Tribhuwan University

Institute of Engineering
Pulchowk Campus

Computer Network
Assignment 1

Submitted by:
Niraj Shrestha

18th June , 2022

1. What is a computer network? What are the uses of computer networks?
Mention any two typical disadvantages of computer networks.

A computer network is a system that connects a number of separate

computers in order to exchange data and resources. Users can converse
more readily because of the integration of computers and other gadgets.

The uses of computer network are:

a. Resource sharing
b. Performance
c. Cost savings
d. Increased storage capacity
e. Streamlined collaboration & communication
f. Reduction of errors
g. Secured remote access

The two typical disadvantages of computer networks are:

a. Lack of data security and privacy

 Because a large number of users would be using a computer network
to access and share some of their files and resources, the security of
a single user would always be at risk. There may even be illegal
actions taking place, which you must be cautious about and aware of.

b. Presence of computer viruses and malwares

 If one computer on a network is infected with a virus, the other
computers on the network may be at risk as well. Viruses can quickly
spread over a network due to the interconnectedness of
workstations. Furthermore, several systems with shared resources
provide the ideal environment for viruses to multiply.
2. What is physical and logical topology? List out the different physical
topology with the merits and demerits of each.
The way devices appear to be connected to the user is referred to as logical
topology.
The way they are physically connected with wires and cables is called a
physical topology.
In a shared Ethernet network with hubs rather than switches, for example,
the logical topology appears to be that each node is connected to a
common bus that flows from node to node. The network's physical
architecture, on the other hand, is that of a star, with each node connected
to a central hub.
Physical topology in a computer network may be divided into six categories:

a. Bus Topology

 The simplest type of topology is a bus topology, in which the

network's communication is carried out via a single bus or channel.
Several taps and droplines are attached to the bus.
 Merits:
a) Easy to use and set up.
b) If a node fails, it has no impact on the other nodes.
c) There is a reduction in the amount of cabling necessary.
d) Easy to put into practice.

 Demerits:
a) Efficiency is less when nodes are more (strength of signal
decreases).
b) The network will fail if the bus fails.
c) A limited number of nodes can connect to the bus due to
limited bus length.
 d) Security issues and risks are more as messages are
broadcasted to all nodes.
e) Congestion and traffic on the bus as it is the only source of
communication.

b. Ring Topology

 Ring topology is a ring topology in which each computer is connected

to precisely two other computers.
 Merits:

a) Easy Installation.
b) Less Cabling Required.
c) Reduces chances of data collision(unidirectional).
d) Troubleshooting is simple (the faulty node does not pass
the token).
e) Each node receives the same amount of access time.

 Demerits:

a) If a node fails, the whole network will fail.

b) Slow data transmission speed (each message has to go
through the ring path).
c) Inconvenient to reconfigure (we have to break the ring).

c. Star Topology

 A computer network structure in which all nodes are linked to a

single hub is known as a star topology.
 Merits:

a) Controlled from a central location.

b) It is less costly.
 c) Troubleshooting is simple (the faulty node does not give
response).
d) Due to centralized control over nodes, there is a high level
of failure tolerance.
e) Scalability (nodes can be added or removed to the
network easily).
f) If a node fails, it has no impact on the other nodes.
g) Configurable and upgradeable (configured using a central
device).
 Demerits:

a) The network will fail if the central device fails.

b) The network's device count is restricted (due to limited
input-output port in a central device).

d. Mesh Topology
 Mesh topology is a type of computer network architecture in which
nodes are linked together.
 Merits:

a) Dedicated links facilitate direct communication.

b) No congestion or traffic problems on the channels.
c) High fault tolerance due to each node's dedicated route.
d) Extremely quick communication.
e) Maintains privacy and security by using a distinct
communication channel.
f) In the event that a node fails, the network has other
options.
 Demerits:
a) Extensive cabling is necessary.
b) Implementation is inefficient.
c) The network is difficult to set up and takes up a lot of
space.
d) Installation and upkeep are quite complex.

e. Tree Topology
 A tree topology is a computer network topology in which all nodes
are connected to the main bus connection, either directly or
indirectly.

