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LECTURE NOTES ON GET 201

The lecture notes for GET 201 - Applied Electricity cover essential topics in electrical engineering including resistance, capacitance, inductance measurements, and various circuit configurations. Key concepts include Ohm's Law, resistor color codes, and the use of DC and AC bridges for precise measurements. The document also discusses specific types of bridges for measuring resistance, capacitance, and inductance, along with their operational principles and advantages.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
8 views22 pages

LECTURE NOTES ON GET 201

The lecture notes for GET 201 - Applied Electricity cover essential topics in electrical engineering including resistance, capacitance, inductance measurements, and various circuit configurations. Key concepts include Ohm's Law, resistor color codes, and the use of DC and AC bridges for precise measurements. The document also discusses specific types of bridges for measuring resistance, capacitance, and inductance, along with their operational principles and advantages.

Uploaded by

greatgakaphimia
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LECTURE NOTES ON GET 201 -APPLIED ELECTRICITY

FIRST SEMESTER YR 2, 2024/2025 ACADEMIC SESSION, DEPARTMENT OF


ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING, SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING &
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY(SEET) FUTIA.

Contents:
Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance Measurements
Resistor colour Codes
DC/AC Bridges
Transducers
Single Phase Circuits
Complex J-notation
AC Circuits
Impedance, Admittance and Susceptance

Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance Measurements

Introduction
Resistance and Ohm’s Law
From Ohm’s Law, the resistance is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely
proportional to the current I.e. R = V/R Ω

Calculating Resistances in series

R1 R2 R3

When two or more than two resistors are connected in series as shown in figure above,
their equivalent resistance is calculated by:

REq = R1 + R2 + R3 +… Rn

Calculating Resistance in Parallel

when the resistors are in parallel configuration the equivalent resistance becomes:
Req = (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3) + ….. (1/Rn)

We can also say that for 3 resistances in parallel, that Req = R1xR2xR3/(R1+R2+R3) 1
Where
REq is the equivalent resistance of all resistors (R1, R2, R3…Rn)

Star to Delta and Delta to Star Resistance interconnections

From Delta (Δ) to Star (Y) Interconnection

From Star (Y) to Delta (Δ) Interconnection

2
Capacitance

The Total Capacitance Configuration for Capacitors connected in Series is as follows

Capacitors connected in series

For Capacitors connected in parallel, the total capacitance is obtained as

Capacitors connected in parallel

The capacitance sums up together when they are connected together in a parallel
configuration

CEq = C1 + C2 + C3 +… Cn

Where
CEq is the equivalent Capacitance of all capacitors (C1, C2, C3…Cn)

Capacitance is measured in Farads (F)

Inductance
For inductors in series, the equivalent inductance adds up as follows:
Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 +… Ln
Where Leq is the equivalent inductance of all the inductors(L1, l2, L3,…Ln)

For inductors in parallel:


� � � �
���
=
��
+
��
+ …..�

Inductance is measured in Henry (H)

3
Resistance Colour Codes

Resistance colour codes are a system of coloured bands printed on resistors to indicate
their resistance value and tolerance. The table below shows the resistor colour code chart:

Colour Significant digit Multiplier Tolerance


Black 0 - -
Brown 1 1 -
Red 2 10 -
Orange 3 100 -
Yellow 4 1000 -
Green 5 10,000 -
Blue 6 100,000 -
Violet 7 106 -
Gray 8 107 -
White 9 108 -
Gold - 109 5
Silver - 0.1 10
No Colour - 0.01 20

Table showing Resistor Colour Code Chart

Here is a breakdown of the concept:


For a 4-Band Resistor:
Band 1 & 2 gives the first two significant digits of the resistance value
Band 3 is a multiplier (it details the number of zero’s to add to the first two digits)
Band 4 is the tolerance (accuracy of the resistance value). The absence of the fourth colour
band means 20% tolerance.

