Fabrication and characterization of interdigital

transducer structures as temperature sensors by two-

photon lithography
Tayyab Waqar1, Borui Li2, Sezgin Ersoy3, Safi Jradi4, Serge Ravaine5, Andreas Dietzel6
1, 3Advanced Research in Mechatronics and Artificial Intelligence, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey
2, 4Light, Nanomaterials and Nanotechnologies Laboratories and CNRS EMR 7004, Université de
Technologie de Troyes, Troyes, 10004 CEDEX, France
3, 6Institute of Microtechnology, Technische Universität Braunschweig,

Alte Salzdahlumer Straße 203, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany

5University of Bordeaux, CNRS, CRPP, UMR 5031, F-33600 Pessac, France
1Corresponding author

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],

[email protected], [email protected]

Received 27 January 2024; accepted 25 July 2024; published online 18 February 2025
DOI https://doi.org/10.21595/jme.2024.23964
Copyright © 2025 Tayyab Waqar, et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract. Continuous developments in the field of 3D printing techniques and equipment have
enabled their usage in the field of electronics structures, circuits, and device fabrication in addition
to many other fields. This advancement has enabled the potential fabrication of sensors using
silicon-based micro or even Nanoelectronics. Currently, the manufacturing and packaging of such
devices and structures are heavily reliant on lithography, which can be slow and can involve
substantial processing requirements. In this paper, a temperature-sensing Interdigital Transducer
(IDT) structure was designed and fabricated using Direct Laser Writing (DLW) based on
Two-Photon Lithography (TPL), which is a high-resolution 3D printing technology. The TPL in
a positive photoresist was combined with the physical vapor deposition method and the lift-off
process to create gold IDT microstructures. The developed sensing structures were characterized
using a network analyzer to determine the resonance frequency and its dependence on the
temperature changes. The results showed that the IDT structures exhibit a linear response toward
the changes in temperature with an average sensitivity of 0.123 MHz/°C. The most important
advantage in producing the IDT structure with the additive manufacturing technique is that a very
small-sized structure is produced error-free and efficiently.
Keywords: surface acoustic waves sensor, 3D lithography, two-photon lithography, additive
manufacturing, temperature sensor.

1. Introduction

The application-based technological developments with customer requirements accelerated

the development of sensor technology in many fields. Sensors are the main mechatronic system
components that detect changes in the environment through mechanical or non-mechanical
stimulations such as pressure, stiffness, roughness, and temperature [1-2]. The preferred
manufacturing technology, selected materials, and the required response time are the most
important factors in sensor technology. These factors are important in sensor fabrication.
Developments in industrial applications have started to require more micro and nano-scale
devices. This need requires sensor systems to be produced in smaller sizes for a wide variety of
industrial applications [3-5]. Micro and Nano Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS/NEMS) are
used in transportation sectors such as automotive [6] and aviation [7], energy [8], robotics [9-10],
optics [11], biomedical [12] and geophysics [13]. MEMS devices function as biosensors in
medical research and contribute to many promising studies [14]. These sensors can reduce very
wet laboratories to a microchips [15]. In addition to the solutions produced for the electrical