 Merits:
a) Network coverage over long distances.
b) Checking each hierarchy for faults is simple.
c) Minimal or no data loss
d) Large number of nodes can be directly or indirectly linked.
e) If one hierarchical network fails, the others remain
unaffected.

 Demerits:
a) Cabling and hardware are expensive.
b) Implementation is difficult.
c) Hub cabling is necessary as well.
d) Managing a big network with a tree topology is difficult.
e) It necessitates a lot of upkeep.
f) The network will fail if the primary bus fails.

f. Hybrid Topology

 A computer topology that combines two or more topologies is known

as a hybrid topology.
 Merits:
a) It can cope with a big number of nodes.
b) It allows us to change the network according to our
requirements.
c) Extremely Reliable (if one node fails it will not affect the
whole network).

 Demerits:

a) Complex design.
b) Expensive to implement.
 c) Multi-Station Access Unit (MSAL) required.

3. What is layered network architecture? Why is layering important?

Discuss.

The layered architecture of the Network divides a single network process

into small jobs. Each small task is subsequently assigned to a layer that is
entirely responsible for the assignment's completion. Each layer is
exclusively in charge of one type of task.
The main purpose of layered architecture is to break down the design into
little pieces. Each lower layer contributes its services to the top layer,
resulting in a comprehensive set of communication and application
management services. It allows subsystems to connect with one another by
providing modularity and explicit interfaces. It achieves layer independence
by providing services from the lowest to the highest layer without
specifying how they are delivered.

4. What is protocol? List out ten different standard protocols having at

least one in each layer of TCP/IP reference model.

In networking, a protocol is a collection of rules for structuring and

processing data. Computer protocols are akin to a computer's common
language. Regardless of how different the software and hardware used by
the computers in a network are, protocols allow them to interact with one
another.

The ten different standard protocols are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol

2. Internet Protocol
3. User Datagram Protocol
4. Post office Protocol
5. Simple mail transport Protocol
6. File Transfer Protocol
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
 8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure
9. Telnet
10.Gopher

5. What is data encapsulation? Explain the different steps of data

encapsulation briefly.

Encapsulation, in general, is the process by which a lower-layer protocol

takes data from a higher-layer protocol and inserts it in the data component
of its frame. As a result, encapsulation is defined as the process of
containing one type of packet within another type of packet.

Steps:

 Step 1: In the OSI model, the Application, Presentation, and Session

layer, or the Application layer in the TCP/IP model, wraps and sends user
data in the form of data streams to the Transport layer. It doesn't always
include a header or footer with the data. However, it is application-
specific, and the header can be added if necessary.
 Step 2: In the OSI or TCP/IP paradigm, the Transport layer divides the
data stream from the top levels into numerous chunks. By attaching the
proper header to each item, the Transport layer wraps the data. Data
segments are the new name for these data fragments. The header carries
the data segments' sequencing information, which allows them to be
reassembled at the receiver's end.

 Step 3: The Network layer (in the OSI model) or the Internet layer (in the
TCP/IP model) encapsulates the data segments received from the
Transport layer by adding an extra header. This data header provides all
of the routing information required for the data to be delivered correctly.
The enclosed data is referred to as a data packet or datagram in this case.

 Step 4: The Data-Link layer (in the OSI or TCP/IP design) adds an
additional header and footer to the data packet or datagram received from
the Network layer. The header holds all of the switching information
 required for data delivery to the proper hardware components, while the
trailer has all of the error detection and control data. In this scenario, the
wrapped data is referred to as a data frame.
 Step 5: In the OSI or TCP/IP paradigm, the Physical layer encapsulates
data frames from the Data-Link layer by transforming them to suitable
data signals or bits (corresponding to the physical medium).

6. List out the different categories of twisted pair cable with their typical
features and applications.
 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
These cables generally comprise wires and insulators.
 Features
a) These cables ensure less crosstalk and a higher quality of signal
over longer distances. Therefore, these cables are popularly
used for high-speed computer communication.
b) The wires are not shielded and can support a data rate of
several Mbps.
c) Used in applications like analog and digital telephony
i.e. LAN, etc.
d) Noise and electromagnetic interference are high.