For a 5-Band Resistor:


Band 1,2 & 3 gives the first three significant digits of the resistance value
Band 4 is the multiplier
Band 5 is the tolerance
A short guide to remember resistor colour codes, use the mnemonic: Bad Boys Race Our
Young Girls But Violet Generally Wins

For instance, a resistance with colour code: Red, Red, Black, Gold is a 22 Ohms resistor at
5% tolerance.
4
Wire-wound, high wattage resistors are usually not colour coded, but have the Ohmic value
printed on the body of the resistor.

Resistors with brown body colour are insulated; while those with black body colour are
not insulated

Pictorial Diagram of a basic Resistor showing colour coding chart

Variable Resistors

In addition to fixed value resistors, variable resistors are also used in electronics. There are
two types of variable resistors, namely; the rheostat and the potentiometer.
A rheostat is a two-terminal device. It has a maximum value of resistance specified by the
manufacturer and a minimum value of zero ohms. It has an arrow head, indicating a
mechanical means of adjustment. The resistance measured between its terminals can be
set to any intermediate value within the range of variation.
A potentiometer is a three-terminal device it has a fixed resistance between two points,
then has a variable arm being the third point.

B C
A

B
Diagram of a Rheostat Diagram of a Potentiometer

5
DC Bridge For Measuring Resistance (The Wheatstone Bridge)
For measuring resistances with greater accuracy than that possible with an Ohmmeter, a
“bridge” is used. A resistance bridge employs a highly sensitive galvanometer as an
indicating device, together with a calibrated variable-resistance standard and voltage
source in a suitable circuit arrangement. The galvanometer serves as a null indicator which
signals a balance condition. Resistance is read from a calibrated scale associated with the
standard variable resistance and range multiplier.
The Figure below illustrates the most common type, the Wheatstone Bridge. The form
shown is the diamond arrangement, in which the four resistors in the circuit diagram
resemble. The unknown resistance to be measure Rx, is connected between terminals C
and D. R1 and R2 are fixed value precision resistors called “ratio arms” and R3 is a variable
resistor known as the “Standard arm”. The indicator is a highly sensitive zero-centered
galvanometer, G.

Diagram of a Wheatstone Bridge for measuring unknown resistance, Rx

Current will flow through g when there is a difference of potential between points B and D.
when there is no potential difference between B and D, that is when EBD = 0, the pointer of
the galvanometer will turn to zero (0), when EBD =0, the bridge is said to be “balanced”.
Consider the relationship in the circuit of the above diagram let I1 be the current in R1, I2
the current in R2, I3 in R3 and I2 in Rx. I1 times R1 is the voltage from A to B, that is,

EAB = I1R1
EAD = I2R2 ……….(1)
ECB = I3R3
ECD = IxRx
To obtain balance, (EBD = 0); the voltage from A to B must equal the voltage from A to D
EAB = EAD ……..(2), therefore,

I1R1 = I2R2 ……(3)


I1/I2 = R2/R1 …….(4) , similarly, 6
EBC = ECD ……………(5)
I3R3 = IxRx ………..(6)
I3/Ix = Rx/R3 ……….…(7)

At balance point, there is no current through G, also we can say that;


I1 =I3 and I2 = Ix …….(8)
Substituting equation 8 into eqn 4 and 7 we obtain
I1/Ix = R2/R1 and I1/Ix = Rx/R3 ; I1/Ix is common to both eqns,so we can say,
R2/R1 = Rx/R3 ………………(9)
Hence, Rx = (R2/R1) x R3 ………………(10)

The fundamental equation 10 states that at balance, the unknown resistance, Rx equals the
product of the ratio arms (R2/R1), and the standard arm, R3.
Maximum accuracy and sensitivity occur when R1 = R2, that is, when the ratio of R2/R1 = 1.
For this condition, Rx = R3 . if R3 is a highly accurate decade type rheostat, the value, Rx
can be read directly from the calibrated scale of the rheostat when R3 is adjusted for
balance. The condition R2/R1 = 1 would limit the range of measurement of Rx to the range
of variation of the rheostat, so that if the maximum resistance of R3 = 10,000 ohms, a
resistor whose value is larger than 10,000 ohms could not be measured. To overcome this
limitation, a range switch permits selection of different ratio arms. Thus, if R2/R1 = 3, the
maximum value of Rx which may be measured is 3R3, etc. It should be apparent though,
that any small error of the galvanometer imbalance which the eye may not detect is
multiplied by the ratio, R2/R1 , which is 3 in this case, thus increasing the error. There are
other bridge circuits, such as the slide-wire bridge, for measuring resistance.