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[16-17], and construction [18] sectors, they also have applicability in knowledge and
labor-intensive fields such as mechanics and chemistry. Although these devices are a single unit,
they also have electrical and mechanical components. These devices can measure changes in
physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, viscosity, stress, and mass [19-25]. Devices
called laboratories on chips have become increasingly preferred in biomedical and bioengineering
fields [26]. These devices with reduced geometric dimensions can react much faster and will
continue to be more attractive as more efficient and portable devices [27-28]. Of course, in
addition to these superior features, there are also some limitations. The most important of these is
the need for simultaneous perception and execution in an environment while associating it with
mutually exclusive mechanisms [29-30]. To overcome these limitations, single-platform devices
capable of detecting acoustic waves have been proposed for simultaneous sensing and actuation.
Such devices are known as Surface acoustic waves (SAW) sensors. These devices are widely used
not only as sensors and actuators but also as filters, oscillators, and transformers. The applications
here are made possible by the use of piezoelectric components as the central backbone of SAW
sensors [31-34].
As is known, SAW-based sensors can be fabricated using a cleanroom facility and
conventional [35] or next-generation mask lithography. These complex several-step processes
[36] are difficult to follow; Graphenic sensitive layers can be used in the manufacturing of new
generation surface acoustic wave (SAW) sensors developed with a graphene sensitive layer. When
this type of sensor is produced, low cost, easy manufacturability and superior performances can
be achieved. In fact, within the capabilities of production technology, producing nano-sized
products can increase the advantages mentioned. Studies on graphenic precision layer SAW
sensors are ongoing. [37]. It is also known that there are individual layers that come together
spontaneously. Therefore, with the rapid development of microprocessors and the development of
software tools, SAW designs with complex structures in terms of both geometry and materials can
be proposed. This revealed the need for new manufacturing technologies that could be used
quickly to produce the proposed new designs. In this context, direct writing techniques have
emerged as a promising approach in sensor fabrication. Au et al. [38] compared the cost of a sensor
produced traditionally, that is, through lithography, with that of 3D printing technology. In
stereolithography, the difference was found to be 15 USD [39]. The fact that the 3D printing
technique is both low-cost and simple to produce has made it very attractive to reproduce the same
structure with minimum human effort. Additionally, the sensitivity and accuracy of the printed
sensor are affected compared to traditional methods [40-41]. Among the direct writing methods,
Ink-jet printing provides improved flexibility in terms of both design customization and substrate
size [42]. However, the need for miniaturized devices limits the use of this method as the line
resolution is in the order of a few tens of micrometers. To improve spatial resolution, direct laser
writing methods (DLW) are particularly interesting as they allow the fabrication on demand of
customized complex structures with submicron resolution [43, 44].
DLW using a UV beam was introduced to create micro-supercapacitor devices onto a graphite
oxide film. Other DLW-based techniques were reported in the literature. They allow the
fabrication of sensors by laser fusion of silver laser reduction of graphene oxide, and laser
micromachining. However, these techniques are limited to some specific materials [45].
In that context, Two-Photon Lithography (TPL) in positive photoresists combined with
material deposition and lift-off is an interesting alternative approach as it allows the rapid
fabrication of complex designs in a large choice of materials. In addition, TPL allows an increase
in spatial resolution due to the non-linear absorption process and some photochemical effects
[46-49]. Fabrication using TPL [50, 51] evolved in the 90s [52] and has found its application in
many different fields including but not limited to biosensing [53-55], micro and nano-optics
[56-61], robotics [62, 64], security [65].
This work focuses on the use of TPL combined with physical vapor deposition of Gold for the
fabrication of an Interdigital Transducer (IDT) based passive temperature sensor. As compared to
the conventional lithography techniques, Two-Photon Lithography (TPL) stands out from
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traditional fabrication methods by eliminating the need for physical masks in the creation of IDTs
for acoustic wave sensors. This mask-free approach offers greater flexibility, precision, and
customization options, making TPL particularly advantageous for rapidly prototyping and
tailoring IDT designs to specific sensor applications [66-69]. Moreover, combined with physical
or chemical vapor deposition methods and lift-off, TPL in positive photoresists offers the
advantage of fabricating IDT structures with a large number of materials (metals and metal oxides)
[70-73].

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Material determination for sensor fabrication

Material selection is very important in sensor design. Because the performance, sensitivity,
accuracy, and reliability of the sensors are highly dependent on the materials used in their
construction. The thermal, mechanical, electrical, and chemical properties of the materials to be
selected are directly affected by the sensitivity of the sensor to be produced, its signal-noise
properties, and its environmental compatibility [74, 75]. Gold as a material for IDTs is important
in certain high-frequency applications with its high electrical conductivity, chemical stability, ease
of processing, and low insertion loss in certain frequency ranges. It has low acoustic attenuation,
meaning it can maintain the intensity of sound waves passing through it with minimal loss [76, 78]
This feature is useful in applications where sound transmission efficiency is paramount. It has a
relatively high refractive index for sound waves. Also, since gold is not a good acoustic damper,
it does not dampen sound waves [79-81]. For these reasons, the IDT structure in our study was
made from gold.

2.2. Sensor design

The dimensions of the proposed single port IDT structure, presented in Figure 1, are provided
in Table 1.

Fig. 1. Design and design parameters of the proposed IDT sensing structure.
COMSOL was used during the designing phase

Table 1. Summary of geometric parameters for the proposed IDT structures

Parameter Size in µm
Thickness of the design 2
Electrode finger width (𝑊) 3
Distance between electrodes (𝑃) 6
IDT length (reflectors) (𝐿 ) 80
IDT length (𝐿 ) 100
Distance between IDT and reflectors (𝐷) 3
Distance between two IDTs (𝜆 ) 21
Aperture (𝐴) 92.5
Number of reflectors (𝑁 ) 15
Number of IDT pairs (𝑁 ) 30

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Fig. 1 describes the structural design parameters for the proposed resonator-based temperature
sensor. As depicted in Fig. 1, the IDT structure is designed with a certain pitch among them and
the resulting surface acoustic wave is well-founded when the pitch of the IDT fingers and the
wavelength of the surface wave are equal to each other. Eq. (1) is employed to determine the
resonant frequency (𝑓), which is a function used for measuring the temperature, of the proposed
structure and its relation to the propagation velocity (𝑉 ) of the resulting surface wave:

𝑉𝑟
𝑓 = , (1)
𝜆
where 𝜆 is the wavelength of the SAW. The IDT structure needs to be quantified to develop its
model. Fig. 1 and Table 1 show the labeled IDT structure and its explanation respectively. To
achieve the strongest IDT activation and phase superposition of SAW, the IDT pitch, which is
𝑊 + 𝑃, should be equal to half of the SAW wavelength, as described by the wave interference
principle. Therefore:

𝜆
𝑊+𝑃 =𝑁∗ . (2)
2
The distance (𝐷) between the IDT and the adjacent reflectors should also satisfy equation 3 to
make sure that IDT receives the standing wave on its peak:

1 𝜆
𝐷 = 𝑁 − ∗ . (3)
2 2
The aperture width of the IDT fingers also plays an important role in the performance of the
SAW resonator. Normally, it is between 50 and 100 times the SAW wavelength.

2.3. Fabrication

Nanoscribe GmbH’s Photonic Professional GT was utilized for the fabrication of the sensing
structure. The fabrication setup was based on a DLW system using TPL in a positive photoresist.
This system implemented a femtosecond fiber laser source which was operating at 780 nm
wavelength. The power of the deployed laser source was between 50-150 mW with 80 MHz of
repetition rate. The laser source produced a pulse length of 100-200 femtoseconds.
The fabrication process of IDT structures made from gold on a glass substrate is shown in
Fig. 2. The dimension of the glass substrate used for this fabrication process was size
22 mm×22 mm with a thickness of 170 µm. The substrate was cleaned before the realization of
the printing process. Later on, 60 % v/v of MICROPOSIT S1813 positive photoresist was
deployed on the surface of the substrate. The sample was then spin-coated onto the substrate at
4000 RPM for 30 seconds using a Karl Suss CT62 spin-coating machine (Fig. 2(a)). After the
completion of the spin coating process, a layer of approximately 500 nm in thickness was
achieved. The sample was then exposed using Nanoscribe GmbH’s Photonic Professional GT
(Fig. 2(b)). The magnification and the numerical aperture of the objective were 63x and 1.4
respectively. After the TPL sept, the sample was developed using the MF-319 developer solution
for 30 seconds at room temperature. Then the sample was cleaned by immersing it in deionized
water. After development, 5 nm of chromium and 30 nm of gold were successively deposited on
the sample by physical vapor deposition (Fig. 2(c)). The chromium was used to improve the
adhesion of gold on the glass substrate. To remove the remaining photoresist from the sample, a
lift-off process was employed by immersing the prepared sample in acetone and keeping it there
for 10 hours (Fig. 2(d)). Finally, the sample was rinsed using de-ionized water and blow-dried
using air.

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Fig. 2. Fabrication workflow for the printing of IDT structures using TPL followed by physical vapor
deposition of gold and lift-off. (Renderings are done through the software Blender)

2.4. IDT structures characterizations

– Electron scanning microscopy; by using a sputter coater SC7640 from Quorum

Technologies, the samples were metalized. A Field Emission Gun (FEG Hitachi SU8030)
operating at 10 kV was used to perform scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
– Optical microscopy; A Nikon Eclipse LV100 upright microscope was used to capture optical
microscopy images.
– Resonance frequency measurements.
The fabricated IDT structures were tested using a network analyzer to measure their frequency
response and to determine the resonance frequency. The general representation of the setup is
shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of the setup for temperature response

3. Results. Printed IDT

Following the workflow shown in Fig. 2 several IDT structures, shown in Fig. 4, were
fabricated using the DLW technique. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of one of the
fabricated IDT structures are shown in Fig. 5.

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Fig. 4. The Fabricated IDT structures using DLW technique

Fig. 5. SEM images of the fabricated IDT structure

Fig. 6. Frequency response of the fabricated IDT structures

The frequency response of the developed sensor is shown in Fig. 6. The resonance frequency
of the designed structure was predicted to be 424.01 MHz by the theoretical calculations and
simulations. From the experiments, the value of resonance frequency was measured as 426.2 MHz.
Comparing these two results, the deviation of 0.5 % is well within the acceptable range.
The illustration of the test setup is shown in Fig. 3. The optical microscope image of the IDTs
used for temperature response analysis is given in Fig. 7. The frequency response of the fabricated
IDTs was measured from 20 °C to 100 °C with a step size of 5 °C. The results are presented in
Fig. 8.
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Fig. 7. Optical microscope image of the IDTs used for temperature response analysis

