LECTURE NOTES ON GET 201
LECTURE NOTES ON GET 201
Contents:
Resistance, Capacitance and Inductance Measurements
Resistor colour Codes
DC/AC Bridges
Transducers
Single Phase Circuits
Complex J-notation
AC Circuits
Impedance, Admittance and Susceptance
Introduction
Resistance and Ohm’s Law
From Ohm’s Law, the resistance is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely
proportional to the current I.e. R = V/R Ω
R1 R2 R3
When two or more than two resistors are connected in series as shown in figure above,
their equivalent resistance is calculated by:
REq = R1 + R2 + R3 +… Rn
when the resistors are in parallel configuration the equivalent resistance becomes:
Req = (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3) + ….. (1/Rn)
We can also say that for 3 resistances in parallel, that Req = R1xR2xR3/(R1+R2+R3) 1
Where
REq is the equivalent resistance of all resistors (R1, R2, R3…Rn)
2
Capacitance
The capacitance sums up together when they are connected together in a parallel
configuration
CEq = C1 + C2 + C3 +… Cn
Where
CEq is the equivalent Capacitance of all capacitors (C1, C2, C3…Cn)
Inductance
For inductors in series, the equivalent inductance adds up as follows:
Leq = L1 + L2 + L3 +… Ln
Where Leq is the equivalent inductance of all the inductors(L1, l2, L3,…Ln)
3
Resistance Colour Codes
Resistance colour codes are a system of coloured bands printed on resistors to indicate
their resistance value and tolerance. The table below shows the resistor colour code chart:
For instance, a resistance with colour code: Red, Red, Black, Gold is a 22 Ohms resistor at
5% tolerance.
4
Wire-wound, high wattage resistors are usually not colour coded, but have the Ohmic value
printed on the body of the resistor.
Resistors with brown body colour are insulated; while those with black body colour are
not insulated
Variable Resistors
In addition to fixed value resistors, variable resistors are also used in electronics. There are
two types of variable resistors, namely; the rheostat and the potentiometer.
A rheostat is a two-terminal device. It has a maximum value of resistance specified by the
manufacturer and a minimum value of zero ohms. It has an arrow head, indicating a
mechanical means of adjustment. The resistance measured between its terminals can be
set to any intermediate value within the range of variation.
A potentiometer is a three-terminal device it has a fixed resistance between two points,
then has a variable arm being the third point.
B C
A
B
Diagram of a Rheostat Diagram of a Potentiometer
5
DC Bridge For Measuring Resistance (The Wheatstone Bridge)
For measuring resistances with greater accuracy than that possible with an Ohmmeter, a
“bridge” is used. A resistance bridge employs a highly sensitive galvanometer as an
indicating device, together with a calibrated variable-resistance standard and voltage
source in a suitable circuit arrangement. The galvanometer serves as a null indicator which
signals a balance condition. Resistance is read from a calibrated scale associated with the
standard variable resistance and range multiplier.
The Figure below illustrates the most common type, the Wheatstone Bridge. The form
shown is the diamond arrangement, in which the four resistors in the circuit diagram
resemble. The unknown resistance to be measure Rx, is connected between terminals C
and D. R1 and R2 are fixed value precision resistors called “ratio arms” and R3 is a variable
resistor known as the “Standard arm”. The indicator is a highly sensitive zero-centered
galvanometer, G.
Current will flow through g when there is a difference of potential between points B and D.
when there is no potential difference between B and D, that is when EBD = 0, the pointer of
the galvanometer will turn to zero (0), when EBD =0, the bridge is said to be “balanced”.
Consider the relationship in the circuit of the above diagram let I1 be the current in R1, I2
the current in R2, I3 in R3 and I2 in Rx. I1 times R1 is the voltage from A to B, that is,
EAB = I1R1
EAD = I2R2 ……….(1)
ECB = I3R3
ECD = IxRx
To obtain balance, (EBD = 0); the voltage from A to B must equal the voltage from A to D
EAB = EAD ……..(2), therefore,
The fundamental equation 10 states that at balance, the unknown resistance, Rx equals the
product of the ratio arms (R2/R1), and the standard arm, R3.
Maximum accuracy and sensitivity occur when R1 = R2, that is, when the ratio of R2/R1 = 1.
For this condition, Rx = R3 . if R3 is a highly accurate decade type rheostat, the value, Rx
can be read directly from the calibrated scale of the rheostat when R3 is adjusted for
balance. The condition R2/R1 = 1 would limit the range of measurement of Rx to the range
of variation of the rheostat, so that if the maximum resistance of R3 = 10,000 ohms, a
resistor whose value is larger than 10,000 ohms could not be measured. To overcome this
limitation, a range switch permits selection of different ratio arms. Thus, if R2/R1 = 3, the
maximum value of Rx which may be measured is 3R3, etc. It should be apparent though,
that any small error of the galvanometer imbalance which the eye may not detect is
multiplied by the ratio, R2/R1 , which is 3 in this case, thus increasing the error. There are
other bridge circuits, such as the slide-wire bridge, for measuring resistance.
