COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

MODULE – 1
Basic Structure of Computers
Topics:
Computer Types
Functional Units
Basic Operational Concepts
Bus Structures
Computer Systems RISC & CISC
Performance
Arithmetic Operations on Signed numbers
Instructions and Instruction Sequencing
Instruction formats
Memory Instructions

“Students can take help of this notes and refer the text book for complete
understanding of the course”

1. Computer Types
2. Functional Units

3. BASIC OPERATIONAL CONCEPTS:

The program to be executed is stored in memory. Instructions are accessed from memory to the
processor one by one and executed.
STEPS FOR INSTRUCTION EXECUTION
Consider the following instruction
Ex: 1 Add LOCA, R0

This instruction is in the form of the following instruction format

Opcode Source, Source/ Destination

Where Add is the operation code, LOCA is the Memory operand and R0 is Register operand
This instruction adds the contents of memory location LOCA with the contents of Register R0 and
the result is stored in R0 Register.
The symbolic representation of this instruction is
R0 [LOCA] + [R0]

The contents of memory location LOCA and Register R0 before and after the execution of this
instruction is as follows

Before instruction execution After instruction execution

LOCA = 23H LOCA = 23H
R0 = 22H R0 = 45H

The steps for instruction execution are as follows

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1. Fetch the instruction from memory into the IR (instruction register in CPU).
2. Decode the instruction 1111000000 10011010
3. Access the first Operand
4. Access the second Operand
5. Perform the operation according to the Opcode (operation code).
6. Store the result into the Destination Memory location or Destination Register.

Ex:2 Add R1, R2, R3 (3 address instruction format)

This instruction is in the form of the following instruction format

Opcode, Source-1, Source-2, Destination

Where R1 is Source Operand-1, R2 is the Source Operand-2 and R3 is the Destination. This
instruction adds the contents of Register R1 with the contents of R2 and the result is placed in R3
Register.
The symbolic representation of this instruction is
R3 [R1] + [R2]
The contents of Registers R1,R2,R3 before and after the execution of this instruction is as follows.
Before instruction execution After instruction execution
R1 = 24H R1 = 24H
R2 = 34H R2 = 34H
R3 = 38H R3 = 58H

The steps for instruction execution is as follows

1. Fetch the instruction from memory into the IR.
2. Decode the instruction
3. Access the First Operand R1
4. Access the Second Operand R2
5. Perform the operation according to the Operation Code.
6. Store the result into the Destination Register R3.

CONNECTION BETWEEN MEMORY AND PROCESSOR

The connection between Memory and Processor is as shown in the figure.

The Processor consists of different types of registers.
1. MAR (Memory Address Register)
2. MDR (Memory Data Register)
3. Control Unit
4. PC (Program Counter)
5. General Purpose Registers
6. IR (Instruction Register)
7. ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit)

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The functions of these registers are as follows

1. MAR
 It establishes communication between Memory and Processor
 It stores the address of the Memory Location as shown in the figure.

MAR
Memory
5000h 5000 23h
5001 43h
5002 78h
5003 65h

2. MDR
 It also establishes communication between Memory and the Processor.
 It stores the contents of the memory location (data or operand), written into or read from
memory as shown in the figure.

MDR
Memory
23h 5000
23h
43h 5001
78h 5002
65h 5003

3. CONTROL UNIT
 It controls the data transfer operations between memory and the processor.
 It controls the data transfer operations between I/O and processor.
 It generates control signals for Memory and I/O devices.

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4. PC (PROGRAM COUNTER)
 It is a special purpose register used to hold the address of the next instruction to be
executed.
 The contents of PC are incremented by 1 or 2 or 4, during the execution of current
instruction.
 The contents of PC are incremented by 1 for 8 bit CPU, 2 for 16 bit CPU and for 4 for 32
bit CPU.