 Applications:
a) UTP cables are mostly utilized in local area networks.
b) Voice, low-speed data, high-speed data, audio and paging
systems, and building automation and control systems can all
be utilized with them.
c) Both horizontal and backbone cabling subsystems can employ
UTP cable.
 Shielded twisted pair (STP)
These cables come with a braided, wired mesh that encases each pair of
insulated copper wires.
 Features
a) The twisted conductors are shielded by a braided mesh to
reduce noise interference.
b) Low-cost medium and Support data rates up to several Mb
  Applications:
a) The shielded twisted pair cabling is commonly used in frigid
temperatures. The extra layer of outer covering makes it perfect
for withstanding such temperatures or preserving the inner
parts. As a result, it's ideal for research in environments where
temperatures drop below zero, rendering traditional wires
worthless.
b) In a similar vein, these wires can be employed in heavy
industrial applications that generate a lot of heat. The same
rationale that makes these cables suitable for usage in cold
weather also applies in this situation.
c) Shielded twisted pair cables are equally good under high-
radiation conditions.

7. What is switching? Discuss the importance of switching in the

telecommunication networks.

The technique of establishing connections between nodes in a network is

known as switching. Information can be transmitted once a link has been
established. The switching of voice channels is sometimes referred to as
telephone switching.
Switching's objective is to offer interconnection between all nodes on a
network without requiring separate connections between each pair of nodes.
As a result, we need switching technology that allows us to build
connectivity as and when we need it.

8. Discuss briefly on:

a. X.25
X.25 is an ITU-T protocol suite for packet switched communications
across a wide area network (Wide Area Network). It was created in the
1970s and became extremely popular in the 1980s. It is now utilized for
ATM networks and credit card verification. It enables the use of the same
physical line for numerous logical channels. It also allows data to be sent
across terminals with varying transmission rates.
b. Frame Relay
Frame relay is a packet-switching telecommunications service designed
for low-cost data transport across LANs and between endpoints in wide-
area networks (WANs). Once upon a time, the service was widely
available and deployed.

c. VoIP
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a technology that allows you to
make voice calls via the Internet rather than through a traditional (or
analog) phone line. Some VoIP services limit you to calling just other
VoIP users, while others enable you to contact anybody with a phone
number, including local, long-distance, mobile, and international lines.
Additionally, although some VoIP services require you to use your
computer or a specific VoIP phone, others enable you to use a regular
phone with a VoIP adaptor.

d. NGN
As defined by ITU-T, a next generation network (NGN) is a packet-based
network capable of providing services such as telecommunications and
capable of utilizing multiple broadband, QoS-enabled transport
technologies, with service-related functions being independent of
underlying transport-related technologies. Users have unrestricted access
to a variety of service providers. It encourages generalized mobility,
which will allow users to receive services in a consistent and omnipresent
manner.

e. MPLS
MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) is a routing strategy that
improves network traffic speed and control by routing data from one
node to the next based on short path labels. Data packets are routed by
path labels, which define virtual paths between nodes rather than
endpoints, rather than long network addresses. MPLS improves traffic
flow by removing the time-consuming lookups in the routing table at
each node that are required by traditional routing algorithms.
f. xDSL
The term xDSL refers to all digital subscriber line (DSL) technologies
combined. The different sorts of DSLs are the result of line-length
constraints on DSL signal transmissions from telephone exchange
speeds.

g. Bandwidth
The most data that can be sent through an internet connection in a certain
period of time. Bandwidth is commonly confused with internet speed,
however it refers to the quantity of data that can be delivered via a
connection in a given amount of time (measured in megabits per second)
(Mbps).

h. Throughput
The amount of data successfully transferred from one location to another
in a given time period is known as network throughput, and it is
commonly measured in bits per second (bps), such as megabits per
second (Mbps) or gigabits per second (GBPS) (Gbps).

