerful Boolean processor
which supports bit manipulation instructions for Real-time industrial control
applications.
• The standard 8051 architecture supports 6 interrupts (2 external interrupts, 2
timer interrupts and 2 serial interrupts), two 16bit timers/counters, 32 I/O lines
and a programmable full duplex serial interface.
• Fascinating features- handling of the interrupts- interrupts have two priority
levels and each interrupt is allocated fixed 8 bytes of code memory. This
approach is very efficient in real time application
 Options for Building Embedded Systems
Implementation Design Unit Upgrades Size Weight Power System
Cost Cost & Bug Fixes Speed

Discrete logic low mid hard large high ? very fast

Dedicated
Hardware

ASIC high ($500K/ very low hard tiny – 1 die very low low extremely fast
mask set)
Programmable logic – low to mid mid easy small low medium to high very fast
FPGA, PLD

Microprocessor + memory low to mid mid easy small to medium low to moderate medium moderate
Software Running on

+ peripherals
Generic Hardware

Microcontroller (int. low mid to low easy small low medium slow to moderate
memory & peripherals)

Embedded PC low high easy medium moderate to high medium to high fast

Microcontroller based embedded system

THANK YOU