4. GENERAL PURPOSE REGISTER / REGISTER ARRAY

The structure of register file is as shown in the figure

R0
R1
R2
.
Rn-1
 It consists of set of registers.
 A register is defined as group of flip flops. Each flip flop is designed to store 1 bit of
data.
 It is a storage element.
 It is used to store the data temporarily during the execution of the program(eg: result).
 It can be used as a pointer to Memory.
 The Register size depends on the processing speed of the CPU
 EX: Register size = 8 bits for 8 bit CPU

5. IR (INSTRUCTION REGISTER
It holds the instruction to be executed. It notifies the control unit, which generates timing
signals that controls various operations in the execution of that instruction.

6. ALU (ARITHMETIC and LOGIC UNIT)

 It performs arithmetic and logical operations on given data.

Steps for fetch the instruction

PC contents are transferred to MAR
Read signal is sent to memory by control unit.
The instruction from memory location is sent to MDR.
The content of MDR is moved to IR.

[PC]  MAR Memory  MDR  IR

CU ( read signal)

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4. BUS STRUCTURE
Bus is defined as set of parallel wires used for data communication between different parts of
computer. Each wire carries 1 bit of data. There are 3 types of buses, namely
1. Address bus
2. Data bus and
3. Control bus1.
1. Address bus :
 It is unidirectional.
 The processor (CPU) sends the address of an I/O device or Memory device by means of
this bus.

2. Data bus
 It is a bidirectional bus.
 The CPU sends data from Memory to CPU and vice versa as well as from I/O to CPU
and vice versa by means of this bus.

3. Control bus:
 This bus carries control signals for Memory and I/O devices. It generates control signals
for Memory namely MEMRD and MEMWR and control signals for I/O devices namely IORD
and IOWR.

The structure of single bus organization is as shown in the figure.

 The I/O devices, Memory and CPU are connected to this bus is as shown in the figure.
 It establishes communication between two devices, at a time.

Features of Single bus organization are

 Less Expensive
 Flexible to connect I/O devices.
 Poor performance due to single bus.
There is a variation in the devices connected to this bus in terms of speed of operation.
Few devices like keyboard, are very slow. Devices like optical disk are faster. Memory and
processor are faster, but all these devices uses the same bus. Hence to provide the synchronization

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between two devices, a buffer register is attached to each device. It holds the data temporarily
during the data transfer between two devices.

5. RISC and CISC instruction set

RISC and CISC are two different types of computer architectures that are used to design the
processors.

CISC RISC

Complex Instruction Set Computer Reduced Instruction Set Computer

Instructions can take several clock

Single cycle instructions
cycles

Complex and variable length

Simple standardized instructions
instructions

Small number of fixed length

Large number of instructions
instructions

Many addressing modes Limited addressing modes

6. PERFORMANCE
Basic performance Equation
 The performance of a Computer System is based on hardware design of the processor and
the instruction set of the processors.
 To obtain high performance of computer system it is necessary to reduce the execution
time of the processor.
 Execution time: It is defined as total time required executing one complete program.
 The processing time of a program includes time taken to read inputs, display outputs,
system services, execution time etc.
 The performance of the processor is inversely proportional to execution time of the
processor.
More performance = Less Execution time.
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Less Performance = More Execution time.

The Performance of the Computer System is based on the following factors

1. Cache Memory
2. Processor clock
3. Basic Performance Equation
4. Instructions
5. Compiler

CACHE MEMORY: It is defined as a fast access memory located in between CPU and
Memory. It is part of the processor as shown in the fig

The processor needs more time to read the data and instructions from main memory
because main memory is away from the processor as shown in the figure. Hence it slowdown the
performance of the system.
The processor needs less time to read the data and instructions from Cache Memory
because it is part of the processor. Hence it improves the performance of the system.