Fig. 8. Temperature response of the five analyzed IDT structures. Each IDT structure was analyzed 10
times. Each point in the figures a)-e) corresponds to the average frequency measured for a given
temperature, f) is the average of the responses of the 5 IDT structures. The red line is a linear fit

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The fabricated IDT structures show very good linearity when tested against temperature. The
average sensitivity is 0.123 MHz/°C. The average R2 values from 10 tests for each IDT structure
along with the combined average value are shown in Fig. 8. The results show that the IDT
structures exhibit a linear response towards the temperature changes.
The standard deviation and variance plot for each IDT is presented in Fig. 9. This variation
can be due to more than one reason. Even though the conditions during the testing were mostly
the same, it is possible that external noise and interference were present. Factors such as
electromagnetic interference or acoustic noise can introduce additional variability in the observed
response.

Fig. 9. Standard deviation and variance plot for the fabricated IDTs

4. Conclusions

In this study, the micro-sized heat sensor is produced using the layered manufacturing
technique. The 2PP method was used as a mask in the layered production technique. Usable results
were obtained in the tests and analyzes of the heat sensor produced with this technique. The most
important advantage in producing the IDT structure with the additive manufacturing technique is
that a very small-sized structure is produced error-free and efficiently
The electron microscope images of the fabricated IDT structures showed consistency of the
employed printing method with the proposed design. The frequency response of the fabricated
IDT structures was measured using a test setup and the peak frequency was found to be
426.2 MHz. The simulations gave only a slightly deviating resonant frequency of 424.01 MHz.
The results of those tests showed their response to be very much linear with the temperature
changes. The average R2 value of all the responses was > 0.99.

Acknowledgements

This work has been made within the framework of the Graduate School NANO-PHOT (École
Universitaire de Recherche, PIA3, contract ANR-18-EURE-0013). This study was supported by
The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) within the scope of
the Scientist Support Program. (BIDEB-1059B1922011961).

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the
corresponding author on reasonable request.

Author contributions

Tayyab Waqar: methodology, software, investigation, writing-original draft preparation. Borui

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 FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF INTERDIGITAL TRANSDUCER STRUCTURES AS TEMPERATURE SENSORS BY TWO-PHOTON
LITHOGRAPHY. TAYYAB WAQAR, BORUI LI, SEZGIN ERSOY, SAFI JRADI, SERGE RAVAINE, ANDREAS DIETZEL

Li: methodology, software, investigation, writing-original draft preparation. Sezgin Ersoy:

conceptualization, methodology, validation, writing-review and editing, supervision. Safi Jradi:
conceptualization, methodology, validation, writing-review and editing, supervision. Serge
Ravaine: writing-review and editing, supervision. Andreas Dietzel: writing-review and editing.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

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LITHOGRAPHY. TAYYAB WAQAR, BORUI LI, SEZGIN ERSOY, SAFI JRADI, SERGE RAVAINE, ANDREAS DIETZEL

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 FABRICATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF INTERDIGITAL TRANSDUCER STRUCTURES AS TEMPERATURE SENSORS BY TWO-PHOTON
LITHOGRAPHY. TAYYAB WAQAR, BORUI LI, SEZGIN ERSOY, SAFI JRADI, SERGE RAVAINE, ANDREAS DIETZEL

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Tayyab Waqar received a Ph.D. degree in mechatronic engineering from Marmara

Istanbul Country, in 2022. Now he works at RedLore Company as a Project Manager and
Senior Engineer. His current research interests include algorithm development, data
analysis.

Borui Li received a Ph.D. degree in optics and nanotechnologies from the University of
Technology of Troyes in 2023. His current research interest is the 3D nanofabrication by
two-photon polymerization.

Sezgin Ersoy received a Ph.D. degree in materials science from Marmara University. He
is a Full-Time Professor at Marmara University. Currently, he is visiting Professor in
Braunschweig TU. His current research interests are additive manufacturing and
nanomaterials.

Safi Jradi received a Ph.D. in physical chemistry from the University of Haute-Alsace.
Safi Jradi is Associate Professor at the University of Technology of Troyes. He is currently
working on 3D nanofabrication and developing 3D functional materials and hybrid
plasmonic devices for sensing and photonic applications.

Serge Ravaine received a Ph.D. in physical chemistry from the University of Bordeaux.
He is a full Professor at the University of Bordeaux. His research interests include the
synthesis and self-assembly of patchy particles and the fabrication of photonic crystals.

Andreas Dietzel received a Ph.D. degree in psychics from Georg-August-Universität

Göttingen. Professor Dr. Andreas Dietzel is Director of the Institut für Mikrotechnik,
Technische Universität Braunschweig. His current research interests are Laser-
Microfabrication, MEMS, and Lab-on-chip.

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