i. Delay
The amount of time it takes for a packet to travel from point A to point B
is referred to as network delay. The delay is called an end to end delay
when Point A is the source and Point B is the destination.
In a packet-switched network, the following sorts of delays can occur:
 Propagation delay
 Transmission delay
 Queuing delay
 Processing delay

j. Latency
Latency is the time it takes for a packet or signal to go from one end of a
network to the other. Unpredictable delays might occur in a network with
high latency. These delays normally have little influence on data
transmission since network protocols like Internet Protocol (IP) are
connectionless, but they have a significant impact on transmissions like
streaming music and video because the human ear and eye can sense
latency in these formats. The term "latency" can also apply to the time it
takes to establish a connection, such as the 15 to 30 seconds it takes to
connect to a modem.

k. RTT
The round-trip time (RTT) is the time it takes for a browser to send a
request and get a response from a server, measured in milliseconds. It's a
crucial performance statistic for online applications, and it's one of the
most important aspects to consider when assessing page load time and
network latency, along with Time to First Byte (TTFB).

l. ISDN
ISDN stands for Integrated Services Digital Network. A digital network
is a circuit-switched telephone network that sends both data and voice
over a single digital line. You can also conceive of it as a set of data,
voice, and signaling communication standards. It's possible that these
digital wires are copper lines. It was created to replace old landline
technology with digital technologies. ISDN connections have a
reputation for being faster and more reliable than traditional connections.
Data transmissions travel more reliably with faster speeds and better
connections.
9. Differentiate:
a.
LAN WAN
A LAN, or local area network, is a A WAN, or Wide Region Network,
network that spans a limited on the other hand, is a network that
geographic region, such as a home, covers a broader geographical area
an office, or a group of buildings. and may span the world.
It is less expensive. It is expensive.
It is smaller. It is bigger.
LAN vs. WAN

b. Internet vs Intranet

Internet Intranet

The Internet is a worldwide network An intranet, on the other hand, is a

 of computers that allows people to private or limited network that
exchange data and interact with one allows workers within a company to
another. store, organize, and exchange
information.
It is Worldwide. It is Localized to organization.
It is Bigger. It is Smaller.

c. P2P vs Client-server networks

P2P Client-server networks

A distributed application A distributed application framework

architecture in which jobs or with servers as resource or service
workloads are dispersed among providers and clients as service
peers. requesters.
Each node has the ability to both The client requests a service, and
seek and offer services. the server provides it.
It is A decentralized network. It is A centralized network.
d. OSI vs TCP/IP reference model

OSI TCP/IP reference model

The acronym OSI stands for Open The Transmission Control

System Interconnection. Protocol / Internet Protocol is
represented by the TCP/IP model.
OSI is a protocol-independent The TCP/IP concept is based on
generic standard. It serves as a standard protocols developed by the
connection point between the computer network. It is an internet
network and the end-user. connection protocol that assigns a
network of hosts.
The OSI model was devised first, The protocols were designed first,
and then protocols were created to and then the TCP/IP paradigm was
meet the requirements of the constructed on top of them.
network architecture.
e. FDM vs. TDM

FDM TDM

FDM is an acronym for frequency TDM is an acronym for time

division multiplexing. division multiplexing.
FDM only works with analog TDM may deal with both digital and
signals. analog signals.
It has a lot of conflict. TDM has a low level of conflict.
f. Circuit switching vs. packet switching

Circuit switching packet switching

To ensure that data transfer occurs, The dynamic route is used to

a circuit must be constructed. process each packet containing
information that needs to be
processed.
There is no set path that is followed
Throughout the session, a consistent
from beginning to conclusion during
course is followed.
the session.
It's good for voice transmission Because the delay is not uniform, it
since it maintains a consistent is mostly employed for data
latency. transfer.

g. Datagram vs. virtual circuit switching

Datagram Virtual circuit switching

It is a service that does not require a Virtual circuits are connection-

connection. Because there is no oriented, which implies that
specific channel for a connection resources such as buffers,
session, there is no need to reserve bandwidth, and other resources are
resources. reserved for the period the new
setup VC will be used by a data
transfer session.
All packets are free to take any path Each server along the path reserves
that is accessible. As a result of resources when the first packet is
dynamically updating routing tables sent. For the duration of the
on routers, intermediate routers connection, subsequent packets will
calculate routes on the fly. take the same path as the first sent
 packet.
Data packets arrive at their As data follows the same path,
destination in a random order, packets arrive at their destination in
which means they don't have to order.
arrive in the same order as they
were sent.