PROCESSOR CLOCK: The processor circuits are controlled by timing signals called as Clock.
It defines constant time intervals and are called as Clock Cycles. To execute one instruction there
are 3 basic steps namely
1. Fetch
2. Decode
3. Execute.
The processor uses one clock cycle to perform one operation as shown in the figure
Clock Cycle → T1 T2 T3
Instruction → Fetch Decode Execute
The performance of the processor depends on the length of the clock cycle. To obtain high
performance reduce the length of the clock cycle. Let ‘ P ’ be the number of clock cycles generated
by the Processor and ‘ R ‘ be the Clock rate .

The Clock rate is inversely proportional to the number of clock cycles.

i.e R = 1/P.
Cycles/second is measured in Hertz (Hz). Eg: 500MHz, 1.25GHz.

Two ways to increase the clock rate –

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 Improve the IC technology by making the logical circuit work faster, so that the time taken
for the basic steps reduces.
 Reduce the clock period, P.

BASIC PERFORMANCE EQUATION

Let ‘ T ‘ be total time required to execute the program.
Let ‘N ‘ be the number of instructions contained in the program.
Let ‘ S ‘ be the average number of steps required to execute one instruction.
Let ‘ R’ be number of clock cycles per second generated by the processor to execute one
program.

Processor Execution Time is given by

T=N*S/R
This equation is called as Basic Performance Equation.
For the programmer the value of T is important. To obtain high performance it is necessary to
reduce the values of N & S and increase the value of R

Performance of a computer can also be measured by using benchmark programs.

SPEC (System Performance Evaluation Corporation) is an non-profitable organization, that
measures performance of computer using SPEC rating. The organization publishes the application
programs and also time taken to execute these programs in standard systems.

𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑆𝑃𝐸𝐶 =
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

7. MEMORY LOCATIONS AND ADDRESSES

1. Memory is a storage device. It is used to store character operands, data operands and
instructions.
2. It consists of number of semiconductor cells and each cell holds 1 bit of information. A
group of 8 bits is called as byte and a group of 16 or 32 or 64 bits is called as word.
World length = 16 for 16 bit CPU and World length = 32 for 32 bit CPU. Word length is defined
as number of bits in a word.
 Memory is organized in terms of bytes or words.
 The organization of memory for 32 bit processor is as shown in the fig.

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The contents of memory location can be accessed for read and write operation. The memory is
accessed either by specifying address of the memory location or by name of the memory location.

 Address space : It is defined as number of bytes accessible to CPU and it depends on the
number of address lines.

8. BYTE ADDRESSABILITY
Each byte of the memory are addressed, this addressing used in most computers are called byte
addressability. Hence Byte Addressability is the process of assignment of address to successive
bytes of the memory. The successive bytes have the addresses 1, 2, 3, 4………….2n-1. The
memory is accessed in words.

In a 32 bit machine, each word is 32 bit and the successive addresses are 0,4,8,12,… and
so on.
Address 32 – bit word

0000 0th byte 1st byte 2nd byte 3rd byte

0004 4th byte 5th byte 6th byte 7th byte
0008 8th byte 9th byte 10th byte 11th byte
0012 12th byte 13th byte 14th byte 15th byte
….. ….. ….. ….. …..
n-3 n-3th byte n-2th byte n-1th byte nth byte

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BIG ENDIAN and LITTLE ENDIAN ASSIGNMENT

Two ways in which byte addresses can be assigned in a word.

Or
Two ways in which a word is stored in memory.
1. Big endian
2. Little endian

BIG ENDIAN ASSIGNMENT

In this technique lower byte of data is assigned to higher address of the memory and higher
byte of data is assigned to lower address of the memory.
The structure of memory to represent 32 bit number for big endian assignment is as shown in the
above figure.

LITTLE ENDIAN ASSIGNMENT

In this technique lower byte of data is assigned to lower address of the memory and higher byte
of data is assigned to higher address of the memory.
The structure of memory to represent 32 bit number for little endian assignment is as shown in
the fig.