AC Bridges For Capacitance And Inductance Measurements


AC bridges are similar to Wheatstone bridge in which the DC source is replaced by an AC
source and the galvanometer replaced with a headphone headphone, a vibration
galvanometer or a tuned amplifier. Alternating current bridge methods are important for
measurement of inductance, capacitance, storage factor, dissipation factor etc. The a.c.
bridge is natural out growth of Wheatstone Bridge. It's basic form consist of four arms, a
source of excitation(ac source), a balance detector.
The resistors of bridge are replaced with combinations of resistors. Inductors and
capacitors (I.e. impedance). These bridges are used to determine the unknown
capacitance/inductance of capacitor/inductors. The working principle of these bridges is
also based on Ohm’s and Kirchhoff's laws. 7
The figure 2 shows a generic AC bridge format. It has four impedance forming a bridge.
The two opposite junctions are connected to a headphone, while the other two are
connected with an AC source.
B

AC Source

Fig. 2. Diagram of a Generic AC Bridge

Principle of operation:
When the potential difference across B and D becomes zero, no current flows through BD
arm. Thus no sound is heard in the headphone. This is called a bridge balance situation.
The bridge balance can be obtained using the Kirchoff’s voltage and current law. Suppose
that the total current flowing from source is I, let the currents flowing through areas AB, BC,
AD, DC and BD be I1, I2, I3, I4 and IH respectively. Since under the balance condition, the
headphone current (IH) is zero, thus; I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
Applying KVL to loop ABDA, we have
Z1I1 - Z2I2 = 0
Z1I1 = Z2I2 ---------------- (1)
Applying KVL to loop BCDB, we have
Z3I3 - Z4I4 = 0
Z3I1 - Z4I2 = 0
Z3I1 = Z4I2 ---------------- (2)
Dividing equation (1) with equation (2), we have
Z1 I1 Z 2 I2
Z3 I1
= Z 4 I2
Z1 Z2
Z3
= Z4
---------------- (3a) OR

Z1 Z2
= ---------------- (3b)
Z3 Z4

Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 (The generic AC bridge equation)


8
Types of AC Bridges
The different types of AC bridges used for measuring Capacitance, inductance and
frequency are listed below as follows;

1) AC bridges for measuring Capacitance


 De-Sauty bridge
 Wiens bridge (series)
 Schering bridge
 Parallel C Bridge
 The Commutated Capacitor Bridge
 Resistance Ratio bridge

2) AC bridges for measuring Inductance


 Anderson Bridge
 Maxwell L/C bridge or Maxwell-Wiens bridge
 Maxwell inductance bridge
 Owen’s bridge
 Heavisible-Campbell equal ratio bridge
 Hay’s bridge

3) AC Bridges for measuring frequency


 Robinson bridge
 Wiens bridge (parallel)
Note: there are two types of Wien’s bridge:
1 - Wien’s Series bridge: it is used to determine the unknown capacitance, its power factor
2 - Wien’s parallel bridge: it is used in feedback network circuits f oscillators. It is used as a
frequency determining element in audio and high frequency oscillators. It is also used in
harmonic distortion analyser as a notch filter for discriminating against one specific
frequency.
For the context of this course, we will only be discussing one bridge each for measuring
inductance and capacitance which are: Maxwell’s Inductance bridge and Desauty Bridge
respectively.

