Unit 9- Human Development and Intervention

 Longitudinal research is usually done for human development and interventions. That
means same participants are studied at various ages to determine age related changes.
 REBT- given by Albert Ellis. It is a directional approach. Follows ABCDEF
framework.
o Past and present acceptance of self.
o Irrational beliefs are the cause of psychopathology.
o A- activating event/trigger.
o B- irrational beliefs
o C- maladaptive consequences (emotional and behavior)
o D- disputing/challenging irrational beliefs (imaginal disputation)
o E- effective beliefs.
o Shame attacking- perform exercises where you typically receive a no from
other.
 Eric Berne- transactional analysis. He was inspired by Freud. He talks about the
dialogue between two people. He talked about 3 egos. Parent ego (superego), child
ego (Id) and adult ego (ego). These are present in every individual.
o Child ego- it is of two types.
 Natural child- which shows more emotional expression.
 Adaptive child
o Parent ego-
 nurturing parent- caring and loving.
 critical parent- criticizes.
o Adult ego- productive.
o Child ego talks to parent ego and vice versa. Adult ego always talks to adult
ego.
o Two types of transactions are-
 Complementary- productive
 Crossed transaction- unproductive.
 Biofeedback- it comes under biological therapy. It is also considered as operant
therapy because of constant feedback from the physiological system. Involuntary
 activities are made voluntary. There is a personal computer or another device for
analyzing the data.
 Empathy-
o Primary empathy- a process that involves the counselor attending, listening,
and communicating accurate perceptions of the client’s messages.
o Advanced empathy- involves the characteristics associated with primary
empathy as well as utilizing the skills of self-disclosure, directives or
interpretations. It goes behind the spoken messages. It goes deeper than
reflection of feelings. It helps clients identify themes and make connections.
 Erickson’s psychosocial theory- deterministic approach. He supports discontinuous
development.
o Trust vs mistrust-
 birth to 2 years (infancy)
 virtue- hope
 oral sensory
o Autonomy vs shame and doubt-
 2-4 years (early childhood)
 Virtue- Will
 anal muscular
o Initiative vs Guilt-
 4-5 years (preschool)
 Virtue- Purpose
 Locomotor genital
o Industry vs Inferiority-
 5-12 years (school age)
 Virtue- competence
 Latency stage
o Identity vs role confusion-
 13-19 years (adolescent)
 Virtue- fidelity
o Intimacy vs isolation-
 20-24 years (young adulthood)
 Virtue- love
 o Generativity vs stagnation-
 25-64 years (middle adulthood)
 Care
o Ego integrity vs despair-
 65-death
 Wisdom
 Piaget- cognitive development- according to him children actively construct
knowledge through discovery. He was a cognitive constructivist. He supported
epigenetics (genes interact with environment). It is a discontinuous theory. In Piaget’s
theory, 2 processes, adaptation and organization, account for changes in schemas.
Adaptation further consists of 2 complementary activities, assimilation (we use
current schemas to interpret the world) and accommodation (create new schemas or
adjust old ones). Process of accommodation and organization together is known as
equilibration. It leads to cognitive growth. Organization does not need to interact with
environment.
 He studied his own children through naturalistic observation.
o Sensorimotor- birth-2 years. Object permanence (object exists also when not
in sight). Primary, secondary and tertiary circular reactions. Mental
representation or concept formation.
 Reflexive schemes (birth-1 month)
 Primary circular reactions (1-4 months)
 Secondary circular reactions (4-8 months)
 Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 months)- here
object permanence starts developing. A not B error occurs here (proof
that object permanence has not yet fully developed).
 Tertiary circular reactions (12-18 months)- problem solving or goal
directed behavior initiates. Object permanence fully developed.
 Mental representation (18 months- 2 years)- imitation (deferred and
inferred imitation). Deferred imitation is imitation with time gap and
inferred imitation is correct imitation.