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Eg – store a word “JOHNSENA” in memory starting from word 1000, using Big Endian
and Little endian.

Bigendian -
1000 J O H N
1000 1001 1002 1003
1004 S E N A
1004 1005 1006 1007

Little endian -
1000 N H O J
1000 1001 1002 1003
1004 A N E S
1004 1005 1006 1007

WORD ALLIGNMENT
Word is the group of bytes in memory. Number of bits in a word is the word length.
Eg – 32-bit word length, 64-bit word length etc.

The word locations of memory are aligned, if they begin with the address, which is multiple of
number of bytes in a word.
The structure of memory for 16 bit CPU, 32 bit CPU and 64 bit CPU are as shown in the figures
1,2 and 3 respectively

For 16 bit CPU For 32 bit CPU For 64 bit CPU

4000 34H 4000 34H 4000 34H
4002 65H 4004 65H 4008 65H
4004 86H 4008 86H 4016 86H
4006 93H 4012 93H 4024 93H
4008 45H 4016 45H 4032 45H

(Here, no. of bytes of a (Here, no. of bytes of a (Here, no. of bytes of a

word is 2, and the word is 4, and the word is 8, and the
address of word is in address of word is in address of word is in
multiples of 2) multiples of 4) multiples of 8)

ACCESSING CHARACTERS AND NUMBERS

The character occupies 1 byte of memory and hence byte address for memory.
The numbers occupies 2 bytes of memory and hence word address for numbers.

6. MEMORY OPERATION
Both program instructions and operands are in memory.

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To execute an instruction, each instruction has to be read from memory and after execution the
results must be written to memory.

There are two types of memory operations namely 1. Memory read and 2. Memory write
Memory read operation [ Load/ Read / Fetch ]
Memory write operation [ Store/ write ]

1. MEMORY READ OPERATION:

 It is the process of transferring of 1 word of data from memory into Accumulator (GPR).
 It is also called as Memory fetch operation.
 The Memory read operation can be implemented by means of LOAD instruction.
 The LOAD instruction transfers 1 word of data (1 word = 32 bits) from Memory into the
Accumulator as shown in the fig.

Memory(32 bits)
Accumulator
5000
5004
32 bits 5008
5012
5016
5020

Steps for Memory Read Operation

(1) The processor loads MAR (Memory Address Register) with the address of the memory
location.
(2) The Control unit of processor issues memory read control signal to enable the memory
component for read operation.
(3) The processor reads the data from memory into the MDR (Memory Data Register) by means
of bi-directional data bus.

[MAR]  Memory  MDR

MEMORY INSTRUCTIONS -
2. MEMORY WRITE OPERATION

 It is the process of transferring the 1 word of data from Accumulator into the Memory.
 The Memory write operation can be implemented by means of STORE instruction.
The STORE instruction transfers 1 word of data from Accumulator into the Memory
location as shown in the fig.
Memory (32 bits)
Accumulator
5000
5004

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5008
5012
32 bits 5016
5020

Steps for Memory Write Operation

 The processor loads MAR with the address of the Memory location.
 The processor loads MDR with the data to be stored in Memory location.
 The Control Unit issues the Memory Write control signal.
 The processor transfers 1 word of data from MDR to Memory location by means of bi-
directional data bus.

7. COMPUTER OPERATIONS (OR) INSTRUCTIONS AND

INSTRUCTION EXECUTION
The Computer is designed to perform 4 types of operations, namely
 Data transfer operations
 ALU Operations
 Program sequencing and control.
 I/O Operations.

1. Data Transfer Operations

a) Data transfer between two registers.