9
Inductance Measurement (Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge)

E1 E3

B
L1
R3
R1
C
A D

R2
R4
L2
D
E2 E4

E
Diagram of Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
L2 is adjusted, until the detector indicates zero current.
Let R1= unknown resistance
L1= unknown inductance of the choke.
L2= known standard inductance
R1, R2, R4 = known resistances

At balance point, Z1Z4 = Z2Z3


(R1 + jXL1)R4 = (R2 + jXL2)R3 . . . . . . . . . . (1
(R1 + jωL1)R4 = (R2 + jωL2)R3 . . . . . . . . . . (2
R1R4 + jωL1R4 = R2R3 + jωL2R3 . . . . . . . . . . (3
Comparing real part in eqn (3
R1R4 = R2R34 . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .(4
∴R1 = R2R34 / R4
Comparing the imaginary part in eqn (3
ωL1R4 = ωL2R3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(5

∴ L1 = L2R3/R4
Advantages of the Maxwell’s inductance bridge
1. Expression for R1 and L1 are simple.
2. Equations area simple
3. They do not depend on the frequency (as w is cancelled)
4. R1 and L1 are independent of each other. 10
Disadvantages of the Maxwell’s inductance bridge
1. Variable inductor is costly.
2. Variable inductor is bulky.

Capacitance Measurement(Desauty Bridge)

Diagram of Desauty Bridge

At balance point, Z1Z4 = Z2Z3


1 1
�ω�1
x �4 = �ω�2
x �3
�4 �3
=
�1 �2

�� ��
∴ �� =
��

Example 1
a)For a generic AC bridge, the condition for balance is given as Z1Z4 = Z2Z3.
Where Z1=R1+ jX1; Z2= R2+ jX2 ; Z3=R3+ jX3; Z4=R4+ jX4. Obtain expressions for:
(i) its real part (ii) its imaginary part (iii) phase angle.
b) Which device is used for determining the balance point in AC bridges?

11
Solution 1
a)Given the generic AC bridge Equation Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 where
Z1=R1+ jX1
Z2= R2+ jX2
Z3=R3+ jX3
Z4=R4+ jX4 putting these into the generic equation we obtain
(R1+ jX1) (R4+ jX4) = (R2+ jX2) (R3+ jX3) ……………….1
R1R4 + jX4R1 + jX1R4 - X1X4 = R2R3 + jX3R2 + jX2R3 - X2X3 ……………2

i)Comparing real terms of equation 2, we obtain


R1R4 - X1X4 = R2R3 - X2X3 …………………..3
If X1X4 = X2X3 …………………………….4, then equation 3 becomes
R1R4 = R2R3 …………………………..5
Hence R1/R3 = R2/R4 Real part Expression

ii) For the imaginary expression, compare the imaginary terms of eqn 2
X4R1 + X1R4 = X3R2 + X2R3 ……………….6
Divide eqn 6 through by eqn 5, we obtain
(X4R1 + X1R4)/R1R4 = (X3R2 + X2R3)/R2R3
= X4/R4 + X1/R1 + X3/R3 + X2/R2 the imaginary expression
Iii) For the phasor Expression we obtain
X4/R4 + X1/R1 + X3/R3 + X2/R2 = Ø4 + Ø1 = Ø3 + Ø2

b) the instrument used for determining balance point in AC bridges are “headphones”

Example 2
In a certain AC bridge, arm AD is unknown. Arm BC is 40Ω, while arms DC and AB are 60Ω,
20Ω and 15μF respectively.
a) From the description given, draw the schematic diagram of the bridge
b) State the conditions for balance
c) Obtain expressions for the unknown arm of the bridge.
d) Hence, calculate the values of the inductance and resistance of the unknown coil. 12
Solution
B
2a) R1
R3
C1
A C

L2
R2 R4
D

The Schematic diagram for the AC bridge

2b) The condition for balance is that EBD = 0 (No sound from headphone)

2c) Using the generic AC bridge equation: Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 where;


1
Z1 = R1+ ��1

Z2 = R2+ jL2
Z3 = R3
Z4 = R4
Also, AD = Z3 = R3+ jL3 is the unknown arm of the bridge
1
(R1+�� ) R4 = R3 (R2+ jL2) ………………….1, expanding we obtain
1

R1R4 + 4 = R2 R3 + jL2R3 ……………………2, collecting real terms we obtain
��1
R1R4 = R2 R3 …………………….3
Therefore, R2 = (R1R4)/R3 The real expression for the unknown resistance arm.