AC Source
Principle of operation:
When the potential difference across B and D becomes zero, no current flows through BD
arm. Thus no sound is heard in the headphone. This is called a bridge balance situation.
The bridge balance can be obtained using the Kirchoff’s voltage and current law. Suppose
that the total current flowing from source is I, let the currents flowing through areas AB, BC,
AD, DC and BD be I1, I2, I3, I4 and IH respectively. Since under the balance condition, the
headphone current (IH) is zero, thus; I1 = I3 and I2 = I4
Applying KVL to loop ABDA, we have
Z1I1 - Z2I2 = 0
Z1I1 = Z2I2 ---------------- (1)
Applying KVL to loop BCDB, we have
Z3I3 - Z4I4 = 0
Z3I1 - Z4I2 = 0
Z3I1 = Z4I2 ---------------- (2)
Dividing equation (1) with equation (2), we have
Z1 I1 Z 2 I2
Z3 I1
= Z 4 I2
Z1 Z2
Z3
= Z4
---------------- (3a) OR
Z1 Z2
= ---------------- (3b)
Z3 Z4
9
Inductance Measurement (Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge)
E1 E3
B
L1
R3
R1
C
A D
R2
R4
L2
D
E2 E4
E
Diagram of Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
L2 is adjusted, until the detector indicates zero current.
Let R1= unknown resistance
L1= unknown inductance of the choke.
L2= known standard inductance
R1, R2, R4 = known resistances
∴ L1 = L2R3/R4
Advantages of the Maxwell’s inductance bridge
1. Expression for R1 and L1 are simple.
2. Equations area simple
3. They do not depend on the frequency (as w is cancelled)
4. R1 and L1 are independent of each other. 10
Disadvantages of the Maxwell’s inductance bridge
1. Variable inductor is costly.
2. Variable inductor is bulky.
�� ��
∴ �� =
��
Example 1
a)For a generic AC bridge, the condition for balance is given as Z1Z4 = Z2Z3.
Where Z1=R1+ jX1; Z2= R2+ jX2 ; Z3=R3+ jX3; Z4=R4+ jX4. Obtain expressions for:
(i) its real part (ii) its imaginary part (iii) phase angle.
b) Which device is used for determining the balance point in AC bridges?
11
Solution 1
a)Given the generic AC bridge Equation Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 where
Z1=R1+ jX1
Z2= R2+ jX2
Z3=R3+ jX3
Z4=R4+ jX4 putting these into the generic equation we obtain
(R1+ jX1) (R4+ jX4) = (R2+ jX2) (R3+ jX3) ……………….1
R1R4 + jX4R1 + jX1R4 - X1X4 = R2R3 + jX3R2 + jX2R3 - X2X3 ……………2
ii) For the imaginary expression, compare the imaginary terms of eqn 2
X4R1 + X1R4 = X3R2 + X2R3 ……………….6
Divide eqn 6 through by eqn 5, we obtain
(X4R1 + X1R4)/R1R4 = (X3R2 + X2R3)/R2R3
= X4/R4 + X1/R1 + X3/R3 + X2/R2 the imaginary expression
Iii) For the phasor Expression we obtain
X4/R4 + X1/R1 + X3/R3 + X2/R2 = Ø4 + Ø1 = Ø3 + Ø2
b) the instrument used for determining balance point in AC bridges are “headphones”
Example 2
In a certain AC bridge, arm AD is unknown. Arm BC is 40Ω, while arms DC and AB are 60Ω,
20Ω and 15μF respectively.
a) From the description given, draw the schematic diagram of the bridge
b) State the conditions for balance
c) Obtain expressions for the unknown arm of the bridge.
d) Hence, calculate the values of the inductance and resistance of the unknown coil. 12
Solution
B
2a) R1
R3
C1
A C
L2
R2 R4
D
2b) The condition for balance is that EBD = 0 (No sound from headphone)
Z2 = R2+ jL2
Z3 = R3
Z4 = R4
Also, AD = Z3 = R3+ jL3 is the unknown arm of the bridge
1
(R1+�� ) R4 = R3 (R2+ jL2) ………………….1, expanding we obtain
1
�
R1R4 + 4 = R2 R3 + jL2R3 ……………………2, collecting real terms we obtain
��1
R1R4 = R2 R3 …………………….3
Therefore, R2 = (R1R4)/R3 The real expression for the unknown resistance arm.
��
L2 = Gives the expression for the unknown inductance arm
�� ��
TRANSDUCERS
What is a Transducer?