Format: Opcode Source1 , Destination

The processor uses MOV instruction to perform data transfer operation between two registers
The mathematical representation of this instruction is R1 → R2.
Ex : MOV R1 , R2 : R1 and R2 are the registers.
Where MOV is the operation code, R1 is the source operand and R2 is the destination operand.
This instruction transfers the contents of R1 to R2.
EX: Before the execution of MOV R1,R2, the contents of R1 and R2 are as follows
R1 = 34h and R2 = 65h
After the execution of MOV R1, R2, the contents of R1 and R2 are as follows
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R1 = 34H and R2 = 34H

b) Data transfer from memory to register

The processor uses LOAD instruction to perform data transfer operation from memory to
register. The mathematical representation of this instruction is
ACC ←[LOCA]. Where ACC is the Accumulator.
Format : opcode operand
Ex: LOAD LOCA
For this instruction Memory Location is the source and Accumulator is the destination.

c) Data transfer from Accumulator register to memory

The processor uses STORE instruction to perform data transfer operation from Accumulator
register to memory location. The mathematical representation of this instruction is
LOCA ←[ACC]. Where, ACC is the Accumulator.
Format: opcode operand
Ex: STORE LOCA
For this instruction accumulator is the source and memory location is the destination.

2. ALU Operations

The instructions are designed to perform arithmetic operations such as Addition,

Subtraction, Multiplication and Division as well as logical operations such as AND, OR
and NOT operations.
Ex1: ADD R0, R1
The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows:
R1← [R0] + [R1]; Adds the content of R0 with the content of R1 and result is placed in R1.

Ex2: SUB R0, R1

The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows:
R1← [R0] - [R1] ; Subtracts the content of R0 from the content of R1 and result is placed
in R1.

EX3: AND R0, R1 ; It Logically multiplies the content of R0 with the content of R1 and
result is stored in R1. (R1= R0 AND R1)

3. I/O Operations: The instructions are designed to perform INPUT and OUTPUT operations.
The processor uses MOV instruction to perform I/O operations.
The input Device consists of one temporary register called as DATAIN register and
output register consists of one temporary register called as DATAOUT register.
a) Input Operation: It is a process of transferring one WORD of data from DATA IN
register to processor register.
Ex: MOV DATAIN, R0
The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows,
R0← [DATAIN]

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b) Output Operation: It is a process of transferring one WORD of data from processor

register to DATAOUT register.
Ex: MOV R0, DATAOUT
The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows,
[R0]→ DATAOUT

REGISTER TRANSFER NOTATION

There are 3 locations to store the operands during the execution of the program namely
1. Register 2. Memory location 3. I/O Port. Location is the storage space used to store the data.
 The instructions are designed to transfer data from one location to another location.

Eg 1 - Consider the first statement to transfer data from one location to another location
 “ Transfer the contents of Memory location whose symbolic name is given by AMOUNT into
processor register R0.”
 The mathematical representation of this statement is given by
R0 ← [AMOUNT]
Eg 2 -Consider the second statement to add data between two registers
 “Add the contents of R0 with the contents of R1 and result is stored in R2”
 The mathematical representation of this statement is given by
R2 ←[R0] + [R1].
Such a notation is called as “Register Transfer Notation”.
It uses two symbols
1. A pair of square brackets [] to indicate the contents of Memory location and
2. ← to indicate the data transfer operation.
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE NOTATION
Consider the first statement to transfer data from one location to another location
“Transfer the contents of Memory location whose symbolic name is given by AMOUNT into
processor register R0.”
The assembly language notation of this statement is given by
MOV AMOUNT, R0
Opcode Source Destination
This instruction transfers 1 word of data from Memory location whose symbolic name is given by
AMOUNT into the processor register R0.
The mathematical representation of this statement is given by
R0 ← [AMOUNT]

Consider the second statement to add data between two registers

“Add the contents of R0 with the contents of R1 and result is stored in R2”
The assembly language notation of this statement is given by

ADD R0 , R1, R2
Opcode source1, Source2, Destination

This instruction adds the contents of R0 with the contents of R1 and result is stored in R2.
 The mathematical representation of this statement is given by
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R2 ←[R0] + [R1].
Such a notations are called as “Assembly Language Notations”