o Preoperational- 2-7 years. symbolic thinking, private speech. Language
development. Animism. Syncretic reasoning. Ego centrism/centration. Pretend
play. Imaginary play.
  Preconceptual stage- transductive reasoning (illogical reasoning).
 Intuitive stage- able to predict the consequences of some of our
actions. Irreversibility. Three mountains task for egocentrism.
o Concrete operational- 7-11 years. Conservation (reversibility in thought),
reflexivity, spatial reasoning improves. Horizontal decalage (conservation of
mass is done easily but conservation of density is not able to do though both
tasks are similar in difficulty).
o Formal operational- 11 and beyond. Hypotheticodeductive reasoning.
Abstract thinking.
 Forces of counselling-
o Psychodynamic/psychoanalytic
o Behaviorism
o Humanism/ cognitive
o Multiculturalism/ positive psychology
o Human advocacy and social justice.
 Waves of CBT-
o Behavior therapy- first wave- focuses on behavior modification based on
conditioning.
o Cognitive therapy and CBT- second wave- identify and challenge
dysfunctional cognitions.
o MBSR, MBCT, ACT- third wave- metacognitive shifts, experiential change
strategies.
 Germinal period- from ovulation to implantation. Zygote transforms into blastocyst
through mitosis. 1-2 weeks.
 Embryonic stage- 2-8 weeks. External and internal body structures have been
formed. Here the embryo is vulnerable to miscarriage.
 Fetal stage- from 8 weeks to birth.
 Reflexes that are innate- rooting, gripping, toe-curling (Babinski reflex), Moro or
startle, Galant.
 Continuous development- a process of gradually augmenting the same types of skills
that were there to begin with.
 Discontinues development- a process in which new ways of understanding and
responding to the world emerge a specific time. Stages are present.
 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory- according to Vygotsky, the skills needed to reason,
understand, and remember all stem from a child’s experiences with parents, teachers,
and peers. He was a social constructivist. He saw human development as taking place
on 3 levels- cultural, interpersonal, and individual.
o All developments first occur on the social plane.
o Zone of proximal development (ZPD)- what needs to be done to take the
learner where he needs to be.
o Zone of achievement development (ZAD)- where the learner is right now.
o Scaffolding- student’s ability to learn information through the help of a more
informed individual.
 John Bowlby attachment theory- it is a deterministic theory. According to him
infants and mothers are biologically programmed to form an attachment with each
other within the first 24 months (critical period) of a child’s life. If this attachment is
broken within the critical period, it will cause serious and permanent damage to the
child’s development. Attachment behavior is an integral part of human nature.
o Monotropy- social attachment to 1 primary caregivers. 8-11 months. Once
this occurs then other strong attachments are formed. This is phase of multiple
attachments. Reciprocal attachment.
 Ainsworth’s attachment theory-
o Secure attachment- explores environment with caregivers, distressed when
caregiver leaves, delighted when caregiver returns.
o Insecure/avoidant- no response when caregiver leaves and no response to
caregiver when they return.
o Insecure/resistant- clings to caregiver, cries when the caregiver leaves, angry
when returns.
o Insecure/disorganized- no consistent pattern of interaction with the caregiver
when together and after separation. Physical abuse and neglect in childhood.
 Diana Baumrind’s parenting styles-

Parental Style Parental Behavior Associated Outcome

in children
Authoritative Warm, sensitive to High self-esteem,
child’s needs, cooperativeness, self-
nurturing, makes
 reasonable demands control, social maturity.
and encourages
appropriate autonomy.
Authoritarian Cold, rejecting, makes Low self-esteem,
coercive demands, anxious, unhappy, often
frequently critical of angry and aggressive.
child
Permissive Warm, accepting, but Impulsive, disobedient,
overindulged and overly dependent on
inattentive. adults, low initiative.
Uninvolved Emotionally detached Anxious, poor
and depressed, little communication skills,
time or energy for child anti-social behavior.
rearing.