For the unknown inductance are, L2


Comparing imaginary terms in eqn 2, we obtain,
��
= L2R3 …………………… 4
��

��
L2 = Gives the expression for the unknown inductance arm
�� ��

2d) Given that R1 = 20Ω; R3 = 40Ω; R4 = 60Ω; C1 = 15μF 13


For R2 = = 30Ω
R2 = 30Ω

For L2 = = 100, 000H


L2 = 100KH

TRANSDUCERS
What is a Transducer?
A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another.
Common examples include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position and
pressure sensors, and antenna

Specifications for Selecting Transducers


While selecting the proper transducer for any application, or ordering the transducers the
following specifications should be thoroughly considered:

1) Ranges available
2)Squaring System
3)Sensitivity
4) Maximum working temperature
5) Method of cooling employed
6) Mounting details
7) Maximum depth
8) Linearity and hysteresis
9) Output for zero input
10) Temperature co-efficient of zero drift
11) Natural Frequency.

Types of Transducers
1. Resistive transducers
 Strain gauge
 Linear motion potentiometer
 Thermistor
 Carbon microphone

2. Capacitive transducers
 Capacitor pressure transducer 14
 Capacity Microphone

3. Inductive transducers
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer
 Dynamic Microphone
 Linear motion inductor

Advantages of Electrical Transducers


1. Very small power is required for controlling the electrical or electronic system
2. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level
3. Mass inertia effects are reduced to the barest minimum as possible.
4. The size and shape of the transducers can be suitably designed appropriately.
5. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing
medium .
6. The outputs can be modified to meet the requirements of the indicating or controlling
equipment.

Resistive Transducers
The resistance of a conductor is expressed by a simple equation that involves a few
physical quantities . The relationship is given by
R= ρL/A
Where , R= resistance, Ω
ρ = Resistivity of conductor materials, Ω-m
L= Length of conductor, m
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor,m2

Any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above relationship can be the
design basis of an electrical resistance transducer. There are a number of ways in which
resistance can be changed by a physical phenomenon. The translational and Rotational
potentiometer which work on the basis of change in the value of resistance with change in
length of the conductor can be used for measurement of translational or rotary
displacements. The resistivity of materials changes with the change of temperature thus
causing a change of resistance. This property may be used for measurement of
temperature.In a resistance transducer an indication of measured physical quantity is given
by a change in the resistance. It may be classified as follows:
1. Mechanically varied resistance - POTENTIOMETER
2. Thermal resistance change – RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
3. Resistivity change - RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGE
15
Strain Gauge
When a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of
the fact that both length and diameter of conductors change. The value of resistivity of
conductors also changes. When it is strained, it’s property is called piezo-resistance.
Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo-resistive gauges. The strain
gauge is a measurement transducer for measuring strain and its associated stress in
experimental stress analysis.

Four types of Strain gauges are :


1. Wire–wound strain gauge
2. Foil-type strain gauge
3. Semiconductor strain gauge
4. Capacitive strain gauge.

Working Principle of Strain Gauges:


Strain gauges work on the principle that the resistance of a conductor or a semiconductor
Changes when strained. This property can be used for measurement of displacement, force
and pressure. When a strain gauge is subjected to tension (positive strain) it’s length
increases while it’s cross-sectional area decreases. Since the resistance of a conductor is
proportional to it’s length and inversely proportional to it’s area of cross section, the
resistance of the gauge increases with positive strain. Strain gauges are most commonly
used in wheat–stone bridge circuits to measure the change of resistance of a grid of wire
for calibration purposes. The ‘GAUGE FACTOR’ is defined as the ratio of per unit change in
resistance to per unit change in length. i.e ,

Gauge factor (Gf) = ΔR/R ÷ ΔL/L


Where, ΔR = corresponding change in resistance, R
ΔL = Change in length per unit length, L
R= ρL/A
Where, R= resistance, Ω
ρ = Resistivity of conductor materials, Ω-m
L= Length of conductor, m
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor, m2

16
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (L.V.D.T)
LVDT is a passive inductive transducer and is commonly employed to measure force(or
weight,pressure and acceleration etc. Which depend on force )in terms of the amount and
direction of displacement of an object.