BASIC INSTRUCTION TYPES

There are 3 types of basic instructions namely
1. Three address instruction format
2. Two address instruction format
3. One address instruction format

Consider the arithmetic expression Z = A + B, Where A,B,Z are the Memory locations.
Steps for evaluation
1. Access the first memory operand whose symbolic name is given by A.
2. Access the second memory operand whose symbolic name is given by B.
3. Perform the addition operation between two memory operands.
4. Store the result into the 3rd memory location Z.
5. The mathematical representation is Z ←[A] + [B].

a) Three address instruction format : Its format is as follows

opcode Source-1 Source-2 destination

Destination ← [source-1] + [source-2]

Ex: ADD A, B, Z
Z ← [A] + [B]
a) Two address instruction format : Its format is as follows

opcode Source Source/destination

Destination ← [source] + [destination]

The sequence of two address m/c instructions to evaluate the arithmetic expression
Z ← A + B are as follows
MOV A, R0
MOV B, R1
ADD R0, R1
MOV R1, Z
b) One address instruction format : Its format is as follows

opcode operand

Ex1: LOAD B
This instruction copies the contents of memory location whose symbolic name is given
by ‘B’ into the Accumulator as shown in the figure.
The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows
ACC ← [B]

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Accumulator Memory

Ex2: STORE B
This instruction copies the contents of Accumulator into memory location whose
symbolic name is given by ‘B’ as shown in the figure. The mathematical representation is as
follows
B ← [ACC].
Memory
Accumulator

Ex3: ADD B
 This instruction adds the contents of Accumulator with the contents of Memory
location ‘B’ and result is stored in Accumulator.
 The mathematical representation of this instruction is as follows
ACC ←[ACC]+ [B]

STRIGHT LINE SEQUENCING AND INSTRUCTION EXECUTION

Consider the arithmetic expression

C = A+B , Where A,B,C are the memory operands.
The mathematical representation of this instruction is
C = [A] + [B].
The sequence of instructions using two address instruction format are as follows
MOV A, R0
ADD B, R0
MOV R0, C
Such a program is called as 3 instruction program.
NOTE: The size of each instruction is 32 bits.
 The 3 instruction program is stored in the successive memory locations of the
processor is as shown in the fig.

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 The system bus consists of uni-directional address bus,bi-directional data bus and control bus
“It is the process of accessing the 1st instruction from memory whose address is stored in program
counter into Instruction Register (IR) by means of bi-directional data bus and at the same time
after instruction access the contents of PC are incremented by 4 in order to access the next
instruction. Such a process is called as “Straight Line Sequencing”.

INSTRUCTION EXECUTION
There are 4 steps for instruction execution
1 Fetch the instruction from memory into the Instruction Register (IR) whose address
is stored in PC.
IR ← [ [PC] ]
2 Decode the instruction.
3 Perform the operation according to the opcode of an instruction
4 Load the result into the destination.
5 During this process, Increment the contents of PC to point to next instruction ( In
32 bit machine increment by 4 address)
PC ← [PC] + 4.
6 The next instruction is fetched, from the address pointed by PC.

BRANCHING
Suppose a list of ‘N’ numbers have to be added. Instead of adding one after the other, the
add statement can be put in a loop. The loop is a straight-line of instructions executed as many
times as needed.

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The ‘N’ value is copied to R1 and R1 is decremented by 1 each time in loop. In the loop find the
value of next elemet and add it with Ro.
In conditional branch instruction, the loop continues by coming out of sequence only if
the condition is true. Here the PC value is set to ‘LLOP’ if the condition is true.

Branch > 0 LOOP // if >0 go to LOOP

The PC value is set to LOOP, if the previous statement value is >0 ie. after decrementing R1 value
is greater than 0.

If R1 value is not greater than 0, the PC value is incremented in a mormal sequential way and the
next instruction is executed.

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