A transducer is an electronic device that converts energy from one form to another.
Common examples include microphones, loudspeakers, thermometers, position and
pressure sensors, and antenna
1) Ranges available
2)Squaring System
3)Sensitivity
4) Maximum working temperature
5) Method of cooling employed
6) Mounting details
7) Maximum depth
8) Linearity and hysteresis
9) Output for zero input
10) Temperature co-efficient of zero drift
11) Natural Frequency.
Types of Transducers
1. Resistive transducers
Strain gauge
Linear motion potentiometer
Thermistor
Carbon microphone
2. Capacitive transducers
Capacitor pressure transducer 14
Capacity Microphone
3. Inductive transducers
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
Dynamic Microphone
Linear motion inductor
Resistive Transducers
The resistance of a conductor is expressed by a simple equation that involves a few
physical quantities . The relationship is given by
R= ρL/A
Where , R= resistance, Ω
ρ = Resistivity of conductor materials, Ω-m
L= Length of conductor, m
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor,m2
Any method of varying one of the quantities involved in the above relationship can be the
design basis of an electrical resistance transducer. There are a number of ways in which
resistance can be changed by a physical phenomenon. The translational and Rotational
potentiometer which work on the basis of change in the value of resistance with change in
length of the conductor can be used for measurement of translational or rotary
displacements. The resistivity of materials changes with the change of temperature thus
causing a change of resistance. This property may be used for measurement of
temperature.In a resistance transducer an indication of measured physical quantity is given
by a change in the resistance. It may be classified as follows:
1. Mechanically varied resistance - POTENTIOMETER
2. Thermal resistance change – RESISTANCE THERMOMETER
3. Resistivity change - RESISTANCE STRAIN GAUGE
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Strain Gauge
When a metal conductor is stretched or compressed, its resistance changes on account of
the fact that both length and diameter of conductors change. The value of resistivity of
conductors also changes. When it is strained, it’s property is called piezo-resistance.
Therefore, resistance strain gauges are also known as piezo-resistive gauges. The strain
gauge is a measurement transducer for measuring strain and its associated stress in
experimental stress analysis.
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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (L.V.D.T)
LVDT is a passive inductive transducer and is commonly employed to measure force(or
weight,pressure and acceleration etc. Which depend on force )in terms of the amount and
direction of displacement of an object.
Working Principle
When the core is in the centre (called reference position) the induced voltages Es1 and Es2
are equal and opposite. Hence they cancel out and the output voltages V0 is zero.When the
external applied force moves the core towards the coil S2 ,Es2 is increased but Es1 is
decreased in magnitude though they are still anti-phase with each other. The net voltage
available is(Eo = Es2 - Es1) and is in phase with Es2.
SINGLE-PHASE AC CIRCUITS
Alternating Current (AC) is a type of electric power in which the electric current changes,
both in magnitude and direction, at regular intervals. This AC Circuits can deliver power in
either a Single Phase system or a Three Phase system. A single-phase system, circuit, or
device, produces or uses a single alternating voltage source. In electrical engineering,
single-phase voltage source power refers to the distribution of electricity using a system in
which all supply voltages vary simultaneously.
The alternating circuit was formed for the first time in the 1980s when Tesla aimed to solve
the failures of Thomas Edison's DC generators.
Most home and industrial systems and appliances today are powered by alternating line
current. All DC-based (direct current) battery-connected devices are recharged operating
technically based on alternating line current. All DC devices use DC power derived from AC
generators to charge their power system and batteries.
I = ImSinωt
where:
I = instantaneous value of the current
Im = maximum peak value of current
ω = angular velocity in rad/s
t = time in seconds
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Listed below are different types of AC circuits designs:
1. AC resistant circuit (R),
2. Capacitance AC circuit only (C),
3. Inductance AC circuit (L),
4. AC circuit containing resistance and Inductance (RL),
5. AC circuit containing resistance and Capacitance (RC),
6. AC circuit containing inductance and capacitance (LC),
7. Resistance, Inductance and capacitor (RLC) AC circuit
COMPLEX J-NOTATION
This section is presented with the intent of supplying the student with mathematical tools
that will ease the study of advanced AC circuit analysis. Advanced AC circuits could be
analyzed by long and laborious calculations. Fortunately this is not necessary because
mathematics provides labor saving devices. Some of these, such as complex
numbers, j operator, polar notation, etc., will now be discussed.
The j Operator
The j operator.
x(t) = xm Cos(ωt + Ø)
Integration - dt = 1 jω
2. Simplified Representation of AC Circuits
Voltages and currents are represented as phasors.
Impedance and admittance are handled in complex quantities I.e.
Z = R + jX (Impedance)
Y = 1/Z = G + jB (Admittance)
Prepared by