Working Principle
When the core is in the centre (called reference position) the induced voltages Es1 and Es2
are equal and opposite. Hence they cancel out and the output voltages V0 is zero.When the
external applied force moves the core towards the coil S2 ,Es2 is increased but Es1 is
decreased in magnitude though they are still anti-phase with each other. The net voltage
available is(Eo = Es2 - Es1) and is in phase with Es2.

SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Alternating Current (AC) is a type of electric power in which the electric current changes,
both in magnitude and direction, at regular intervals. This AC Circuits can deliver power in
either a Single Phase system or a Three Phase system. A single-phase system, circuit, or
device, produces or uses a single alternating voltage source. In electrical engineering,
single-phase voltage source power refers to the distribution of electricity using a system in
which all supply voltages vary simultaneously.

Single-Phase Power Supply


Single-phase voltage power is a two-wire (AC) power source. It consist of a single power
wire called a phase wire, and a single neutral wire.
Generally, a single-phase current is called a “residential voltage” because it is widely used
in homes. When it comes to average power transmission, a single-phase power supply 17
connection uses both neutral wire and phase supply cables. The neutral wire acts as a
returning path for the current and the phase wires carry the load. In Nigeria, a single-phase
voltage is at 240 Volts and has a frequency of about 50 Hertz.
A single-phase power is used when electricity demand is low, I.e. in the operation of small
machines. Three-phase power carries a heavy load and can operate large machinery in
factories.

Sinusoidal waveform of a single phase AC supply

The alternating circuit was formed for the first time in the 1980s when Tesla aimed to solve
the failures of Thomas Edison's DC generators.
Most home and industrial systems and appliances today are powered by alternating line
current. All DC-based (direct current) battery-connected devices are recharged operating
technically based on alternating line current. All DC devices use DC power derived from AC
generators to charge their power system and batteries.

The general expression for an alternating current is:

I = ImSinωt

where:
I = instantaneous value of the current
Im = maximum peak value of current
ω = angular velocity in rad/s
t = time in seconds

18
Listed below are different types of AC circuits designs:
1. AC resistant circuit (R),
2. Capacitance AC circuit only (C),
3. Inductance AC circuit (L),
4. AC circuit containing resistance and Inductance (RL),
5. AC circuit containing resistance and Capacitance (RC),
6. AC circuit containing inductance and capacitance (LC),
7. Resistance, Inductance and capacitor (RLC) AC circuit

EMF Generation in Single-phase AC circuits


In Single-phase AC, EMF can be generated
1. By rotating the coil in the magnetic field
2. By rotating the magnetic field inside the immovable coil
The quantity of electricity generated depends on
1. Number of turns on the coil
2. Field strength
3. Speed

Advantages of Single Phase Circuits


1. Used where small power is required to run any appliance. For example in heaters,
coolers, lights, fans, etc.
2. Simplified design and operation of the power supply.
3. Adequate for carrying loads up to 2.5 kW.

Disadvantages of Single Phase Circuits


1. Cannot be used where heavy loads are run. For example in industries, factories, etc.
2. Requires a supplementary circuit for operation of motors less than 1 kW.

COMPLEX J-NOTATION
This section is presented with the intent of supplying the student with mathematical tools
that will ease the study of advanced AC circuit analysis. Advanced AC circuits could be
analyzed by long and laborious calculations. Fortunately this is not necessary because
mathematics provides labor saving devices. Some of these, such as complex
numbers, j operator, polar notation, etc., will now be discussed.

The j Operator

The j operator rotates a quantity through an angle of 90° counterclockwise (ccw).


The j operator, also called the complex operator, is derived from Euler’s formula which
relates complex exponential to trigonometric functions which is given as: 19
ej∅ = CosØ + jSinØ where j is the square root of -1, j = √-1 (the imaginary part). In some
texts i is used to denote √-1, but this notation is avoided in electronics because of possible
confusion with instantaneous current.

The j operator.

This is a mathematical representation used in engineering, particularly in electric circuit


analysis to describe sinusoidal signals and their corresponding phasors in simplified form.

The j-notation simplifies the analysis of AC circuits by allowing sinusoidal signals to be


represented as complex numbers, which are easier to manipulate mathematically.

Representing Sinusoidal Signals using j-notation

A sinusoidal voltage or current of the form

x(t) = xm Cos(ωt + Ø)

can be expressed in j-notation as x = xm ej∅ = xm (CosØ + jSinØ)


Where xm = Peak magnitude; ω= angular frequency(rads/s); Ø = phase angle
The real part of the phasor represents the actual signal x(t) = ℜ{ xe ejωt }

Advantages of j-notation in Circuit Analysis


1. Simplification of calculations: Differentiation and integration in time domain, are
transformed into algebraic operations in the frequency domain I.e. 20
Differentiation - d dt = jω

Integration - dt = 1 jω
2. Simplified Representation of AC Circuits
Voltages and currents are represented as phasors.
Impedance and admittance are handled in complex quantities I.e.
Z = R + jX (Impedance)
Y = 1/Z = G + jB (Admittance)

3. Application in circuit analysis


Ohm’s Law in j-notation
V = IZ where Z is impedance, V is voltage and I is current all in complex quantities
Impedance for Common Components
Resistor - ZR = R
Inductor - ZL = jωL
Capacitor - ZC = 1/jωC

AC Circuit Analysis Steps


1. Convert all sinusoidal signals to phasors.
2. Replace circuit components with their respective impedances.
3. Apply Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws using complex algebra.
4. Solve for phasor voltages or currents.
5. Convert phasor results back to time domain

Examples on phasors and j-notation


1. Express each of the following phasors in rectangular notation: (i) 30/300 (ii) 20/600
Solution
1. (i) the general rectangular j notation is Z = A + jB; where A is the real part and B the
imaginary p)art, Z = A(CosB + jSinB)
. . . 30/300 = 30(Cos300 + jSin300)
= 30(0.866 + j 0.5)
= 25.98 + j15
(ii) 20/-600 = 20[Cos(-600) + jSin(-600)]
= 20(0.5 - j0.866 )
= 10 - j17.32
2. Express each of the following complex forms in polar notation (i) 6+j3 (ii) 6-j16
Solution
(i) The general phasor representation for A + jB is, A/Ө where A = magnitude; and
Ө = phase angle A = √(A2 + B2) and Ө = Tan-1 (B/A), given 6+j3 by formulae we get
A = √(62 + 32)
= 6.71
Ө = Tan-1 (3/6)
= 26.60
. . . 6+j3 = 6.71/26.60 in polar form
A = √(62 + (-16)2)
21
= 17.1
Ө = Tan-1 (-16/6)
= -69.40
(ii) . . . 6+j3 = 17.1/-69.40 in polar form

IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE AND SUSCEPTANCE

Impedance is a combination of resistance and reactance. It is essentially anything and


everything that obstructs the flow of electrons within an electrical circuit. Hence, it affects
the generation of current through the electrical circuit. It is present in all the possible
components of the circuit and across all possible electrical circuits. Impedance is
mathematically symbolized by the letter Z and has its unit as ohm. It is a super-set of both
resistance and reactance combined.
In phasor terms, impedance Z is represented as a combination of resistance R and
reactance X as:
Z=R+jX
Where reactance X is a combination of Inductive XL and capacitive XC :
X = XL + XC
The impedance is also given by the equation,
impedance, Z = E/I (ohm)
(where E is the r.m.s. voltage applied to the element, branch, or circuit, and I is
the r.m.s. current which flows in it.)
In electrical engineering, susceptance (B) is the imaginary part of admittance (Y = G + jB),
where the real part is conductance (G). The reciprocal of impedance is admittance
(Z = R + jX), where the imaginary part is reactance (X) and the real part is resistance (R).
In SI units, susceptance is measured in Siemens (S)
The admittance of an element, branch, or circuit is the reciprocal of its
impedance, and
admittance, Y = 1/Z S
l=EYA

Prepared by

Engr. Immanuel Hogan


Dept. Of Electrical/Electronic Engineering 22
School of Engineering & Engineering Technology (SEET), FUTIA

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